This document is a thesis submitted by Annabel Myers examining predictors of college adjustment in students with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The thesis summarizes previous research showing that ADHD symptoms, particularly inattentiveness, are related to poorer academic adjustment, lower GPAs, and difficulty completing college. It also discusses how personality characteristics like neuroticism and conscientiousness, as well as stress, may impact college adjustment. The current study assessed these relationships and whether they can predict academic adjustment, social adjustment, and GPA in college students with ADHD.
Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd)Joy Maria Mitchell
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder. ADHD is the commonly studied and
diagnosed as psychiatric disorder. Here we shall see the relation between extraversion and ADHD, neuroticism,
biological relation, Environmental factors and with diagnosis of ADHD. It is known that Genetics is one of the factors
that may contribute to, or exacerbate ADHD. Recent research probing towards the environmental and Genetic factors
causing ADHD differences is the main source for investigation
Personality Factors as Related to Stresses among Parents of Mentally Sub-Norm...inventionjournals
The purpose of the present investigation was to study personality factors as related to stresses
among parents of mentally sub-normal children. To measure the level of stress 30 item stress factor scale based
on (Olley, Brieger and Olley, 1997) and for measuring personality, 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire Hindi
adaptation by S.D.Kapoor (1970) was administered to 150 parents of mentally sub-normal children. Subjects
were in the age range of 35 to 55 years and were residents of the city of Meerut. The high and low scorer on
different factors of 16 PF were compared in respect of their stress level in 6 areas namely, hospital factors,
disease factors, financial factors, familial factors, psychological factors. Result indicates that out of 16
personality factors 7 factors A, B, E, F, H, O and Q4 were found to be significant in contributing to stress level
of the respondents. However a majority of personality factors like C,G,I,L,M,N,Q1, Q2 and Q3 were found to be
insignificant in corroborating the stress level of the subject.
ADHD is becoming much prevalent in childhood and adolescent , comorbidities like learning disability, anxiety, depression, autism spectrum disorder and tourette syndrome . Regarding the treatment we have to put in mind the comorbid disorder . Amphetamine Methylphenidate, Atomoxetine and behavioral treatment are considered of value in treating ADHD and comorbidities , ,
Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd)Joy Maria Mitchell
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder. ADHD is the commonly studied and
diagnosed as psychiatric disorder. Here we shall see the relation between extraversion and ADHD, neuroticism,
biological relation, Environmental factors and with diagnosis of ADHD. It is known that Genetics is one of the factors
that may contribute to, or exacerbate ADHD. Recent research probing towards the environmental and Genetic factors
causing ADHD differences is the main source for investigation
Personality Factors as Related to Stresses among Parents of Mentally Sub-Norm...inventionjournals
The purpose of the present investigation was to study personality factors as related to stresses
among parents of mentally sub-normal children. To measure the level of stress 30 item stress factor scale based
on (Olley, Brieger and Olley, 1997) and for measuring personality, 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire Hindi
adaptation by S.D.Kapoor (1970) was administered to 150 parents of mentally sub-normal children. Subjects
were in the age range of 35 to 55 years and were residents of the city of Meerut. The high and low scorer on
different factors of 16 PF were compared in respect of their stress level in 6 areas namely, hospital factors,
disease factors, financial factors, familial factors, psychological factors. Result indicates that out of 16
personality factors 7 factors A, B, E, F, H, O and Q4 were found to be significant in contributing to stress level
of the respondents. However a majority of personality factors like C,G,I,L,M,N,Q1, Q2 and Q3 were found to be
insignificant in corroborating the stress level of the subject.
ADHD is becoming much prevalent in childhood and adolescent , comorbidities like learning disability, anxiety, depression, autism spectrum disorder and tourette syndrome . Regarding the treatment we have to put in mind the comorbid disorder . Amphetamine Methylphenidate, Atomoxetine and behavioral treatment are considered of value in treating ADHD and comorbidities , ,
A RESEARCH ON EFFECT OF STRESS AMONG KMPh STUDENTS Natrah Abd Rahman
Stress is the feeling that is created when we react to particular events. It can make you feel threatened or upset. It is a combination of psychological, physiological and behavioral reactions that people have in response to events that threaten or challenge them.
Dissertation Prospectus
How Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and post- traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) contribute to learning disability?
