This document summarizes anthropological theories of disability. It discusses how anthropology, particularly cultural anthropology and medical anthropology, has contributed to understanding disability as a social and cultural experience. The document provides a history of anthropological study of disability from the 1930s to present. It outlines how anthropological concepts of "the other", deviance, stigma, and culture have expanded interpretations of human behavior and disability.
The document discusses concepts of power, race, ethnicity and racism from various sociological perspectives. It provides definitions and theories on these topics from scholars like Gramsci, Weber, Foucault, Knights & Willmott and others. It examines power in terms of its positive and negative uses, and different dimensions or types of power. It explores the social construction of race and considers biological, eliminativist and constructivist views. It also defines ethnicity and examines the historical relationship between concepts of race and ethnicity.
This document provides an overview of a cultural diversity training presentation on racial and ethnic inequality. The presentation discusses how race is a social construct rather than biological fact, how racial categories have changed over time, and examines concepts like culture, ethnicity, minorities, prejudice, discrimination, and their impacts. It also lists several books and theories related to understanding race and inequality.
This document provides an overview of a cultural diversity training presentation on racial and ethnic inequality. The presentation discusses how race is a social construct rather than biological reality, how racial categories have been used to justify domination, and the concepts of culture, ethnicity, minorities, prejudice, discrimination, and their role in perpetuating inequality. It also examines historical understandings of race, current issues around immigration and racism, and theoretical perspectives for analyzing racial and ethnic inequality.
Neo evolutionism emerged in the 1930s as a social theory to explain the evolution of societies. Prominent scholars like Julian Steward, Leslie White, and V. Gordon Childe incorporated evolutionary ideas with sociology and anthropology. Neo evolutionism rejected ideas of classical social evolutionism like determinism and universal stages of development. Instead, it emphasized empirical evidence, probability over determinism, and the possibility of different cultural pathways of evolution. Key aspects included Steward's concepts of multilinear evolution and cultural ecology, White's theory relating energy capture to cultural development, and Childe's analysis of major events like agriculture and urbanization shaping cultural evolution.
48-110 (Foundations of Social Life) - Lesson Objectives:
1. Relate the characteristics and sources of social change;
2. Discuss concerns raised by advances in technology;
3. Discuss major environmental issues in today's world;
4. Define and provide examples of environmental racism;
5. Define and provide examples of globalization;
6. Recognize the benefits and limitations associated with globalization;
7. Identify, describe and give examples of the four types of social movements
The document discusses recent trends in anthropology, focusing on three main challenges: who anthropologists are, evolving theoretical frameworks, and understanding a changing world. It analyzes trends in American anthropology, noting influential scholars and shifting influences from other disciplines. Key areas of study include globalization, identity, politics, and local experiences. Overall, anthropology is moving from describing isolated cultures to understanding dynamic cultural processes and local perspectives on global issues.
Presentation Masculinities in Hiv Jerker 11 11 08 (V2)IDS
The document discusses research on masculinities and how it can be applied to issues of HIV, sex, and health. It outlines key findings from masculinity research, including that there are multiple masculinities that exist, how masculinities are socially constructed and learned over time, and that they are complex and dynamic. It then discusses how early HIV prevention approaches relied on simplistic gender binaries and narratives that did not engage men effectively. It argues for moving beyond binary understandings of gender and vulnerability to recognize complexities.
This curriculum vitae summarizes the professional experience and qualifications of Zaire Z. Dinzey-Flores. It lists their positions as an Assistant Professor at Rutgers University since 2007, and previously as an Andrew W. Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow. Their education includes a Ph.D. in Public Policy and Sociology from the University of Michigan in 2005. Their research interests include urban sociology, race and ethnicity, Latin America and the Caribbean, and qualitative and quantitative methods. They have published and presented several papers on these topics.
The document discusses concepts of power, race, ethnicity and racism from various sociological perspectives. It provides definitions and theories on these topics from scholars like Gramsci, Weber, Foucault, Knights & Willmott and others. It examines power in terms of its positive and negative uses, and different dimensions or types of power. It explores the social construction of race and considers biological, eliminativist and constructivist views. It also defines ethnicity and examines the historical relationship between concepts of race and ethnicity.
This document provides an overview of a cultural diversity training presentation on racial and ethnic inequality. The presentation discusses how race is a social construct rather than biological fact, how racial categories have changed over time, and examines concepts like culture, ethnicity, minorities, prejudice, discrimination, and their impacts. It also lists several books and theories related to understanding race and inequality.
This document provides an overview of a cultural diversity training presentation on racial and ethnic inequality. The presentation discusses how race is a social construct rather than biological reality, how racial categories have been used to justify domination, and the concepts of culture, ethnicity, minorities, prejudice, discrimination, and their role in perpetuating inequality. It also examines historical understandings of race, current issues around immigration and racism, and theoretical perspectives for analyzing racial and ethnic inequality.
Neo evolutionism emerged in the 1930s as a social theory to explain the evolution of societies. Prominent scholars like Julian Steward, Leslie White, and V. Gordon Childe incorporated evolutionary ideas with sociology and anthropology. Neo evolutionism rejected ideas of classical social evolutionism like determinism and universal stages of development. Instead, it emphasized empirical evidence, probability over determinism, and the possibility of different cultural pathways of evolution. Key aspects included Steward's concepts of multilinear evolution and cultural ecology, White's theory relating energy capture to cultural development, and Childe's analysis of major events like agriculture and urbanization shaping cultural evolution.
48-110 (Foundations of Social Life) - Lesson Objectives:
1. Relate the characteristics and sources of social change;
2. Discuss concerns raised by advances in technology;
3. Discuss major environmental issues in today's world;
4. Define and provide examples of environmental racism;
5. Define and provide examples of globalization;
6. Recognize the benefits and limitations associated with globalization;
7. Identify, describe and give examples of the four types of social movements
The document discusses recent trends in anthropology, focusing on three main challenges: who anthropologists are, evolving theoretical frameworks, and understanding a changing world. It analyzes trends in American anthropology, noting influential scholars and shifting influences from other disciplines. Key areas of study include globalization, identity, politics, and local experiences. Overall, anthropology is moving from describing isolated cultures to understanding dynamic cultural processes and local perspectives on global issues.
Presentation Masculinities in Hiv Jerker 11 11 08 (V2)IDS
The document discusses research on masculinities and how it can be applied to issues of HIV, sex, and health. It outlines key findings from masculinity research, including that there are multiple masculinities that exist, how masculinities are socially constructed and learned over time, and that they are complex and dynamic. It then discusses how early HIV prevention approaches relied on simplistic gender binaries and narratives that did not engage men effectively. It argues for moving beyond binary understandings of gender and vulnerability to recognize complexities.
