Antartica Assessment

ANTARTICA
Environmental Significance, Human
Impact, Sustainability

ANTARCTICA'S SIGNIFICANCE
AS AN ENVIRONMENT
FOCUS AREA 1

Finally, Antartica is home to the southern ocean. This is
incredibly significant because it impacts the rest of the
planet’s ocean waters, thus every environmental,
habitual and marine life, as the southern ocean affects
salinity and temperature of oceans, incredibly vital
impacts on water environments. It creates a ‘global
circulation system’ where all the oceans join,
transporting heat, taking up a significant amount of
carbon dioxide from our atmosphere and also affects
atmospheric pressure, humidity, air temperatures and
wind patterns for the entire planet due to the overturning
circulation of the southern ocean’s processes.
FOCUS AREA 1:The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth. It covers
about 98% of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on
Earth. It covers an area of almost 14 million square km (5.4 million sq.
miles) and contains 26.5 million cubic km of ice (6.36 million cubic miles).
Although isolated from other continents, Antarctica is connected to the rest
of world through oceanic and atmospheric circulations. Antarctica and the
surrounding Southern Ocean are key drivers of Earth's oceanic and
atmospheric systems. A critically important feature is that about 90% of
Earth's ice (around 25.2 million gigatonnes) is found here, and 70% of all
available fresh water is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet - if melted, this
would raise sea levels by nearly 60 metres.
Equally important, between the coastline of the Antarctic continent and the
Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone (the boundary between subtropical and
subantarctic waters) lies the Southern Ocean, which extends over some 38
million km2 and encompasses about 20% of the world's ocean waters. The
Southern Ocean connects the three main ocean basins (Atlantic, Pacific and
Indian) and creates a global circulation system that is largely driven by the
eastward flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current - the world's largest current.
The current generates an overturning circulation (movement of water masses
of different densities caused by variations in salinity and temperature) that
transports vast amounts of heat and also takes up a significant amount of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure, humidity, air
temperatures and wind patterns for our entire planet are interconnected and
greatly influenced by processes in the Southern Ocean.
One of the reasons Antartica is a
significant environment, is due to
Antarctica’s enormous
environmental impact.
If this mass amount of ice were to
melt, ocean levels could rise by
nearly 60 metres. This could engulf
small countries, completely
submerging them below water.
98% of Antartica is covered in ice,
which is 25.6 milion cubic km of
ice covered 14 million square km.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_ice_sheet
http://www.environment.gov.au/science/soe/2011-report/7-antarctic/1-introduction/1-1-global-importance
Antartica is also a significant environment
because it has the most amount of ice in one
place than any other continent, with 70% of the
26.5 million cubic km of ice being fresh water.

It is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost
entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean.
At 14.0 million square kilometres (5.4 million square miles), it is the fifth-
largest continent in area after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America.
Size of Antarctica
With all islands and ice shelves, Antarctica is nearly 1½ times the size of the
USA, twice the size of Australia, and 58 times the size of the UK. It covers
8,500,000 square miles (13,661,000 square kilometers).
Height of Antarctica
Antarctica is the highest continent on Earth: average elevation is 8,200ft
(2500m). The elevation at the South Pole is 9,300ft (2835m). The highest point
on the icecap is in Australian Antarctic Territory at 13,451ft (4100m), at 82°
20'S, 56° 30'E. Mount Vinson is the highest mountain in Antarctica at 16,050ft
(4892m).
Snow (precipitation) in Antarctica
Antarctica is the driest continent on earth. The amount of moisture received by
the polar plateau is comparable to that falling on the world's hot deserts, as low
as 0.8 inches (20mm) per year.
Temperature and Wind in Antarctica
Antarctica is the coldest continent on earth. The lowest temperature ever
recorded on earth was -128.6F (-89.2C) at Vostok in the Australian Antarctic
Territory, in 1983. Antarctica is the windiest continent on earth. Winds flow
down the coastal slopes under the influence of gravity. Speeds of these katabatic
winds have been recorded up to 204 miles per hour (327 kilometers per hour).
FOCUS AREA 1:
Antartica has it’s ranking in amongst the world’s
continental placings being the highest on earth,
making it significantly, combined with other
factors, a diverse environment. It’s average
elevation is 2500m, the highest point resting at
4100m atop the Australian Antarctic icecap. The
highest mountain alone in Antartica is 4892m
tall.
One of the reasons Antartica is a
significant environment, despite appearing
to be the largest, deceiving may people, it
is in fact the fifth largest continent after
Asia, Afica, North America and South
America. It is 58 times the size of the UK
and 1 1/2 times the size of just the United
States of America alone, covering
12,661,000 square kilometres making it
the fifth largest continent.
In addition to Antartica’s significant
environmentally extreme weather, is the extreme
temperatures. It is the coldest continent on earth,
the coldest temperatures every recorded being in
1983 at Vostok in the Austrlian Antarctic Territory,
reached -89.2C. Antartica’s final extreme weather
conditions include 327 kilometre per hour winds,
being the widest continent on earth
Antartica, though covered by masses of solidified
water, is a desert, being the driest continent on
earth. As little as 20m of rain may fall a year,
comparable to the world’s hottest deserts. This
makes it a significant continent due to it’s
extreme weather.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica
http://www.adventure-network.com/antarctic-environment