Andre C. Justice
11/11/2016
Argosy University
PSY 492
Introduction
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (also Hyperkinetic Disorder in the UK) is a complex mental health condition that is associated with hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention and is diagnosed in childhood, but can persist into adolescence through to adulthood. On the other hand, Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that is triggered by horror or terror through experience or witness of a traumatic event. It is usually synonymous with flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety, coupled with unmanageable thoughts about the same incident.
Mental disorders such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and their effects on learning have been subjects of discussion over the periods. The underlying mechanisms of how they add to learning disabilities are one question that has brought about mixed reactions among the mental health professionals. Further questions as to whether they are neurological or psychological disorders have also been raised (Mason-Allgood, 2005). However, the answers are still debatable.
Background of the study
Education remains one of the greatest anchors of success in the world. It provides the keys to career opportunities to school going children as well as enlightening the generations. A vast majority of successful people owe it to education. Parents are therefore obliged to ensure that their children get the from the education sector in the best environment possible.
Our societies are prone to preventable disasters that frequently occur. The calamities range from parental conflicts, robbery, fatal road accidents, the demise of loved ones to national disasters such as terrorism and civil wars. These disasters have far-reaching effects on children, going beyond the physical into their mental orientation (Smith, 2010). Some of the children end up in trauma and stress by such events. Many of the bottlenecks that we have in our schools are evidence of ADHD (Tiah, 2013). The stress and trauma are substantially reflected in the manner of the decline in the children’s class performance, being linked closely to these disasters. For instance, a study revealed a young child with difficulties going to sleep, experienced a decline in concentration both at home and school. The study further showed that each time he hears a siren he raises the window shouting “Cops are coming! Cops are coming” (Thomas, 1996 p. 311). This steps up the need to put more emphasis on neurological and psychological examination.
Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
There are very many diagnoses which contain many variables which impact behavior and particularly the attention of a child. The Association of Higher Education and Disability (.
1Mission and Vision StatementAlexis HeardSP22 PrAnastaciaShadelb
1
Mission and Vision Statement
Alexis Heard
SP22 Program Design in Kinesiology
Dr. G. Palevo
Columbus State University
Feb 24, 2021
Mission and Vision Statement
Mission statement
The mission of the College Student Mental Health program is to assist, train, and give services to college students who are dealing with psychological health issues. This can be done by offering a secure space for individuals coping with mental wellness issues as college students and their psychological illnesses needs to express their concerns and get help. Mental health difficulties can affect a student’s way of learning and the success rate of passing a class. The Student Mental Health program aims to connect students with services that will assist students in leading higher productive lives. We operate as the college's central hub for psychological health, providing mental health counseling as well as well teaching and programming to learners. Our products are sensitive to cultural differences, cutting-edge, and research-based.
Objective
· Creating a well-being environment at college by concentrating on mental health assistance, health promotion, and well-being activities and programs is the objective.
· To help encourage cooperation in the establishment of mental wellness services and to encourage self-help activities in college.
Goals
· To collaborate with the administration, institutions, and other participants to facilitate improved psychological health and wellness all through campus, focusing on a rehabilitation and peer group participation philosophy.
· To create effective and reliable student-managed mental health institutions within the campus, as well as to advocate the worth and results of peer mental health facilities.
· As in secure, hygienic, courteous, and therapeutic care settings, offer psychological, educational, and problem managing assistance.
Greater degrees of well-being are associated with increased rates of engagement, productivity, and satisfaction, as well as better academic performance, reduced absences, and a decreased incidence of serious health concerns.
1
3
Mental Health in college students
Alexis Heard
Program Design in Kinesiology
Dr. G. Palevo
Columbus State University
February 9, 2022
Mental Health in College Students
Mental health is a serious public health issue that impacts society at large. It includes mental conditions, depression, anxiety, and physical symptoms such as insomnia, fatigue, headaches, and back pain. When compared to other people, college students are routinely found to experience high rates of mental distress. For example, compared with the rest population, Australian medical students exhibited much higher levels of psychological distress. According to studies, mental anguish is more common among college students in Asian and Sub-Saharan African countries. According to Mboya et al. (2020), the largest incidence reported was 71.9 percent among medical students at Jizan Higher education in ...