This curriculum vitae summarizes the professional experience and qualifications of Zaire Z. Dinzey-Flores. It lists their positions as an Assistant Professor at Rutgers University since 2007, and previously as an Andrew W. Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow. Their education includes a Ph.D. in Public Policy and Sociology from the University of Michigan in 2005. Their research interests include urban sociology, race and ethnicity, Latin America and the Caribbean, and qualitative and quantitative methods. They have published and presented several papers on these topics.
This document summarizes the key topics covered in the final lecture of an anthropology course, including challenges facing anthropology today, the development of world anthropologies, and reflections on the field. It discusses how anthropologists have become more diverse in background and how theory has evolved from a focus on race to culture to discourse and power. It also addresses trends in American anthropology toward greater internationalization and the development of diverse national anthropological traditions.
Proyecto conjunto de Yale y el Gobierno del Ecuador para generar un espacio de discusión sobre la filosofía, política y retos del buen vivir. Foro se realizará el 27 de Septiembre en Yale.
This document discusses the concepts of cultural lag, cultural inertia, and cultural diffusion. It defines cultural lag as occurring when material culture changes more rapidly than non-material culture, creating issues. Cultural inertia refers to resisting cultural changes even when better options exist. Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural elements between societies through contact and interaction over time. The document provides examples and analysis of each concept.
This document provides an overview of the introductory lecture for the course "Anthropology and the Human Condition". It defines anthropology as the study of human societies and cultures and explains how anthropologists take a holistic perspective. It outlines the course materials, assignments and evaluation methods. Students will complete a group project comparing cultures and are encouraged to actively engage with course readings, films and discussions.
Liberatory Community Practice: Lessons Learned from a Puerto Rican/Latino Co...Luis Alejandro Molina
The Puerto Rican Cultural Center (PRCC) in Chicago has taken a liberatory, community-driven approach to issues like the HIV/AIDS crisis and gentrification for over 35 years. Three guiding principles of self-determination, self-actualization, and self-sufficiency have informed initiatives like the Vida/SIDA HIV prevention program and Humboldt Park Participatory Democracy Project. Through cultural affirmation, capacity building, and engaging local residents in decision-making, the PRCC has pursued community well-being on its own terms rather than through traditional, deficit-based models.
Social world and biographical convergence Mark Carrigan
Social worlds are networks of interaction formed around shared activities or interests. They provide normative frameworks that shape interactions within the world and influence participants' identities. Individual psychobiographies, or life transitions and experiences, converge to (re)constitute specific social worlds over time. For example, asexuality social worlds emerged online as individuals discovered language to reinterpret experiences of lacking sexual attraction, previously seen as problematic, and to connect with others. Understanding how psychobiographical trajectories shape social worlds moves analysis beyond essentializing groups to consider temporal agency and diversity in sexuality.
This document discusses social and cultural change. It defines social change as significant alterations in behaviors, values, and norms over time. Social change can be driven by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces and may include changes to social institutions or relations. True social change occurs when members of society organize into social movements to bring about or resist primary changes. The document then examines evolutionary, functionalist, and conflict theories of social change and lists several common causes of social change, like technological advances or urbanization. It concludes by discussing goals of social change like liberation or democratization, and explains how cultures can change through diffusion or acculturation due to things like inventions, environment, or contact with other cultures.
KAFKAS ÜNİVERSİTESİ/KAFKAS UNIVERSITY
SOCIOLOGY
Course
LECTURE NOTES AND POWER POINT PRESENTATIONS
Prof.Dr. Halit Hami ÖZ
Kars, TURKEY
hamioz@yahoo.com
Anthropology's concept of culture has developed over time through different theoretical approaches. In the 19th century, evolutionists believed cultures evolved linearly from simple to complex. Franz Boas and others later argued for cultural relativism and historical particularism, rejecting ideas of cultural superiority. Bronislaw Malinowski and E.E. Evans-Pritchard developed structural functionalism, viewing culture as a system maintaining equilibrium. Later approaches examined power, political economy, gender, and other factors.
Culture can be defined as the shared knowledge, beliefs, and habits that people learn as members of society. It includes both material and non-material aspects like customs, art, and language. While some aspects of culture seem natural, they are largely learned and influenced by one's social environment. Cultural traits are passed down between generations through enculturation and are constantly evolving as new ideas are adopted or old ones are abandoned based on their usefulness to society.
This document discusses subcultures and countercultures. It defines subcultures as groups whose values and behaviors distinguish them from the dominant culture while still being compatible with it. Countercultures oppose the dominant culture's values. The document also examines cultural universals, aspects present in all human cultures, and cultural diffusion, the spread of cultural traits between groups.
Kluckhohn argued that culture allows humans to organize and understand the world in different ways. Each culture has its own "design for living" that seems normal within that culture but may seem strange or "queer" to outsiders. He gave the example of a white teacher who misunderstood why her Navajo students were upset about a dance, because she did not understand their cultural precepts and norms. Kluckhohn's concept of "queer customs" illustrates the principle of cultural relativism, which states that cultural practices cannot be fully understood outside of their cultural context.
The document discusses various topics relating to culture, including questions of culture, differentiating between culture with a capital C and small c, and the concept of Leavisism. It addresses the ideas of Raymond Williams and F.R. Leavis and how they viewed culture. Different definitions of culture are presented and the document examines ordinary culture and the anthropological approach to defining culture. Tasks are assigned relating to various cultural concepts discussed.
This document summarizes Spencer Ruelos' anthropology capstone paper which examines theories of transnationalism within queer anthropology regarding the globalization of queer identities. It begins by contextualizing the terms "transnationalism" and "globalization" and then summarizes Dennis Altman's theory that Western gay and lesbian subcultures have spread globally through processes like consumerism and mass media. However, the document argues that Altman's theory fails to account for local contexts and reproduces problematic binaries. It discusses theories of "glocalization" and "hybridization" which argue that queer identities globally are negotiated hybrids of both local and global influences, not simply imports of Western identities.
Eugenics aimed to improve human genetics through selective breeding. It originated in the late 19th century and influenced policies in the U.S. and elsewhere for decades. Eugenicists believed in the genetic superiority of certain races and forcibly sterilized those deemed "unfit." While discredited after WWII, eugenic ideas influenced fields like psychology and aspects of the modern human genome project continue to raise ethical debates.