Because of the earth's tilt and orbit around the sun, the poles
receive less energy and heat from the sun. This results in only two
polar two seasons—summer and winter. In summer at the poles,
the sun does not set, and in winter the sun does not rise. Expedition
10 takes place close to the South Pole, in the ocean around
Antarctica during the southern hemisphere summer season. The
days will be very long, with the sun below the horizon for only a
few hours a day, and the sky will not become completely dark at
night.
November—The sun had set one hour before this photograph was
taken at 1:30 am. It rose again around 2:30 am. At this time of
year, it doesn't get "dark" but twilight is spectacular! (Photo by
Regina Campbell-Malone)
These dramatic seasonal variations control the ecosystem, and, as a
result, Southern Ocean sea life faces challenging conditions. Ice
forms in winter over much of the sea around Antarctica, and
rapidly retreats in the spring when the ice melts. Summer is a
season of long days and slightly warmer temperatures when
phytoplankton can grow rapidly and produce food for the entire
ecosystem. High winds blowing from the continent mix the
seawater, bringing high levels of nutrients necessary for
phytoplankton growth near the sea surface, where there is sunlight.
FOCUS AREA 1:
http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/ecosystem/infomod.html
One of the extremes, that makes researchers
study Antartica for it’s signiﬁcant
environmental, geological purposes is it’s
seasons. Due to it’s location on the earth, it
is only exposed to the sun for 6 months at a
time, while the other 6 months of the year,
or earth’s orbit is not. This results in
Antartica only having two seasons. Summer
and Winter. In the summer, the sun never
sets, and in the winter, the sun never rises.
In addition, to Antartica’s unique seasons, this
extreme has created major impacts on the
environment and wildlife. Many sea and land life
have evolved and adapted, changing their
behavioural and physical characteristics due to
Antarctic conditions. Thus why Antartica is one
of the most signiﬁcant environments on Earth, not
only does it have unique geology, temperatures
and weather, but has also altered and entire
ecosystem, evolving new life on this planet. For
example, only Antartica’s warmer temperatures
and high winds (mixing seawater) can provide
habitat to Phytoplankton, which, in turn, produces
food for the entire ecosystem, as food chains
move down the line. (MORE ON PAGE 5)

5.1.1 Polar bears give birth and hunt on sea ice and they need it to travel from
one region to another. Survival of mothers and cubs in the spring depends on
the mothers’ hunting success, which, in turn, depends on the stability and extent
of sea ice. Less winter sea ice means that female polar bears have to go longer
without food, which impacts their fat stores, and, in turn, their reproductive
success…
5.1.2 Certain seal species that rarely come to land, such as the harp seal, spotted
seal and the ringed seal, depend on Arctic sea ice. Not only does sea ice provide
a home for resting, giving birth and raising pups, it is also a feeding ground for
some of them. Ice-dependent seal species are likely to have difficulty adapting
to ice-free summers…
Walrus rely on sea ice for easier access to food
5.1.4 The ice edge in coastal areas is an important feeding ground for the
walrus that use the ice as diving platforms to feed on clams on the sea floor…
…Walrus also travel large distances on floating ice, which allows them to feed
over a wide area.
5
5.1.5 Ice algae grow at the porous bottom of sea ice and form the base of the
unique marine food web connected to sea ice… ….well as the temperature
and salinity of surface waters…
FOCUS AREA 1:
http://www.greenfacts.org/en/arctic-climate-change/l-2/5-arctic-animals.htm
Antartica’s significance on the
environment provides a unique
environment and affects the
ecological chain of evolution, both
physically and behaviourally. Polar
bears, seals, Walruses, and Ice
Algae are an example of this. Polar
bars rely on the sea ice to hunt and
travel between regions. Seals
depend on the ice as a home for
raising pups and also a feeding
ground. Walrus depend on the ice
like the previous, but they also use
it as diving platforms to propel
themselves to feed on the clams on
the sea floor. They also travel large
distances on floating ice which is a
good way to survive by not wasting
so much energy travelling. Certain
types of Algae only grow on ice
which also affects the marine food
web and salinity of sea surface
water. These habitual, behavioural
and environmental charasteritics are
all impacted by Antartica’s unique
significance as an environment
housing this diverse life. (MORE
ON PAGE 6)

Emperor penguins, like many seabirds, have evolved a life strategy that is
characterised by two main features: first, the birds are long-lived (up to at
least 40 years), and second they have a low annual reproductive output…
…these environmental changes are likely to have an influence on the
animals that live there. In a year during which the fast-ice extends a long
way north it may mean that Emperor penguins have to walk longer
distances across the ice before they reach the pack-ice where they can
forage…
Any environmental change can also influence the abundance and
distribution of prey. Thus, the effort the penguins have to put into
gathering food may vary. When studying Emperor penguins we are trying
to determine how these changes in the environment affect the penguin
populations. Say, for example, we have an especially cold year during
which the ice-edge is a long way from the colony, the penguins must
travel maybe 80-100 km before they can enter the open water. Once they
are there the birds may find it much harder to hunt the fish and squid
which means that they have to spend more time at sea to get what they
need for themselves, as well as for their chicks. In a year like that the
chicks have to wait much longer between feeds. Some may be thin and
many may not even live long enough to fledge (shed their down, grow
real feathers and become waterproof)…
Emperor penguins depend on the fast-ice for their long-term survival.
Without a breeding platform they have nowhere to go. But it is also
important that this platform is available for the duration of the chick
rearing period.
FOCUS AREA 1:
http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/penguins/emperor-penguins/adapting-to-a-changing-environment
Emperor Penguins, like the seal, walrus,
polar bears and ice algae are also affected
by the Antarctic environment, making their
behavioural and physical characteristics.
They have ‘evolved a life strategy’ that,
due to the climate and harsh conditions,
they have a low annual reproductive rate,
but a longer life span to ensure the
continuance of their species. The
environmental changes between summer
and winter, and how taking care of eggs
and young can be incredibly difficult is
what influences the Emperor Penguins in
such way. Antartica significantly, with it’s
obscure environment is what makes it so
unique to have such drastic influences. If
the ‘fast-ice’ is spread out a long way north
due to a cold year, it influences the
Penguins to travel further, forcing them to
travel 80-100km to forage, and hunt prey
in open water. If, due to these conditions it
will not only impact the hunter themselves,
but the future generation of Emperor
Penguins, as they have to spend more time
away from the chicks who rely on their
parents for food. If left to long they
become thin and die before fledging, thus
not continuing the cycle of their species.
Antartica’s ‘fast-ice’ ensure the Penguins
long-term survival’. It provides a breeding
and ‘chick’rearing’ platform, as well as an
easy access to prey.