EMOTIONAL REGULATION AND COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AS PREDICTORS OF MATERNAL ACCE...indexPub
Raising a child with autism poses distinct challenges for parents. Maternal acceptance of the diagnosis and associated behaviors promotes positive family adaptation. This study aimed to examine emotional regulation and cognitive flexibility as intrapsychic predictors of maternal acceptance among Saudi mothers of autistic children. A sample of 50 mothers completed self-report measures of emotional regulation, cognitive flexibility, and acceptance. Correlation analysis found significant positive associations between emotional regulation, cognitive flexibility, and acceptance. Regression analysis indicated both emotional regulation and cognitive flexibility as significant positive predictors of maternal acceptance, with emotional regulation evidencing a stronger relationship. These results empirically validate theorized links between coping capacities and acceptance that have previously been established primarily through qualitative research. Findings also extend the predominantly Western literature by demonstrating relevance within a novel Saudi cultural context. This research provides guidance for designing psychosocial interventions to assist families managing autism globally. Targeting parental emotional regulation and flexible thinking may improve acceptance and adaptation across cultures.
Introduction
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (also Hyperkinetic Disorder in the UK) is a complex mental health condition that is associated with hyperactivity,
impulsivity,
and inattention and is diagnosed in childhood, but can
persist
into adolescence through to adulthood. On the other
hand,
Post-traumatic stress disorder
(
PTSD
) is a mental health condition that is triggered by horror or terror through experience or witness of a traumatic event. It is usually synonymous with flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety, coupled with unmanageable thoughts about the same
incident
.
Mental disorders such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and their effects on learning have been subjects of discussion over the periods. The underlying mechanisms of how they add to learning disabilities are one question that has brought about mixed reactions among the mental health professionals. Further questions as to whether they are neurological or psychological disorders have also
been raised
(Mason-Allgood, 2005).
However,
the answers are still
debatable.
Background of the study
Education remains one of the greatest anchors of success in the world. It provides the keys to career opportunities to school going children as well as enlightening the generations. A
vast
majority of successful people owe it to education. Parents are therefore obliged to ensure that their children get the from the
education
sector in the best environment possible.
Our societies are prone to preventable disasters that frequently occur. The calamities range from parental conflicts, robbery, fatal road accidents, the
demise
of loved ones to national disasters such as terrorism and civil wars. These disasters have
far-reaching
effects on children, going beyond the physical into their mental orientation (Smith, 2010). Some of the children end up in trauma and stress by such events. Many of the bottlenecks that we have in our schools are evidence of ADHD (Tiah, 2013). The stress and trauma are
substantially
reflected in the manner of the decline in the children’s class performance, being linked closely to these disasters. For instance, a study revealed a young child with difficulties going to sleep, experienced a decline in concentration both at home and school. The study further
showed
that each time he hears a siren he raises the window shouting “Cops are coming! Cops are coming” (Thomas, 1996 p. 311).
This steps
up the need to put more emphasis on neurological and psychological examination.
Conceptual/Theoretical
Framework
There are very many diagnoses which contain many variables which impact behavior and particularly the attention of a child. The Association of Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) recently, implemented a theoretical framework that significantly reviews its guidance for accommodating persons with disability in the higher learning set up (Brock, 2012).
This is
...
School Effects on Psychological Outcomes During Adolescence.docxWilheminaRossi174
School Effects on Psychological Outcomes During Adolescence
Eric M. Anderman
University of Kentucky
Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health were used to examine school-level
differences in the relations between school belonging and various outcomes. In Study 1, predictors of
belonging were examined. Results indicated that belonging was lower in urban schools than in suburban
schools, and lower in schools that used busing practices than those that did not. In Study 2, the relations
between belonging and psychological outcomes were examined. The relations varied depending on the
unit of analysis (individual vs. aggregated measures of belonging). Whereas individual students’
perceptions of belonging were inversely related to depression, social rejection, and school problems,
aggregated belonging was related to greater reports of social rejection and school problems and to higher
grade point average.
Research on school-level differences during adolescence often
has focused on nonpsychological outcomes, such as academic
achievement and behavioral issues, instead of on psychological
outcomes (Roeser, 1998). Indeed, research on school-level differ-
ences in nonacademic variables is quite rare. The purpose of the
present research was to examine school-level differences in a
variety of psychological outcomes, using a large nationally repre-
sentative sample of adolescents.
School Effects on Student Outcomes
Although there is an abundant literature on effective schools,
most of the research in this literature has focused on academic
variables, such as achievement, dropping out, and grade point
average (GPA; e.g., Edmonds, 1979; Miller, 1985; Murphy, Weil,
Hallinger, & Mitman, 1985). This literature generally indicates
that schools that are academically effective have certain recogniz-
able characteristics.