This document summarizes Transhumanism and some of its key principles and figures. It discusses the growing Transhumanist movement and some of the areas of debate between Transhumanists and their critics, referred to as Bioconservatives. These include disagreements around the risks of emerging technologies, human enhancement, and what defines personhood and citizenship. The document advocates for promoting innovation and access to emerging human enhancement technologies while addressing safety and equity concerns.
Education serves three main functions with regards to culture: preservation, transformation, and transmission. It preserves culture by maintaining a nation's spiritual strengths and historical continuity. It transforms culture by enabling people to adapt to contemporary society and facilitating positive changes. It transmits culture by molding individuals according to the customs and traditions of their society and influencing younger generations. Overall, education and culture are closely intertwined, as a country's cultural patterns shape its educational system, and both work to help individuals adapt appropriately within their society.
Historical trauma and the impact of settler colonialism in the US and beyond (if you use this- please site me). Impact of colonialism in the US and beyond.
Dimensionalizing Cultures_ The Hofstede Model in Context.pdfssusercbd35c
This document discusses Geert Hofstede's model of six dimensions of national culture:
1) Power Distance 2) Uncertainty Avoidance 3) Individualism vs Collectivism 4) Masculinity vs Femininity
5) Long Term vs Short Term Orientation 6) Indulgence vs Restraint. It describes how Hofstede developed these dimensions through factor analysis of a large IBM employee survey across many countries. The dimensions empirically validated conceptual frameworks from prior researchers on standard issues across cultures. The dimensions are enduring aspects that cultures vary along and that correlate with other cultural measures.
This lecture discusses human diversity and evolution. It argues that while the human form has been biologically fixed for over 50,000 years, culture has continued to evolve rapidly. Tracing human migration out of Africa using genetics, the lecture shows that humans today are not meaningfully divided into biological races, as nearly all genetic variation exists within populations. More recent human evolution has occurred culturally through developments like agriculture and urbanization, leading to more complex social systems over the past 10,000 years.
The document provides an overview of anthropology as a field of study. It discusses how anthropology developed from its roots in the 18th century to becoming an established science in the late 19th/early 20th century. It was initially focused on studying non-Western societies. The document outlines the main subfields of anthropology including physical/biological anthropology, archaeological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and socio-cultural anthropology. It also discusses some of the basic features and contributions of anthropology as a comparative, holistic, and relativistic field of study.
Cultural anthropology examines how humans interact with their environment for survival. This document discusses Jamaica, noting that its culture historically involved farming, hunting, fishing and cattle raising under British colonial rule. It transitioned to industry and tourism as its dominant economic sectors. Jamaica has a tropical climate with environmental stresses like hurricanes and poverty that impact many citizens' ability to subsist.
This document summarizes the key topics covered in the final lecture of an anthropology course, including challenges facing anthropology today, the development of world anthropologies, and reflections on the field. It discusses how anthropologists have become more diverse in background and how theory has evolved from a focus on race to culture to discourse and power. It also addresses trends in American anthropology toward greater internationalization and the development of diverse national anthropological traditions.
Proyecto conjunto de Yale y el Gobierno del Ecuador para generar un espacio de discusión sobre la filosofía, política y retos del buen vivir. Foro se realizará el 27 de Septiembre en Yale.
This document discusses the concepts of cultural lag, cultural inertia, and cultural diffusion. It defines cultural lag as occurring when material culture changes more rapidly than non-material culture, creating issues. Cultural inertia refers to resisting cultural changes even when better options exist. Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural elements between societies through contact and interaction over time. The document provides examples and analysis of each concept.
This document provides an overview of the introductory lecture for the course "Anthropology and the Human Condition". It defines anthropology as the study of human societies and cultures and explains how anthropologists take a holistic perspective. It outlines the course materials, assignments and evaluation methods. Students will complete a group project comparing cultures and are encouraged to actively engage with course readings, films and discussions.
Liberatory Community Practice: Lessons Learned from a Puerto Rican/Latino Co...Luis Alejandro Molina
The Puerto Rican Cultural Center (PRCC) in Chicago has taken a liberatory, community-driven approach to issues like the HIV/AIDS crisis and gentrification for over 35 years. Three guiding principles of self-determination, self-actualization, and self-sufficiency have informed initiatives like the Vida/SIDA HIV prevention program and Humboldt Park Participatory Democracy Project. Through cultural affirmation, capacity building, and engaging local residents in decision-making, the PRCC has pursued community well-being on its own terms rather than through traditional, deficit-based models.
Social world and biographical convergence Mark Carrigan
Social worlds are networks of interaction formed around shared activities or interests. They provide normative frameworks that shape interactions within the world and influence participants' identities. Individual psychobiographies, or life transitions and experiences, converge to (re)constitute specific social worlds over time. For example, asexuality social worlds emerged online as individuals discovered language to reinterpret experiences of lacking sexual attraction, previously seen as problematic, and to connect with others. Understanding how psychobiographical trajectories shape social worlds moves analysis beyond essentializing groups to consider temporal agency and diversity in sexuality.
This document discusses social and cultural change. It defines social change as significant alterations in behaviors, values, and norms over time. Social change can be driven by cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological forces and may include changes to social institutions or relations. True social change occurs when members of society organize into social movements to bring about or resist primary changes. The document then examines evolutionary, functionalist, and conflict theories of social change and lists several common causes of social change, like technological advances or urbanization. It concludes by discussing goals of social change like liberation or democratization, and explains how cultures can change through diffusion or acculturation due to things like inventions, environment, or contact with other cultures.
KAFKAS ÜNİVERSİTESİ/KAFKAS UNIVERSITY
SOCIOLOGY
Course
LECTURE NOTES AND POWER POINT PRESENTATIONS
Prof.Dr. Halit Hami ÖZ
Kars, TURKEY
hamioz@yahoo.com
Anthropology's concept of culture has developed over time through different theoretical approaches. In the 19th century, evolutionists believed cultures evolved linearly from simple to complex. Franz Boas and others later argued for cultural relativism and historical particularism, rejecting ideas of cultural superiority. Bronislaw Malinowski and E.E. Evans-Pritchard developed structural functionalism, viewing culture as a system maintaining equilibrium. Later approaches examined power, political economy, gender, and other factors.
Culture can be defined as the shared knowledge, beliefs, and habits that people learn as members of society. It includes both material and non-material aspects like customs, art, and language. While some aspects of culture seem natural, they are largely learned and influenced by one's social environment. Cultural traits are passed down between generations through enculturation and are constantly evolving as new ideas are adopted or old ones are abandoned based on their usefulness to society.