CARTOON
http://www.intoon.com/toons/2002/KeefeM20020327.jpg
The penguin on the wave also represents
how their habitat, which they rely on the
ice for breeding grounds and many other
environmental/habitual purposes, melts,
thus they have nowhere to go or live.
This cartoon represents the global crisis and impact Antartica is having
on a global scale. Due to global warming, the 25.6 million cubic km of
ice stored in Antartica is melting, rising sea levels. This cartoon is
showing readers that if we, as a global community ignore this fact, the
oceans will rise 60m more, ﬂooding countries, submerging them in water.

HUMAN IMPACT ON
ANTARCTIC ENVIRONMENT
FOCUS AREA 2

Some Antarctic species have been taken to the verge of extinction for economic
benefit. Others have been killed incidentally or disturbed, soils have been
contaminated, untreated sewage has been discharged into the sea and rubbish that will
not decompose or break down for hundreds of years has been left behind in even the
remotest parts.
1 - Climate change / Global warming, resulting in a warming of the sea and loss of sea
ice and land-based ice, this is greatest long-term threat to the region. Already some ice
shelves have collapsed and ice slopes and glaciers have retreated. Oceanic
acidification (from extra dissolved carbon dioxide) is already leading to the loss of
some marine snails thought to have a significant part to play in the oceanic carbon
cycle. The breeding populations and ranges of some penguin species have been
altered.
2 - Fishing, both legal and illegal. Much of the world's oceans are over-fished, the
chances are that if investments into the kinds of boats and fishing gear needed for
Antarctica are made, then it too will suffer this same fate. Fishing for krill could be
particularly significant as these are at the bottom of many Antarctic food chains. There
are already illegal fishing boats that ignore current regulations.
3 - Invasive species. Organisms that are not native to Antarctica are being taken there
on ships, attached as seeds to boots and clothing. Some of these that are able to now
survive there as a consequence of global warming. Rats in particular are a threat to
Antarctica's ground nesting birds which are particularly vulnerable as there are no
native ground based predators for them to be experienced in defending themselves
against.
4 - Tourism, with the accompanying pollutants that accompany ships and aircraft, the
possibility of oil spills and the effects of lots of people and infrastructure on
wildlife and the wider environment.
FOCUS AREA 2:
Antartica has been impacted by humans for a
number of reasons. Some Antarctic inhabitants
are on the verge of extinction, killed, disturbed
as well as soil contamination, and untreated
sewage and rubbish discharged into the sea,
which has larger impacts than expected, as
colder temperature does not decompose this
waste at usual rates meaning it can be left behind
even in the remotest parts for hundreds of years
http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/human_impact_on_antarctica.php
Due to human activity, polluting the earth with
greenhouse gases and heated chemical, the earth’s
temperature has increased leading to global and
oceanic warming. This warming melts ice and as a
result, ice shovels, slopes, glaciers and icebergs
have melted, collapsed and retreated in the
Antarctic. As well as this, the oceans have
dissolved more carbon dioxide, contaminating it or
creating oceanic acidification. This has resulted in
the loss of Antarctic marine snails, thus affecting
the food chain, as well as breeding populations of
some penguin species has been altered.
Fishing, both legal and illegal has occurred in the
antarctic, thus affecting populations in the Antarctic
region. Krill fishing has also been in high demand,
once again effecting the food chain in Antartica.
Invasive species, have been accidentally introduced to
Antartica as a result of human activity. Arrived by attachment
as seeds to boots a clothing, as well as unexpected stow
aways such as rats play a threat to Antartica’s flora and
fauna. Rats particularly threat ground nesting birds, many of
which reside in Antartica without native ground based
predators to have experience of defence from.
Humans also impact the Antarctic environment
through tourism through the pollutants of ships
and aircraft as well as oils spills.