Some of these studies have examined differences between pub-
lic schools and other types of schools. For example, some research
indicates that students who attend public schools achieve more
academically than do students who attend other types of schools
(e.g., Coleman & Hoffer, 1987). Other research suggests that there
may be a benefit in terms of academic achievement for students
who attend Catholic schools compared with non-Catholic schools
(Bryk, Lee, & Holland, 1993). Lee and her colleagues (Lee,
Chow-Hoy, Burkam, Geverdt, & Smerdon, 1998) found that stu-
dents who attended private schools took more advanced math
courses than did students who attended public schools. However,
they also found specific benefits for Catholic schools: Specifically,
in Catholic schools, there was greater school influence on the
courses that students took, and the social distribution of course
enrollment was found to be particularly equitable.
In recent years, psychologists have started to become interested
in the effects of schooling on mental health outcomes (e.g., Boe-
kaerts, 1993; Cowen, 1991; Roeser, Eccles, & Strobel, 1998;
Rutter,.
Creating a Needs AssessmentIn this assignment, create a needs CruzIbarra161
Creating a Needs Assessment
In this assignment, create a needs assessment outline that describes and documents the health status issue that your project will address and the target population it will serve. The purpose of the needs assessment is to help reviewers understand the community and/or organization (i.e., the population) that will be served by your proposed project.
The needs assessment document should describe the need for the project in the proposed locale and include baseline data on the prevalence and demographic characteristics of the targeted population as well as supporting racial/ethnic data. The document should provide a description of the prevalence of health indicators (e.g., overweight, obesity) in the proposed geographic area. It should describe the current availability of preventive health services that address the health issue in the targeted group. In addition, discuss any relevant barriers in the service area that your project hopes to overcome. You should also describe gaps in the current provision of services as well as gaps in knowledge and the capacity of health care providers and key public/private community agencies to adequately screen, routinely assess, effectively intervene, and/or coordinate their efforts within a comprehensive network of preventive health services.
Here is a suggested structure for your needs assessment outline. It should be between 3 and 5 pages in length.
I. Health Status
a. Introduce the health issue
b. How does the health issue affect the target population?
II. Community Description
a. Describe the setting, which might include national, state, local, or campus
information depending on the program scope
III. Needs Assessment
a. Qualitative assessment
b. Quantitative assessment
IV. Community Link
a. What is currently being offered to the specific population?
b. Will the proposed program be complementary, competing, or new to the area?
1
3
Mental Health in college students
Alexis Heard
Program Design in Kinesiology
Dr. G. Palevo
Columbus State University
February 9, 2022
Mental Health in College Students
Mental health is a serious public health issue that impacts society at large. It includes mental conditions, depression, anxiety, and physical symptoms such as insomnia, fatigue, headaches, and back pain. When compared to other people, college students are routinely found to experience high rates of mental distress. For example, compared with the rest population, Australian medical students exhibited much higher levels of psychological distress. According to studies, mental anguish is more common among college students in Asian and Sub-Saharan African countries. According to Mboya et al. (2020), the largest incidence reported was 71.9 percent among medical students at Jizan Higher education institution in Saudi Arabia, almost identical to the percentage observ ...
Contents lists available at ScienceDirectResearch in AutisAlleneMcclendon878
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rasd
Self-reported emotion regulation in children with autism spectrum
disorder, without intellectual disability
Talia Burtona,*, Belinda Ratcliffea,b, James Collisona, David Dossetorb,
Michelle Wongb
a School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University, Bankstown Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
b Department of Psychological Medicine, The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Locked Bag 4001, Westmead, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O
Number of reviews completed is 2
Keywords:
Autism spectrum disorder
Emotion regulation
Social skills
Mental health
Autism severity
A B S T R A C T
Background: Emotion regulation (ER) may be a critical underlying factor contributing to mental
health disorders in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Scant literature has utilised
self-reported ER in children with ASD and explored the association between mental health and
social skills. This study explored the association between self-reported ER skills, and parent/
teacher proxy reports of ER, social skills, autism severity and mental health.
Method: The pre-existing data set included a community sample of 217 students aged seven to
13-years (Mage = 9.51, SD = 1.26; 195 Male, 22 Female) with ASD. The study employed a
correlational design, whereby existing variables were explored as they occurred naturally (Hills,
2011). Children self-rated ER, while parents and teachers rated ER, social skills, and mental
health difficulties via standardised questionnaires.
Results: Multiple regression analyses were conducted separately for parent and teacher reports.