This document discusses subcultures and countercultures. It defines subcultures as groups whose values and behaviors distinguish them from the dominant culture while still being compatible with it. Countercultures oppose the dominant culture's values. The document also examines cultural universals, aspects present in all human cultures, and cultural diffusion, the spread of cultural traits between groups.
Kluckhohn argued that culture allows humans to organize and understand the world in different ways. Each culture has its own "design for living" that seems normal within that culture but may seem strange or "queer" to outsiders. He gave the example of a white teacher who misunderstood why her Navajo students were upset about a dance, because she did not understand their cultural precepts and norms. Kluckhohn's concept of "queer customs" illustrates the principle of cultural relativism, which states that cultural practices cannot be fully understood outside of their cultural context.
The document discusses various topics relating to culture, including questions of culture, differentiating between culture with a capital C and small c, and the concept of Leavisism. It addresses the ideas of Raymond Williams and F.R. Leavis and how they viewed culture. Different definitions of culture are presented and the document examines ordinary culture and the anthropological approach to defining culture. Tasks are assigned relating to various cultural concepts discussed.
This document summarizes Spencer Ruelos' anthropology capstone paper which examines theories of transnationalism within queer anthropology regarding the globalization of queer identities. It begins by contextualizing the terms "transnationalism" and "globalization" and then summarizes Dennis Altman's theory that Western gay and lesbian subcultures have spread globally through processes like consumerism and mass media. However, the document argues that Altman's theory fails to account for local contexts and reproduces problematic binaries. It discusses theories of "glocalization" and "hybridization" which argue that queer identities globally are negotiated hybrids of both local and global influences, not simply imports of Western identities.
Eugenics aimed to improve human genetics through selective breeding. It originated in the late 19th century and influenced policies in the U.S. and elsewhere for decades. Eugenicists believed in the genetic superiority of certain races and forcibly sterilized those deemed "unfit." While discredited after WWII, eugenic ideas influenced fields like psychology and aspects of the modern human genome project continue to raise ethical debates.
This document summarizes Transhumanism and some of its key principles and figures. It discusses the growing Transhumanist movement and some of the areas of debate between Transhumanists and their critics, referred to as Bioconservatives. These include disagreements around the risks of emerging technologies, human enhancement, and what defines personhood and citizenship. The document advocates for promoting innovation and access to emerging human enhancement technologies while addressing safety and equity concerns.
Education serves three main functions with regards to culture: preservation, transformation, and transmission. It preserves culture by maintaining a nation's spiritual strengths and historical continuity. It transforms culture by enabling people to adapt to contemporary society and facilitating positive changes. It transmits culture by molding individuals according to the customs and traditions of their society and influencing younger generations. Overall, education and culture are closely intertwined, as a country's cultural patterns shape its educational system, and both work to help individuals adapt appropriately within their society.
Historical trauma and the impact of settler colonialism in the US and beyond (if you use this- please site me). Impact of colonialism in the US and beyond.
Dimensionalizing Cultures_ The Hofstede Model in Context.pdfssusercbd35c
This document discusses Geert Hofstede's model of six dimensions of national culture:
1) Power Distance 2) Uncertainty Avoidance 3) Individualism vs Collectivism 4) Masculinity vs Femininity
5) Long Term vs Short Term Orientation 6) Indulgence vs Restraint. It describes how Hofstede developed these dimensions through factor analysis of a large IBM employee survey across many countries. The dimensions empirically validated conceptual frameworks from prior researchers on standard issues across cultures. The dimensions are enduring aspects that cultures vary along and that correlate with other cultural measures.
This lecture discusses human diversity and evolution. It argues that while the human form has been biologically fixed for over 50,000 years, culture has continued to evolve rapidly. Tracing human migration out of Africa using genetics, the lecture shows that humans today are not meaningfully divided into biological races, as nearly all genetic variation exists within populations. More recent human evolution has occurred culturally through developments like agriculture and urbanization, leading to more complex social systems over the past 10,000 years.
The document provides an overview of anthropology as a field of study. It discusses how anthropology developed from its roots in the 18th century to becoming an established science in the late 19th/early 20th century. It was initially focused on studying non-Western societies. The document outlines the main subfields of anthropology including physical/biological anthropology, archaeological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and socio-cultural anthropology. It also discusses some of the basic features and contributions of anthropology as a comparative, holistic, and relativistic field of study.
Cultural anthropology examines how humans interact with their environment for survival. This document discusses Jamaica, noting that its culture historically involved farming, hunting, fishing and cattle raising under British colonial rule. It transitioned to industry and tourism as its dominant economic sectors. Jamaica has a tropical climate with environmental stresses like hurricanes and poverty that impact many citizens' ability to subsist.
The document discusses cross-cultural understanding and intercultural communication. It is divided into multiple chapters that cover topics such as language and culture, American values, stereotypes, non-verbal communication, and culture shock. The chapters aim to define key concepts, examine cultural universals and differences, identify challenges to intercultural exchange, and provide strategies for improving understanding between cultural groups.
This document provides an introduction to anthropology as an academic discipline. It begins by defining anthropology as the study of human culture and society through empirical research methods like ethnographic fieldwork. It discusses debates around key concepts like culture, noting that culture refers both to human universals and systematic differences. While culture was traditionally viewed as integrated and bounded, some see it as unbounded and contested. The document also distinguishes between culture as the cognitive and symbolic aspects of human life, and society as patterns of social interaction and power relations. In summarizing anthropology, it emphasizes the discipline's comparative approach, fieldwork methodology, and global scope in studying diverse human societies.
Anthropology takes a holistic and comparative approach to understanding humanity. It is divided into four subfields: archaeology studies past human life through material remains; biological anthropology analyzes human evolution and variation; linguistics examines language development; and cultural anthropology studies human behavior and culture. Anthropologists use participant observation and field work to collect data. They must be aware of ethical issues and avoid ethnocentrism through self-reflection on their own biases.
Dimensionalizing cultures the hofstede model in contextThanh Thanh
This document summarizes Geert Hofstede's model of cultural dimensions and how it was developed based on prior conceptual work. It discusses how earlier researchers proposed dimensions to classify cultures but had weaknesses in clearly defining levels of analysis. Hofstede's model improved on this by focusing only on national cultures and empirically identifying dimensions. It describes some of the dimensions proposed by earlier researchers that influenced Hofstede, such as individualism-collectivism and power distance. Hofstede's study validated three dimensions identified in an earlier review as being consistently identified in studies of national character: relation to authority, conception of self, and ways of dealing with primary dilemmas.