5 - Pollution, CFC's and other ozone depletors are responsible for the ozone
hole that has appeared over Antarctica for over 30 years, chemicals produced
thousands of miles away are found in Antarctic ice and in the bodies of wildlife.
Discarded equipment, chemicals and oil can degrade the landscape. Fishing
nets, plastic, lines, hooks etc. carried by the sea can result in great suffering or
loss of life by birds, fish and marine mammals.
8 - Direct impacts associated with the development of infrastructure for
scientific bases and programmes. The construction of buildings and related
facilities such as roads, fuel storage, runways etc.
• Invasive species - accidentally bringing in insects or seeds on boots,
clothes, in food, cargo etc.
•
• Impact on breeding birds - being made anxious by an influx of people that
may cause them to abandon their nest or vacate an area all together if
regularly disturbed. There are many records of birds that previously nested
around Antarctic bases no longer doing so due to the constant activity
around such places. The general voluntary code is that visitors should not
go closer than 5m to any wildlife.
• Erosion or disturbance of fragile environments - many feet walking over
the same piece of ground and routes will leave paths and other scars.
•
• Oil spills from ships and boats - there may be a spill due to hitting ice and
rupturing a holding tank, or if the vessel sinks, all the polluting fluids will
eventually escape.
FOCUS AREA 2: Even though human manufactured chemicals
are produced miles away from Antartica, it
has travelled and had an affect on antarctic
ice and wildlife. Not only that, but previous
discarded equipment, chemicals, oil, washed
up fishing nets, plastic, lines and hooks from
human activities carried by the sea currents
that all merge together in Antarctic waters
have had an affect, killing Antarctic fish,
birds and marine mammals.
http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/threats_tourism.php
As previously mentioned Ivasive
species form cargo, boots, clothes and
food is a human impact on antartica
Because of so many tourists, the
antarctic birds have been impacted
because of the uncommon attention
making them anxious, being
regularly disturbed have caused them
to abandon and vacate their nests.
Again, due to tourists, erosion of fragile
environments occurred due to ground routes
walked or driven upon too many times
leaving unnatural paths and other ‘scars’
As previously mentioned, oil spills are
another human- made negative impact in
Antartica.

More mundane, but equally great threats to Antarctica are the effects of casual
pollution that goes along with the every day life and activities of personnel on bases
and of tourists. In a cold and slowly changing environment the effects of simple events
can be there for years. Organic material for instance can take decades to decay where
it would be gone in months even in the temperate parts of the world. The outline of
footprints on delicate cold climate moss-banks can still be seen years later.
Sewage and food waste are allowed to be disposed of at sea in Antarctica by ships and
bases on land, though increasingly scientific stations have biological treatment plants
that reduce the impact of the raw sewage before it is discharged. This is not the ideal
answer though as recent studies have shown that the sewage discharge from the
American McMurdo base in the Ross Sea region contains flame retardant chemicals
known as HBCD which have been found in penguins, fish, sponges and marine worms
that live nearby. The levels of this chemical in wastewater is close to those from
highly populated regions of Europe and the USA. This chemical has been shown to
disrupt thyroid hormones affect brain development and metabolism in fish and rats.
The McMurdo base is probably not unique in this regard, the extent to which it affects
other stations around Antarctica is unknown, there are a variety of different types of
sewage treatment plants in use.
There are still large amounts of rubbish including metal items, oil and other fuels and
plastics in a variety of places in Antarctica which are where there were previously
scientific stations occupied in either the short or long-term. Once the station was no
longer needed the more valuable items would be removed, but everything else was
generally just left behind, buildings and all. Because of the extreme weather,
something like an empty oil drum can blow for miles away from the site of the base.
The picture shows abandoned machinery, sleds, vehicles, oil drums and buildings at
what used to be the Russian Leningradskaya base which closed in 1991. Today, such
remnants would have to be removed once the base was no longer in use.
FOCUS AREA 2: To elaborate on the decomposition
rates in Antartica, cold is the reason
waste takes so long to break down.
Even footprints made by tourists can
be seen on moss banks years later.
http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/threats_pollution.php
The sewage and food waste dumped
in antarctic oceans have been found
to have flame retardant chemicals
known as HBCD, which have now
been discovered in wildlife such as
penguins, fish, sponges and marine
worms. Yet another negative effect
human activity has had on Antartica.
From previous science stations
rubbish such as metal items oil, fuels,
drums, plastic, abandones machinery,
sleds vehicles and buildings have been
scattered around antarctica due to
extreme weather blowing the debris
miles across land. Luckily, a positive
aspect has been put in place that
humans have impacted on Antartica,
is that they’re removing this once a
base is no longer in use

Oil spills are an increasing form of pollution in Antarctica as a result of increasing
shipping activity in the region. While ships often have facilities to contain waste oil
and separate oil from water which is then taken out of Antarctica for disposal, an ever
greater presence is bound to lead to more accidents which do happen. In recent years
there have been a number of groundings of tourist ships in shallow, poorly chartered
waters and also accidents involving fishing boats in pursuit of the Patagonian
toothfish.
November 2007, holing and subsequent sinking by an iceberg of the M/V Explorer in
the Bransfield Strait
The ship was carrying approximately 178m3 of diesel, 24m3 of lube oil and 1,200 L
of gasoline some of which was seen to start leaking out over the following days
creating an oil slick. Fortunately for the environment the ship sank in deep water away
from land and the typically rough nature of the Southern Ocean meant that the oil was
dispersed by wind and wave before it could cause any significant damage.
With the Southern Ocean being so rich in animal life and any clean-up operation being
far from land, oil spills are potentially disastrous in Antarctica.
An increasing problem in Antarctic waters (and in the rest of the world too) is marine
litter, flotsam and debris that finds its way into the sea or material that is lost
overboard from ships, particularly fishing ships. Bits of fishing net, fishing line, boxes,
strapping bands etc. might sound harmless if unsightly, but they can have a deadly
effect on wildlife.
Birds and seals get tangled up up lines and net. Fur seals can suffer the most as the
youngsters in particular are very playful and what starts off as a game with a plastic
band can soon turn nasty as it gets stuck over the seals head. Unable to remove the
band it begins to cut into the flesh causing physical injury, infection and ultimately a
long and slow death.
FOCUS AREA 2: Oil spills, next to global warming is
one of the most dangerous effects
human activity has had on Antartica.
Increased shipping as well as tourist
ships and fishing boats have been
guilty of leaking chemical, dangerous
oil into Antarctic waters, killing much
marine life due to toxic poisoning.
http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/threats_pollution.php
An example of a particularly nasty
accident of fuel leaks was in
November 2007 where the M/V
explorer sunk that was carrying
around 178m3 of diesel, 24m3 of lube
oil and 1,200l of gasoline which
created an oil slick.
Marine litter, flotsam and debris
may travel from far, or be thrown
overboard in the Antarctic, riding
it’s way through ocean currents to
end up in Antartica. Fishing net,
line boxes strapping bands also
angels birds, seals, and especially
young fur seals due to this, which is
life-threatening for these animals.