The linear combination of parent-reported emotion regulation, social skills, autism severity, and
child-reported ER accounted for 46.5 % of the variance, compared to 58.7 % for the teacher-
report analysis. Social skills appeared to be a stronger predictor of mental difficulties than
emotional regulation irrespective of source.
Conclusions: The current study suggests self-reported ER to be a significant contributor to mental
health when in isolation. However, in the context of social skills and autism severity, ER is no
longer a significant contributor in a child and adolescent community sample, in determining
mental health. This suggests, that for children aged seven to 13-years with ASD, without ID, to
reduce mental health difficulties, social skills may be the focus of intervention, with some focus
on ER ability.
1. Introduction
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by difficulties in two core domains; social-
communication and restricted/ repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests or activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Compared to their typically developing (TD) peers, children with ASD have difficulties in social-emotional reciprocity, non-verbal
social-communicativ ...
Depression among College and University Students of India and Lesotho.pdfAbraham Mutluri
This study was conducted in two countries i.e. India and Lesotho to understand the depression levels among the colleges’
students. As we know depression as a common and serious medical illness that negatively affects the feelings,
thinking and actions of humans. Depression is affecting many students at colleges and universities. It is observed in
the review of literature 30 per cent of the students are experienced depression during their education. The aim of the
present study is to know about the prevalence, major reasons, and major characteristics of depression among student
youth. It is a quantitative study adopted convenience sampling method and collected the data from 220 students. This
study adopted the Beck’s Depression Inventory scale to understand the depression among young students. This
study found that out of 220 students, 42.7% is normal while the remaining 57.3 % is having the other levels of
depression (Mild mood disturbance (16.2%), Borderline clinical depression (8.2%), Moderate depression (23.6%),
severe depression (6.4%) and Extreme depression (2.3%).) The study observed that the coping strength is getting from
religious activities (42.7%), positive re framing (21.4%), support from peers (20.0%). Others like humor (13.6%),
participating in sports (12.7%), and seeking emotional help are also helping the individuals to come out from their
depression and do their regular social functioning. The study suggested that the students should ventilate their
thoughts, fears with trusted people like family members, friends and teachers. The universities and the colleges should
conduct the yoga and meditation camps occasionally which provide the healthy and happy life.
A Descriptive Study to Assess the Level of Knowledge and Attitude Regarding A...ijtsrd
ADHD attention deficit hyperactive disorder is a condition of the brain that makes it difficult for children to control their behavior .It is one of the most common chronic conditions of childhood. It affects 4 12 of school aged children about 3 times more boys than girls are diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactive disorder. ADHD attention deficit hyperactive disorder is a disorder make by an ongoing pattern of inattention and hyperactivity impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development. In this study a descriptive research design was used to assess the level of knowledge and attitude regarding attention deficit hyperactive disorder among 3rd year nursing students in a selected college of nursing in Lucknow with a view to develop an information booklet. Study result revealed that the majority of the subjects had good knowledge i.e. 50 , 30 of the subjects had average knowledge and 20 had poor knowledge regarding ADHD. Majority of the subjects 28 70 belong to the age group of 19 21 years, followed by 12 30 of the student belong to the age group of 22 24 year. In this study 5 12.50 were male and remaining 35 87.50 were female. The mean of knowledge score is 11.4 with SD 3.20415.The chi square test depict that education status of father and gender is associated with knowledge score, else no demographic variable shows any significant association with their demographic variable. In attitude score majority of the student 65 belong to the attitude score 21 40 had average attitude, 30 student belong to the attitude score 41 50 had good attitude and 5 student belong to the attitude score 1 20 had poor attitude regarding ADHD.The study results conclude that majority of the student has good knowledge and average attitude regarding ADHD. This study shows that there is a significant association between the level of knowledge with their demographic variables i.e. gender and father education .In attitude score there is a significant association between the level of knowledge and gender and age of 3rd year nursing student and there is no significant association between other demographic variables. Hence the curriculum needs to include behavior therapy for the health benefit of the students. The benefits of this study are that, by participating in the study, the students become aware of their existing knowledge and attitude regarding ADHD. Rajesh Singh | Adarsh Yadav | Basanti Kumari | Jyoti Patel | Khushi Verma | Rupal Gautam "A Descriptive Study to Assess the Level of Knowledge and Attitude Regarding Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd46482.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/nursing/46482/a-descriptive-study-to-assess-the-level-of-knowledge-and-attitude-regarding-attention-deficit-hyperactive-disorder-adhd/rajesh-singh
1. Predictors of College Adjustment in Students with
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
by
Annabel Myers
Submitted to the Board of Study of Psychology
School of Natural and Social Sciences
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Bachelor of Arts
Purchase College
State University of New York
December 2015
Sponsor: Dr. Suzanne Clerkin
Second Reader: Dr. Lynn Winters
2. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 2
Acknowledgments
Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor, Professor Clerkin, for her
continuous support, motivation, patience, and knowledge in research. I am so thankful for
her guidance that has helped me throughout the entire research process. I would also like
to thank Professor Winters for her insightful feedback, and the rest of the psychology
board of study for continuing to strengthen my interest in psychology. I thank my fellow
lab mate, Aida Mejia, for helping with the recruitment process and data collection.