These are modules you can also use for reference1. What Is An.docxssusera34210
This document provides an overview of the field of anthropology. It discusses what anthropology is, how it is organized into four fields (archaeology, cultural anthropology, linguistics, and physical/biological anthropology). It also describes some of the major types of studies cultural anthropologists conduct, such as ethnographies and ethnologies. The methods anthropologists use in their work are also summarized, including qualitative research approaches like open-ended interviews and observation.
Dimensionalizing Cultures_ The Hofstede Model in Context.pdfRobertDelia3
This document discusses Geert Hofstede's model of six dimensions of national culture: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Long/Short Term Orientation, and Indulgence/Restraint. It describes how the model was developed based on factor analysis of a large IBM employee survey across over 50 countries. The dimensions identified common problems faced by employees in different societies. The model has been validated through correlations with over 400 other cross-cultural studies and remains relevant for describing enduring differences between national cultures.
This document provides an outline and summary of a lecture on culture and the human condition. It discusses definitions of culture, how human cultures have evolved significantly in the past 50,000 years through processes like the agricultural and industrial revolutions. It also distinguishes between culture as systems of meaning and society as systems of interaction and exchange. Specific examples are provided to illustrate how urban systems and nation-states arise from social and cultural dynamics.
Cultural psychology is a relatively new field that studies the mutual influence between people and their cultures. It challenges the assumption held in general psychology that human behavior is universally driven by innate, biological factors alone. Cultural psychology examines how cultures shape human thinking, beliefs and actions through shared systems of meaning. It also considers how different levels of analysis, from evolutionary influences to visible cultural practices, can provide insights. Some examples discussed are how cultural values like individualism vs. collectivism relate to disease prevalence, the role of religion in enabling large societies to cooperate, and cultural differences found in attribution biases. While still developing rigorous methods, cultural psychology offers an important perspective for understanding human diversity.
Anthropology studies humans throughout history and how they behave and interact in different environments and societies. Sociology examines how human actions in modern societies are shaped by social groups and pressures. Culture includes the tangible aspects like language and technology that are shared by a society. A society is bound together by a shared culture and institutions, and culture and society exist interdependently and influence each other over time as each changes.
"Understanding Social Movements with Case Studies about Vegan Animal Advocacy...Roger Yates
The Vegan Information Project presented an Informal lecture/workshop on "Understanding Social Movements with Case Studies about Vegan Animal Advocacy" by Dr. Roger Yates, at The Outhouse, Dublin, 11th November, 2013.
This is part of VIP's World Vegan Month programme of events.
This document discusses the concepts of cultural lag, cultural inertia, and cultural diffusion. It defines cultural lag as occurring when material culture changes more rapidly than non-material culture, creating issues. Cultural inertia refers to resisting cultural changes even when better options exist. Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural elements between societies through contact and interaction over time. The document provides examples and analysis of each concept.
This document discusses the concepts of cultural lag, cultural inertia, and cultural diffusion. It defines cultural lag as occurring when material culture changes more rapidly than non-material culture, creating issues. Cultural inertia refers to resisting cultural changes even when better options exist. Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural ideas and practices to other areas. The document provides examples and analysis of each concept. It examines scholars' works on these topics and concludes that while cultural diffusion can enrich cultures, it can also lead to loss of traditions. Education is key to reducing cultural lag.
This document summarizes 3 lessons: 1) How culture shapes human behavior and defines moral codes, 2) Cultural relativism and its advantages and dangers, and 3) Universal values shared across cultures. Lesson 1 defines culture and its elements. Lesson 2 discusses cultural relativism and that moral codes differ by society, though this poses dangers if harmful practices cannot be criticized. Lesson 3 identifies 3 universal values: caring for the young, murder is wrong, and telling the truth.
Similar to Anthropological theories of disability (20)
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
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Anthropological Theories of Disability
Allison Ruby Reid-Cunningham
a
a
School of Social Welfare, University of California , Berkeley, California
Published online: 21 Feb 2009.
To cite this article: Allison Ruby Reid-Cunningham (2009) Anthropological Theories of Disability, Journal of Human Behavior in
the Social Environment, 19:1, 99-111, DOI: 10.1080/10911350802631644
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3. 100 A. R. Reid-Cunningham
on the perspective of the outsider with respect to how different cultures
perceive ‘‘otherness.’’
People with disabilities are often labeled ‘‘the Other,’’ somehow separate
from people who are not considered to have disabilities (Ablon, 1995). The
‘‘otherness’’ of disability is unique, however, because anyone may become
disabled at any time (McDermott & Herve, 1995). Anthropology’s ‘‘genuine
fascination’’ with ‘‘the Other’’ can logically inform the field of disability
studies, but this connection has not fully been utilized (Cervinkova, 1996;
Edgerton, 1984; Kasnitz, 2001; Klotz, 2003; McDermott & Herve, 1995).
Each subdiscipline of anthropology overlaps with disability studies, and
many important contributions to the study of disability are rooted in anthro-
pology. Linguistic anthropologists have studied deaf sign languages and the
culture of language, but this has not been a main focus of linguistic anthro-
pology (Fjord, 1996; Groce, 1985; Padden, 2000; Senghas, 2002; Stokoe, 1980;
Washabaugh, 1981). Archaeology has contributed to the understanding of
disability among prehistoric human ancestors, but this contribution has been
limited (Bridges, 1992; Hubert, 2000; Klotz, 2003; Schacht, 2001). Anthropol-
ogists note that the field of disability studies used theoretical constructs such
as culture, stigma, and status transitions (liminality) to explain and explore
disability (Gleeson, 1997; Shuttleworth, 2004).
The largest anthropological contribution to disability studies has come
from cultural and medical anthropology. It is universally acknowledged that
‘‘some range of physical and behavioral differences are recognized in all
societies,’’ but the reactions to those differences vary widely between cul-
tures and communities. (Groce, 1985; Klotz, 2003; McDermott, 1995; Rao,
2006; Scheer, 1988; Shuttleworth, 2004). Disability is a ‘‘complex social,
cultural, and biomedical phenomenon’’ (Klotz, 2003). Anthropologists have
contributed to the understanding of disability as a sociocultural experience
and a physical or mental condition (McDermott, 1995; Scheer, 1988).
Shuttleworth (2004) and others assert that anthropologists have only
begun to explore disability but have been prominent voices in the field
of disability. Anthropological theories have influenced the public discourse
on disability by focusing on cultural conceptions of disability. The cultural
relativity of disability has had a profound influence on the treatment of
people with disabilities over time (Cervinkova, 1996; Klotz, 2003).