More localised, but still with the potential to cause region-wide effects, are the
impacts of fishing and hunting. Mining is now prohibited under the Environmental
Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty (known as the Madrid Protocol).
More localised still are the impacts of visitors, such as scientists or tourists, to the
region.
Global change may adversely affect the Antarctic environment and its fauna and
flora. For example, global warming may contribute to the break-up of large areas of
ice-shelf and cause loss of habitat for animals dependent on the ice-shelf; increasing
UV radiation may cause changes to phytoplankton communities, with impacts
occurring up the food chain.
Hunting for whales and seals drew people to the Antarctic in the early years of the
19th century and within only a few decades caused major crashes in wildlife
populations. The Antarctic fur seal was at the verge of extinction at many locations
by 1830, resulting in a decline in the sealing industry although sealing continued at a
smaller scale well into the last century.
The seal populations of Macquarie Island have been protected by the island’s status
as a wildlife sanctuary since 1933. The seals of Australia’s subantarctic islands were
further protected in 1997 when both Macquarie and the Heard and McDonald Islands
were added to the World Heritage list. The exploited seal populations of the Southern
Ocean have in recent years recovered very substantially and are no longer
endangered.
FOCUS AREA 2:
http://www.antarctica.gov.au/environment/human-impacts-in-antarctica
Luckily, in recent years, there have
been some positive impacts humans
have had on Antarctica. Awareness by
scientists or tourists have raised an
Antarctic treaty, the Madrid Protocol,
dedicated to protecting Antarctic flora
and fauna.
Previously significant information
mentioned.
UV radiation from global warming
destroying the ozone layer has caused
changes in the phytoplankton that
resides in antarctic community, which
as a whole, impacts the food chain
altogether due to human activity.
Due to poor human judgement in
the past, Antartica’s fur seal fauna
were hunted to the verge of
extinction. Luckily, a positive
impact humans have made towards
this is that seals are now protected,
and seal populations have
substantially grown, being no linger
endangered.

The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS) was
initiated in response to concerns that the sealing industry could be re-
opened after some exploratory research to investigate the viability of
sealing in the 1960s. Although commercial sealing did not
recommence, the CCAS did establish a regime for sealing providing
for permissible catch limits for crabeater, leopard and Weddell seals,
a zoning system with closed seasons and total protection for Ross
seals, southern elephant seals and certain species of fur seal.
However, under Australian law Australians would not be granted a
permit for commercial sealing in the Antarctic Treaty area.
Whaling in the Southern Ocean began in earnest in the early 1900s
and grew very quickly so that by 1910 it provided 50% of the world's
catch. The history of whaling is a repeated sequence of targeting the
most profitable species, depleting stocks to unviable commercial
levels and moving on to previously less favoured species. Declining
catches motivated international attempts to regulate whaling and led
to the establishment of the International Whaling Commission (IWC)
which first met in 1949… …Since the moratorium was initiated,
whaling has been limited to one or two countries that harvest whales
under the ‘scientific whaling’ provisions set by the IWC. There are
some indications that whale populations are beginning to recover but
such long-lived species with low reproductive rates are incapable of
rebuilding their numbers in just a few years.
FOCUS AREA 2:
Whaling was a negative impact
humans had created upon
Antartica. In 1910, 50% of the
world’s whale catch came from
Antartica. This depleted stocks so
far, they too were threatened by
extinction. However, like the seals,
an organisation call the
International Whaling
Commission, or IWC was formed,
and as a result a positive impact
influenced by humans help whale
populations recover.
In addition to the growth rate of the fur
seal’s populous return, the organisation
behind the feat was The Convention on
the Conservation of Antarctic Seals or
CCAS. However, Crabeater, leopard and
Weddell seals in the Antarctic are being
affected by humans, in that they are not
prohibited to be hunted, luckily, with
limits.