DEFINING DISABILITY
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1990) describes disability as ‘‘phys-
ical or mental impairment, which substantially limits one or more … major
life activities’’ (ADA 1990). Others simply define disability as the ‘‘loss or
abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or func-
tion’’ (Susman, 1994, p. 15). There are many definitions of disability and
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4. Anthropological Theories of Disability 101
impairment that are sometimes overlapping and sometimes distinct. Some
researchers are careful to distinguish the differences between impairment
and disability:
Individuals are impaired if they experience (or are perceived by others
to experience) physiological or behavioral statuses or processes which
are socially identified as problems, illnesses, conditions, disorders syn-
dromes, or other similarly negatively valued differences, distinctions, or
characteristics which might have an ethnomedical diagnostic category or
label: : : : Disability exists when people experience discrimination on the
basis of perceived functional limitations. (Kasnitz & Shuttleworth 2001,
p. 2)
HISTORY OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS
TO DISABILITY STUDIES
Anthropology is relatively new to disability studies, with a few pioneering
works forming the foundation for a growing field of current study. Anthro-
pologists have contributed to the understanding of disability in a social and
cultural context, through the use of ethnographic, phenomenological, and
cross-cultural methods (McDermott, 1995; Senghas, 2002).
One of the first anthropological studies of disability was conducted by
Ruth Benedict, a pioneer in the field of anthropology, who published a
seminal study of cross-cultural conceptions of epilepsy (Benedict, 1934).
This was the first major anthropological study of disability, and since the
1930s, a cultural framework has been central to the anthropological study
of disability. In the 1940s, research in this area was scarce, as anthropology
turned its attention to other cultures. Jane and Lucien Hanks (1948) published
a cross-cultural study that focused on the social factors that influence the
status of people with disabilities in a variety of cultures, including Native
American, Asian, Pacific, and African populations.
During the 1950s, Margaret Mead, a student of Ruth Benedict’s and
influential anthropologist in her own right, made public comments that
included people with disabilities within the realm of ‘‘normal’’ Americans.
She argued that the study of American national character had to include all
types of Americans (Mead, 1953). This was the first significant proposition
that people with disabilities need to be included in anthropological inquiry
to fully understand human nature.
The introduction of the disability rights movement and the independent
living model in the 1960s and 1970s brought disability to the forefront of
national attention and sparked the interest of medical and cultural anthro-
pologists (Edgerton, 1967, 1984, 1993). Cervinkova (1996) explained that
anthropology’s social conceptualization of disability formed a theoretical
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5. 102 A. R. Reid-Cunningham
support for the independent living model because it provided social models
of disability. Sociologist Erving Goffman’s (1963) concept of stigma provided
support for the next phase of the anthropological study of disability.
Anthropologist Robert Edgerton (1967) was the first to explore mental
retardation from an anthropological perspective. Edgerton’s (1967, 1984,
1993) lifetime of work in this area contributed significantly to anthropological
interest in mental retardation and disability. By the 1980s, Edgerton noted that
‘‘anthropology has begun to tiptoe its way toward involvement in the study
of mental retardation’’ and he encouraged others to apply anthropological
concepts to the field of disability studies (Edgerton, 1984; Klotz, 2003).
Prior to the 1970s, disability was considered a ‘‘private problem of
unfortunate families and their individual members,’’ but the decade brought
changes to the developing field of disability (Frank, 1986b, p. 43). Disability
was still a marginalized field of study for anthropologists in the mid-1970s,
when Frank brought ‘‘phenomonelogical perspective to anthropological
study’’ of a ‘‘congenital amputee’’ (Frank, 1984, 1986a, 1986b; Shuttleworth,
2001, 2004). Previously, anthropological study had focused on etic accounts
of behavior. Etic research uses culturally neutral description by an outside
observer in terms that can be applied across cultures or social environments.
In contrast, Frank’s emic approach attempts to present the subject of
research in a way that closely approximates the perspective of the subject.
Emic research is culturally specific and describes human behavior in the
context of the social environment. Frank accomplished this through devel-
oping long-term relationships between researcher and subject and through a
deeper level of self-disclosure by the researcher than would be appropriate
in etic research. Frank’s work provided a detailed description of the lived
experience of an American woman named Diane DeVries, who had been
born without arms and legs. At the time, the field of anthropology was
interested solely in researching the experiences of ‘‘other’’ cultures, and any
American subject was considered to be not ‘‘different enough’’ to qualify as
an appropriate study for anthropologists (Frank, 1986b). Frank’s decades of
ethnographic interviewing with Diane DeVries and her tireless presentation
of this material broadened the scope of anthropology’s interest to include
people with disabilities.
Anthropological inquiry in disability blossomed during the 1980s. Joan
Ablon emerged as a major scholar in the field and influenced future gen-
erations of anthropologists interested in disability (Ablon, 1984, 1988, 1992,
1999). Louise Duvall, a medical anthropologist, began the Disability & Cul-
ture newsletter, which became a main source for anthropological and other
social science theory about disability. Sue Estroff (1981) explored the expe-
riences of people with psychiatric issues from an ethnographic perspective,
broadening anthropology’s interest in mental health and psychiatric illness.
Nora Ellen Groce (1985) published her findings about the deaf and hearing
individuals on Martha’s Vineyard, where hereditary deafness occurred with
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6. Anthropological Theories of Disability 103
such frequency that it was not considered a disability (and nearly every-
one spoke sign language). The International 2001 of Disabled Persons was
dedicated in 1981, followed by the Decade of Disabled Persons spanning
from 1983 to 1992, but Ingstad (1995) stated that ‘‘one can hardly note any
revolutionary changes in the life situation of disabled people’’ as a result of
demarcating that particular decade (p. 246).
In the 1990s, interest in the anthropological study of disability continued
to grow. The story of the ‘‘Elephant Man’’ captivated both anthropologists
and the general public. Books, articles, and films about Joseph Merrick
abounded, describing and analyzing his experiences with a condition that
caused extreme and progressive facial and bodily deformity (Ablon, 1995;
Montagu, 1995).
Another life history fueled anthropological interest in disability studies.
Robert Murphy, an anthropologist who had accumulated a lifetime of work
on native cultures of Africa and Asia, slowly became paralyzed over a decade
owing to a tumor on his spine. He spent the last years of his life researching
disability. His book about his experience of disability, The Body Silent, has
become a classic text for both disability studies and anthropology (Murphy,
1990). This publication increased anthropologists’ interest in disability, and
it provided increased legitimacy for anthropologists to enter the field of
disability studies.
In the mid-1990s, Ingstad & Whyte (1995) edited a significant book on
the sociocultural aspects of disability, titled Disability and Culture. It called
for the field of anthropology to broaden its study of disability to include
an emphasis on personhood and phenomenological approaches rather than
traditional medical anthropology techniques. This important volume was
cited by almost every article and book about anthropology and disability
since 1995.
Today, one of the most prominent voices in anthropological discourse
on disability is Devva Kasnitz, sometimes working in collaboration with Rus-
sell Shuttleworth (Kasnitz, 2001; Shuttleworth, 2001; Shuttleworth, & Kasnitz,
2004). Kasnitz has been a strong advocate for anthropology to engage more
fully with disability studies and has argued for increased legitimacy for the
contributions of anthropologists with disabilities. Shuttleworth’s work has
focused on disability and sexuality and on social constructions of disability.
Together and individually, these researchers have revolutionized the discus-
sion of disability and have brought disability to the center of anthropological
discourse.
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Medical anthropology is among the main contributors to the understanding
of disability and impairment. Because medical anthropologists were some
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7. 104 A. R. Reid-Cunningham
of the first to approach the subject of disability, medical anthropology has
contributed significantly to the definition of terms and has provided some
of the foundations for the field’s discussion of disability (Littlewood, 2006).
However, the major journal of medical anthropology, Medical Anthropology
Quarterly, made little mention of disability (1987–2006) until well into the
1990s (Shuttleworth, 2004).
Medical anthropology’s perspective on disability has a ‘‘therapeutic
theme,’’ utilizing medical conceptions of disease and illness to explain
disability (Littlewood, 2006). This medical model implies a ‘‘mandate’’
to ‘‘cure’’ people with disabilities (Scheer, 1988; Shuttleworth & Kasnitz,
2004). Medical anthropology has contributed much to the understanding of
disability; however the medical model can limit the discussion. Shuttleworth
(2004) notes that in the absence of a ‘‘phenomenology of illness, therapeutic
treatment, and/or a culture’s ethnomedical system, many medical anthro-
pologists choose not to study disability/difference’’ (p. 368). Shuttleworth
encourages the field to broaden and deepen its understanding of disability.
Many important contributions derived from medical anthropology also
include aspects of social or cultural anthropology. The earliest medical an-
thropological studies of disability presented the perceptions of different cul-
tures regarding certain disabilities, such as epilepsy or deafness (Ablon,
1981; Benedict, 1934; Littlewood, 2006; Rao, 2006). Ablon’s pioneering ethno-
graphic approach to the study of disability, specifically working with stig-
matized populations, helped to move medical anthropology from a disease
framework of disability to an ethnographic focus (Shuttleworth & Kasnitz,
2004; Shuttleworth, 2001). This broadened the scope of disability and im-
pairment studies within anthropology and allowed the voices of people
with disabilities and their lived experiences to contribute to anthropological
theorizing on disability (Shuttleworth & Kasnitz, 2004).
Because of the ethnographic nature of Ablon’s research, the focus of
disability study shifted to the social exclusions and limitations that come
‘‘into play as a result of bodily differences’’ (Shuttleworth & Kasnitz. 2004,
p. 142). Ablon was one of the first anthropologists to focus on the social
reactions of the community to people with disabilities as the disabling force,
rather than implicating the bodily differences as the true source of disability.
This changed the focus from the human behavior of people with disabilities
to the social environment of the population at large.
STIGMA, DEVIANCE, AND LIMINALITY
Stigma and deviance are essential concepts from social and cultural anthro-
pology that can be applied to disability (Devlieger, 1999; Rosing, 1999).
Deviance may be defined as straying from the ‘‘prevalent or valued norms’’
in a way that the society perceives as ‘‘negatively deviant’’ (Becker, 1983;
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8. Anthropological Theories of Disability 105
Susman, 1994, p. 16). Disabled bodies have traditionally been labeled deviant
because they stray from the norm and invoke stigma through this deviance
(Stiker, 1999). Many anthropological inquiries, including pioneering studies
in disability and the Encyclopedia of Medical Anthropology have utilized
Goffman’s concept of stigma: ‘‘a discrediting attribute, and undesired dif-
ferentness from social expectation’’ (Ablon, 1981, 1984, 1988, 1992, 1995;
Edgerton, 1967, 1993; Gleeson, 1997; Goffman, 1963; Ingstad, 1995; Shuttle-
worth, 2004; Shuttleworth & Kasnitz, 2004; Stiker, 1999). See Figure 1 for a
depiction of the concepts of deviance, stigma, and liminality.
Others describe stigma as the ‘‘evocation of adverse responses’’ (Sus-
man, 1994, p. 15). Disabled anthropologist Robert Murphy described people
with disabilities as ‘‘subverters of the American Ideal’’ because their bodies
or circumstances restrict their ability to achieve ‘‘independence, self-reliance,
and personal autonomy,’’ which he describes as quintessential American val-
ues (Murphy, 1990). Murphy focused on the perceived deviance of disabled
bodies that can lead to stigma and marginalization, while criticizing Goff-
man’s more simplified approach to stigma, deviance, and disability (Goffman,
1963; Murphy, 1990).
Social and cultural anthropologists have applied the theories of deviance
and stigma to the study of disability, incorporating the concept of ‘‘the
other’’ (Cervinkova, 1996; McGrane, 1989). Deviance and stigma may be
associated with ‘‘nonnormative bodies’’ or behaviors and may define the
FIGURE 1 Conceptual map of anthropological contributions to disability.
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9. 106 A. R. Reid-Cunningham
social experiences of people with disabilities (Shuttleworth & Kasnitz, 2004,
p. 148).
The terms used by the disabled community to describe ‘‘non-disabled’’
people include ‘‘TAB or MAB (temporarily or momentarily able-bodied)’’
(Zola, 1993). Members of a society may fear and even resent people with
disabilities based on a fear of becoming disabled themselves. This fear and
resentment can lead to stigma, marginalization, and oppression of people
with disabilities (Cervinkova, 1996; Goffman, 1963; Rosing, 1999). The stigma
associated with disability stems from the knowledge that anyone can become
disabled at any time (McDermott, 1995; Zola, 1993).