Fishing is the only large-scale commercial resource harvest currently undertaken in the Antarctic
Treaty area now that sealing has effectively ceased an whaling has significantly decreased. The
major negative effects of fisheries are:
• potential for over-fishing of target species
• effects on predator populations dependant on the target species as a food source
• mortality of non-target species caught by fishing equipment
• destruction of habitat
…IUU (illegal) fishing is also a concern because it may involve the use of fishing techniques that
can cause the death of non-target species as by-catch. In particular, albatrosses are taken
inadvertently by long-line fishing.…. however the economics are changing and there is now
demand for krill as a food source for aquaculture and bait. As a consequence, the 1999 catch of
100,000 tonnes was more than doubled in 2010 to over 210,000 tonnes… The fishery has not
recovered from the early peak (400,000 tonnes harvested in 1969-70) and the subsequent rapid
decline. The Patagonian toothfish has recently been targeted at a number of locations in the
subantarctic.
Further inland, rubbish was often dropped down a crevasse or just left where it was. In the harsh
Antarctic environment, even large items such as empty oil drums can be blown by the wind for
miles from where they were originally dumped so spreading the problem. Broken down or
crashed vehicles and aircraft were usually just left where they were, many are still there today.
There was also a variation of the second approach whereby larger sinkable items such as broken
and useless vehicles were taken out onto the sea ice and left. When the ice broke up in the
spring, the rubbish on them would break out too and they would be dumped further out at sea as
the floe they were on melted or tipped up.
In the earlier days of Antarctic programmes (well into the 1980's) waste was dealt with in one of
three ways:
• 1- If it was flammable, it was burnt
• If it wasn't flammable it was:
◦ 2 - thrown into the sea
◦ 3 - put to one side and ignored
FOCUS AREA 2: Just like the whale and seal, over fishing
was a human threat on Antartica’s
environment. Not only were target species
over fished, but predator populations
dependant on that food source decreased,
as well as non-target species being killed
and the destruction of habitat was a result
of these fishing industries .
Illegal fishing had a part in this negative
impact as well. The death of non-target
species mainly centred around the albatross
birds (an Antarctic resident) from long line
fishing. Krill was another species declined
in numbers from fishing in antarctica,
being reduced in 2010 by 210,000 tones.
Whales rely on krill as a food source so not
only was krill population numbers affected,
but whale’s food source too.
The issue with Antarctica’s rubbish
has been previously mentioned, but
the facts including rubbish dropped
down crevasses, being left where it
was, as welled as crashed vehicles
and aircrafts is another point to
mention. Vehicles were even taken
out onto the sea ice and left, spreading
the debris further out to sea.
Previously, Antartica was impacted by humans from
their poor rubbish disposal. Either waste was burnt, left,
or throw out to sea.

MAP OF ANTARCTICA
OZONE HOLE CREATING GLOBAL WARMING

MAKING SURE ANTARCTICA
IS SUSTAINABLE
FOCUS AREA 3

Over the years since the Antarctic Treaty came into force in 1961, ever greater environmental awareness
has led to increasing regulation by the Antarctic Treaty System. All plants and animals in Antarctica are
now protected and there are measures in place to prevent pollution of this the worlds most pristine
environment.
• No Antarctic bird or mammal can be killed or captured without a permit - granted only for
validated scientific reasons.
• Measures must be taken to minimise harmful interference with wildlife and control the
introduction of non-native species - animal or plant. To the point of not taking soil or growing
compost to Antarctica as it may contain plant seeds, fungal spores or adults, eggs or larvae of
any number of soil-dwelling invertebrates.
• The establishment of specially protected areas to protect sites of outstanding scientific
interest and designate specially protected species.
• Seals in particular are covered by a 1972 convention designed to prevent the resumption of
sealing, killing of both Ross and Antarctic fur seals is totally prohibited and catch limits are set
deliberately at low levels for other species. All six seal species that breed in the Antarctic are
covered.
• Commercial fisheries in the Southern Ocean are controlled by the CCAMLR - Convention
on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. The aim of the Convention is to
conserve marine life of the Southern Ocean - this does not exclude harvesting carried out in a
rational manner however.
• The discharge into the sea within the Antarctic Treaty Area of all toxic and noxious
chemicals, oil and oily wastes, plastics and other forms of non-biodegradable rubbish, is
prohibited. The discharge of other wastes (such as sewage from ships and bases) is strictly
regulated.
• Mining has been prohibited.
The Environmental Protocol of the Antarctic Treaty, sometimes called the "Madrid Protocol", became
law in 1998 after legislation in each of the member countries. One of the ways in which this protects
Antarctica is by only allowing visitors to Antarctica by member nations as long as they are given a
permit to do so. The granting of a permit is dependent on the visitors agreeing to adhere to certain rules
and guidelines. Each nations rules are not the same in the detail, though they are similar in the general
principles in that they adhere to the Antarctic Treaty.
A part of the Antarctic Treaty called the Madrid Protocol (because it was agreed on at an Antarctic
Treaty conference in Madrid) requires that national Antarctic programmes clean-up abandoned work
sites and waste tips so long as the process of clean-up does not cause greater adverse impacts or cause
the removal of historic sites or monument
FOCUS AREA 3:
One of the main actions humanity has
taken towards making sure Antartica is
a sustainable environment was the
Antarctic Treaty system.
http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/conservation.php
There were many regulations put into place
to protect the Antarctic environment and
wildlife. Permits must be taken to handle
animals, regulators on soil to make sure no
new non-native species were introduced,
specially protected areas on for scientific
purposes, particular seal protection,
commercial fisheries controlled by the
rules CCAMLR (Convention on the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources), discharge of chemicals, fuels,
waste and non-biodegradable rubbish is
prohibited , all mining is prohibited.
Altogether, there have been many
environmental protection establishments
created, with world wide participation
over the past few years, due to higher
environmental awareness and consequence
of poor environmental treatment.
Visitor number allowances are tightly
controlled by the Madrid Protocol, and are
clear rules and guidelines before entering are
given to protect the environment from over
populated visits and unclear mistakes.
In addition, Madrid Protocol states all
abandoned stations and work must be cleaned
up.