Social and cultural anthropologists have contributed significantly to
ethnographic inquiry and social constructions of disability and impairment
(Devlieger, 1999). The concept of liminality in anthropology refers to
transitions between social roles and statuses and the ambiguity that may
be associated with role or status change. Liminality refers to a ritual or rite of
passage in which there is a change of social status (Devlieger, 1999; Ingstad,
1995; Murphy, 1990; Murphy, Scheer, Murphy, & Mack, 1988; Stiker, 1999;
Turner, 1967). Anthropologists studying disability often invoke theories of
liminality to explain the stigma applied to people who become disabled
(Devlieger, 1999; Ingstad, 1995; Stiker, 1999). Murphy (1990) described his
own process of becoming gradually paralyzed as a series of liminality rituals,
stripping his social statuses as he became more disabled in the eyes of
the culture at large. The liminal state is described as a time of transition,
characterized by ambiguity (Ingstad, 1995; Murphy, 1990; Turner, 1967).
People with disabilities may experience an extended or even perpetual state
of liminality because of role confusion and a lack of acceptance by others
(Murphy et al., 1988). Many do not accept the liminal identity ascribed to
them by society and may create their own culture of disability to support
and inform their experiences (Ingstad, 1995).
DISABILITY AS CULTURE
Some theorists assert that the community of people with disabilities may be
considered a culture or subculture, or that certain groups of disabled people
may have their own culture (such as Deaf Culture) (Cervinkova, 1996; Fjord,
1996; Frank, 1986b; Stiker, 1999). Approximately 74% of Americans with dis-
abilities report a common cultural identity, whereas 45% consider themselves
to be part of a minority group (Nagler, 1993). Some anthropologists have
called for public recognition of the disabled as a minority group, whereas
others caution against lumping such a diverse group of people into a single
minority category (Biklin, 1988; Gleeson, 1997; Susman, 1994; Zola, 1993).
One commonly used definition of culture states that a culture includes
a common language, a historical lineage, evidence of a cohesive social
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10. Anthropological Theories of Disability 107
community, political solidarity, acculturation at an early age, generational or
genetic links, and pride and identity in segregation from others (Peters, 2000).
Many communities of people with disabilities meet these criteria, particularly
deaf individuals who identify primarily with deaf culture. In fact, the deaf
community has been described as ‘‘a highly endogamous, clearly demarcated
cultural community’’ (Ingstad, 1995, p. 17). The debate about the definition of
a ‘‘disabled culture’’ or ‘‘culture of people with disabilities’’ continues to rage,
with researchers, theorists, and people with disabilities making contributions
to the evolving definitions of culture and identity.
SYNTHESIS AND KEY CONCEPTS
The field of anthropology has made significant contributions to the under-
standing of disability. Theories from medical, social, and cultural anthropol-
ogy have broadened public and academic discourse on disability. The social
conception of disability, drawn from anthropology and sociology, provided
the Independent Living movement with a theoretical support that increased
the movement’s legitimacy and helped to broadcast its message (Cervinkova,
1996; Goffman, 1963). Anthropology and sociology have provided theoretical
and empirical support for the assertion that disability may be considered a
cultural demarcation and that people with disabilities may identify with a
different culture than the general population in a society.
Anthropologists have determined that the disability is socially con-
structed: It depends very little on the degree of functional loss or impairment;
rather it is defined by societal standards for normative bodies, behaviors,
and role fulfillment (Armstrong & Maureen, 1996; Holzer, 1999; Ingstad &
Whyte, 1995; Susman, 1994, p. 15). As a result, disability is viewed less as a
limitation or dysfunction than as the ‘‘perceptions and prejudices of an able-
bodied majority’’ that restrict the independence of people with disabilities
(Cervinkova, 1996). Some anthropologists have even gone so far as to claim
that disability can be considered nothing more than a cultural fabrication,
citing cross-cultural studies of disability and impairment to support their
assertion (Holzer, Vreede, and Weigt, 1999; McDermott & Herve, 1995).
The significance of disability is culturally produced, and different cul-
tures conceive of disability in diverse ways (Devlieger, 1995, 1999; Holzer
et al., 1999; Klotz, 2003; Littlewood, 2006; Peters, 2000; Whyte, 1995). For ex-
ample, the Hindu concept of karma explains disability within some cultures,
while Australian aboriginals may attribute disability to social or ritual trans-
gressions. Some African cultures relate disability to witchcraft and curses,
whereas Christians may cite sin as the cause of disability, and Muslims relate
disability to fate or the will of Allah (Armstrong & Fitzgerald, 1996). Religious
teachings, laws, customs, and ‘‘media portrayals also reflect, define, or per-
petuate’’ how people approach disability (Peters, 2000; Susman, 1994, p. 18).
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11. 108 A. R. Reid-Cunningham
EMERGING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND
AREAS FOR EXPANSION
There is a need to continue building on the foundation of social and cultural
constructions of disability. The concepts of stigma, deviance, and liminality
can be applied to specific disabilities by focusing on the lived experience
of people with disabilities. An ethnographic lens continues to provide a
valuable perspective for understanding disability, especially the experiences
of people who are different from the researcher.
Though the perspective of ‘‘the other’’ is important and has provided
some insights to nondisabled anthropologists, it is essential to incorporate
the work of disabled anthropologists who have been marginalized and min-
imized in the field (Murphy, 1990; Stiker, 1999). Murphy noted that disabled
researchers may have particular strengths in working with disabled subjects,
and the field of anthropology needs to make use of these strengths to
fully explore the phenomenological experience of disability (Ingstad, 1995).
Moving forward, the field needs to incorporate and prioritize the voices of
those people with disabilities.
Each area of disability could benefit from increased attention by anthro-
pologists. Though physical disability has received most of the attention, these
studies have focused primarily on very particular types of physical disability,
such as dwarfism, deafness, and epilepsy (Ablon, 1984, 1988; Groce, 1985;
Whyte, 1995). Other types of disability should be more thoroughly inves-
tigated, including mental illness, emotional disabilities, learning disabilities,
and mental retardation (Edgerton, 1984; Littlewood, 2006). There are many
areas of disability that would benefit from anthropological insight.
The anthropological perspective is important to the study of human
behavior and the social environment. The use of emic and etic perspectives
by anthropologists has provided valuable information about human behavior
from a variety of standpoints. The anthropological concepts of liminality and
status-change rituals are highly relevant to the study of the social environ-
ment. Concepts such as stigma and deviance are highly relevant to the study
of human behavior and the social environment and already feature promi-
nently in many curriculums in human behavior in the social environment.
The application of anthropological concepts to the study of disability within
the realm of human behavior and the social environment is an emerging
area of study.
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