• The discharge of any oil or oily mixture, bulk chemicals or garbage from a ship is prohibited in
Antarctica and must be discharged at port reception facilities outside the region. Many ships
operating in Antarctic waters retain oil and oily mixtures on board the ship. Oily water separators
are often fitted and the discharge of oil from ships is monitored by maintaining an Oil Record
Book, as required by the International Maritime Organization (IMO).
•
• Sewage from ships is usually passed through a biological treatment plant that meets the
requirements of the IMO before discharge. If these systems break down in the Antarctic, ships will
avoid discharging untreated raw sewage within 12 nautical miles of shore.
•
• Food waste is passed through a waste disposal unit that shreds the waste so that it will pass through
a mesh size of less than 25 mm, discharge is then at least 12 nautical miles from shore. If ships are
within 12 nautical miles of shore, the waste is held in holding tanks until it can be discharged.
Large bones and other food wastes which are difficult to shred are frozen and disposed of at port
reception facilities outside Antarctica.
•
• Other waste generated on ships is stored on board until it can be disposed of outside Antarctica.
Shredders are used to process glass and small metal waste. Compactors are used to bale plastic.
Paper and cardboard are burnt in high temperature marine incinerators. Waste food wrappings are
frozen for later disposal in port.
• The dumping of waste or chemicals on land or at sea, or open burning of rubbish are all prohibited.
Instead, wastes are separated at source, processed using a range of compacting and shredding
equipment to reduce volume, and then removed.
•
• Waste from Antarctic bases is packaged up and shipped out of Antarctica for disposal by licensed
waste contractors. Dumping at sea or burning in Antarctica are now not permitted.
•
• Certain bases as permitted under the Environmental Protocol, discharge sewage and food waste
into the sea. At other bases they are discharged into ice pits. These wastes are not removed from
Antarctica because of the health risks involved in shipping large quantities over long distances. The
extent and the environmental effects of the release of sewage and food waste into the near shore
marine environment is monitored on an ongoing basis. Such effluent has so far been shown to have
only minor and local impact. Despite this an increasing number of bases are installing biological
sewage treatment plants.
•
• Many national programmes carry out an annual audit of the quantities of waste generated at
research stations, field camps and ships.
FOCUS AREA 3:
In addition to the previous slide’s
guidelines, there are many other strict
rules set in place in order to make sure
Antarctica says as a pristine and
undisturbed environment.

In 1991 the fear that distemper from dogs could spread to seals led to a new clause in the Antarctic Treaty.
"Dogs shall not be introduced onto land or ice shelves and dogs currently in those areas shall be removed by
April 1st 1994"
- and so they were removed, there are now no dogs or domestic animals of any kind in Antarctica.
Protected areas are being set up with various levels degrees of protection, no vehicles allowed, limitations to
annual visitors, or even no people allowed at all in some cases.
Expeditioners are now educated far better about protecting the environment, expeditioners, tourists and other
visitors to Antarctica are now guided by codes of conduct.
Very large ships (500 passengers +) do not now go to Antarctica. These used to account for large numbers of
the counted tourists as they carried so many passengers. They tended not to make any landings and only made a
fleeting visit of 2 or 3 days out of a longer wider ranging cruise. These large ships were a great concern as an
incident involving an oil or fuel spill from them would have been very significant. Any kind of rescue or
evacuation would also have been very difficult owing to the large numbers of people on board.
The most recent figures for the 2013-14 season show that there were 37,405 visitors. The national programme
personnel clock up far more man-days however, and impacts are difficult to compare directly.
When people began showing an interest in Antarctica, scientists and other environmentalists realised that
something would have to be done to protect Antarctica from being exploited and spoiled.
In 1959 the Antarctica Treaty which was developed by the united nations and the help of 12 countries was
signed.
The 12 countries were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South
Africa, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States of America.
Other countries joined later on. The main aims of the Antarctica Treaty is to make sure that countries only use
Antarctica for peaceful purposes and no military bases are set up.
Another organisation which was specially established to look after Antarctica was the Convention on the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) which was created in 1982 to make sure that
Antarctica's marine life is protected and over-exploitation does not happen. Over-exploitation is when some
animals are hunted to the point where they become endangered.
Other environmental organisations which have been looking after Antarctica include Sea Shepherd, and
Greenpeace.
FOCUS AREA 3: More rules were set up to protect Antarctica,
such as ‘No dogs’ due to it’s medical threat of
seals. This rule has been enforced as there are
no dogs or domestic animals in Antartica.
http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/threats_tourism.php
http://www.coolantarctica.com/schools/lesson_plans/project-fact-file.php
Under protected areas; No vehicles,
were environment may be easily
damaged, limitations to annual visitors,
or no tourists allowed at all times
Limitations to larger ships, and dither more so,
limitations to the quantity of visitors have been put
in place, to make sure larger crowds of people will
not disturb the fauna as well as smaller groups to
manage protocol with and less environmental
destruction.
However tourists, and more scientists/
environmentalists is also a positive aspect
to make sure Antarctica is a sustainable
continent, as more environmental
awareness has been spread globally, which
also helps reduce global pollution and
warming, thus protecting Antartica from
these environmental damagers.
12 countries originally signed a treaty to protect
Antarctica peacefully; Argentina, Australia,
Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand,
Norway, South Africa, Russia, the United
Kingdom and the United States of America.
More countries since then have also joined
The Conservation of Antartica Marine Living
Resources, or CCAMLR is in place to make sure
marine over-exploration does not occur, as well as
Sea Shepherd and Greenpeace supporting.

1. Ukraine.
2. USA. (4 stations)
3. Uruguay.
4. Argentina. (6 stations)
5. Russia. (4 stations)
6. Chile. (4 stations)
7. India. (2 stations)
8. Australia. (3 stattions)
9. Brazil.
10. France. (2 stations)
11. Italy (share one with France).
12. Japan. (2 stations)
13. China. (2 stations)
14. UK. (2 dtations)
15. Poland.
16. South Korea.
17. Germany. (2 stations)
18. Pakistan.
19. Belgium.
20. South Africa.
21. Bulgaria.
22. New Zealand.
23. Norway.
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS) was initiated in response to concerns that the
sealing industry could be re-opened after some exploratory research to investigate the viability of sealing in the
1960s.
Declining catches motivated international attempts to regulate whaling and led to the establishment of the
International Whaling Commission (IWC) which first met in 1949. The seal populations of Macquarie Island
have been protected by the island’s status as a wildlife sanctuary since 1933. The seals of Australia’s
subantarctic islands were further protected in 1997 when both Macquarie and the Heard and McDonald Islands
were added to the World Heritage list. The exploited seal populations of the Southern Ocean have in recent years
recovered very substantially and are no longer endangered.
Declining catches motivated international attempts to regulate whaling and led to the establishment of the
International Whaling Commission (IWC) which first met in 1949… …Since the moratorium was initiated,
whaling has been limited to one or two countries that harvest whales under the ‘scientific whaling’ provisions set
by the IWC. There are some indications that whale populations are beginning to recover but such long-lived
species with low reproductive rates are incapable of rebuilding their numbers in just a few years.
FOCUS AREA 3:
There are 11 extra countries
participating in the Antarctic treaty
from the original 12, making a united
23 which are Ukraine, Uruguay, India,
Brazil, Italy, Poland, South Korea,
Germany, Pakistan, Belgium, South
Africa and Bulgaria
http://www.funtrivia.com/askft/Question124480.html
http://www.antarctica.gov.au/environment/human-impacts-in-
antarctica
http://www.antarctica.gov.au/environment/human-impacts-in-
antarctica
12 countries originally signed a treaty
to protect Antarctica peacefully;
Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile,
France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway,
South Africa, Russia, the United
Kingdom and the United States of
America.
In addition to CCAMLR, the
Convention of the Conservation of
Antarctic Seals CCAS was established
to protect seals, recovering their
population rates, as well as IWC,
International Whaling Commission to
protect whale populations, that are
too, recovering.

Overall there is always more to be done to protect Antarctica.
The positive impacts societies like CCAMLR, IWC, CCAS,
Greenpeace, Sea Shepard and the Globally Untied treaty of the
Madrid Protocol are helping populations of wildlife growth as
well as protection on the environment are important and useful
organisations to have. Although, more economic and physical aid
from more countries is still much needed. There is a lot of clean
up still to be done from the previous age of destruction as well as
the need for global participation in reducing chemical gasses and
global warming. On a larger scale, if more awareness was spread
to the world, without too many tourists affecting Antartica’s
environment, and every nation contributing to a greener future,
the warming and contamination of sea waters will protect
marine, land life of both ﬂora and fauna, as well as preserving
ice, and decreasing the risk of rising sea levels.
TASK 3: SUMMARY

Which two sources of information were the most helpful and give reason why?
My two most useful and recently used sources were http://www.coolantarctica.com and http://
www.antarctica.gov.au. Both websites provided much information that answered the focus questions
in a way I can understand and easily annotate. The language used was both understandable, factual
and reliably correct, as I checked other sources as well to make sure. Both web pages also has many
links to additional pages with specific information, that made gathering easier as well
Which type of sources did you not use – give a clear reason.
Sources I did not use were unreliable websites like yahoo answers and social media. These websites
are typically biased, opinionated and non-factually backed up information, useless and not reliable to
this project. I also never used sites that did not agree with ever other statement from other websites.
By checking information from other sources, I made sure what was correct by common reassuring
standard.
Were there some sources which showed bias?
From my two most commonly used, reliable and most help websites, no, I did not find any
information biased. There were many positive and negative view points for each focus question.
Although, if analysed to intricate detail, readers may find information found may be slightly leaning
to a ‘negative effect’ biased side. This may just be however, the raw facts that Earth’s situation is not
perfect, and there is a lot of room for improvement.
TASK 4:

Did you find the process of annotation easy or difficult? Why?
The annotation at the start was mildly difficult. Processing what exactly to research,
and what was relevant information to answer the focus question in the beginning
was no simple task, but as the project went on it became more and more easier.
Altogether though, annotating and understanding the next was relatively easy, but
yet a good challenge and educative way to learn about Antarctica.
Did the example of the annotated work help with the annotation process.
I honestly did not view the example because I did not need to at the start. In the
previous year, I had already done a project similar to this, and was already familiar
with the functions of an annotation process. I did, however look over the example
to make sure I had been doing everything correctly.
Would you change your approach to researching and collecting info.? How?
I wouldn’t have personally changed how I researched. Perhaps checking more
websites, however, I did not need to as I had the required amount of variety, as well
as the information researched had already covered the focus question.
TASK 4:

END
By Katrina Young 10MCL 10SOST

Antartica Assessment

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