Lastly, I would like to thank my family and friends for always driving me to do my best.
3. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 3
Abstract
The present study assessed the relationships between stress, personality characteristics of
neuroticism and conscientiousness, and ADHD symptomatology in college students, and
to what extent these factors could predict academic adjustment, social adjustment, and
GPA. A total of 28 students completed questionnaires examining ADHD symptoms,
stress, personality, and academic and social adjustment to college. Analyses indicated
that higher levels of ADHD symptoms were significantly related to high levels of stress
and neuroticism, and low levels of academic adjustment, social adjustment and
conscientiousness. Regression analyses revealed that academic adjustment was predicted
by all of the variables of interest, social adjustment was predicted by ADHD symptoms,
and GPA was not significantly predicted by any of the variables of interest. These results
suggest that adjusting to academic demands may be the most difficult aspect of college
adjustment for students with ADHD, and should be the focus of future interventions.
4. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 4
Predictors of College Adjustment in Students with
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder
characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). About 5% of school children are diagnosed with ADHD.
Out of these individuals, 30% to 70% have persistent symptoms in adulthood (Barkley,
Fischer, Edelbrock, & Smallish, 1990; Klein & Mannuzza, 1989). Currently, an
increasing number of young adults with ADHD in childhood are seeking a college
education (Farrell, 2003). Approximately 2%-8% of college students in the U.S. report
having symptoms of ADHD, but the prevalence of clinically diagnosed college students
is unknown (Weydant & DuPaul, 2006). When students begin their college career they
face new responsibilities, more independence, less academic structure, and higher
academic demands (Crede & Niehorster, 2012). Symptoms of ADHD, particularly
inattentive symptoms, have been associated with impairment among college students
with ADHD (Weyandt & DuPaul, 2008; Frazier, Youngstrom, Glutting, & Watskins,
2007; Rabiner, Anastopoulos, Costello, Hoyle, & Swartzwelder, 2008). Academic
adjustment and success in college is likely impacted by ADHD symptoms, personality
characteristics, and perceived stress. Identifying the barriers to academic success for
college students with ADHD could potentially lead to improved interventions.
ADHD Symptoms in College Students
Individuals who are diagnosed with ADHD may be categorized as predominantly
inattentive, predominantly hyperactive/impulsive, or combined type, which is
characterized by a significant number of both inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive
5. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 5
symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The inattentive symptoms of
ADHD include difficulty staying organized, difficulty completing a task, becoming easily
distracted, and making careless mistakes; the hyperactive symptoms of ADHD include
difficulty staying still, excessive talking and restlessness, and the impulsive symptoms
include impatience, blurting out comments, and frequently interrupting others. About
62% of a general adult sample was found to have the combined subtype, 31% had the
inattentive-only subtype, and only 7% had the hyperactive/impulsive-only subtype
(Wilens et al., 2009).
During adolescence, hyperactive/impulsive symptoms tend to decline to a greater
degree than inattentive symptoms (Biederman, Mick, & Faraone, 2000. Thus, inattentive
symptoms have been found to predominate and cause more impairment in adults with
ADHD (Wilens et al., 2009), and in college students (Weyandt & DuPaul, 2008),
compared to hyperactive/impulsive symptoms. A growing literature has begun to
document the relationships between the ADHD symptoms of college students and
academic achievement, personality characteristics, and social and academic adjustment to
college.
Academic Adjustment
College students with ADHD symptoms have been found to report more
academic difficulties, significantly lower GPAs, and less confidence about their academic
ability compared to their non-ADHD peers (Frazier et al., 2007). These students with
ADHD were also more susceptible to failure in an academic setting, and were less likely
than their non-ADHD peers to complete a college education.
6. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 6
Heiligenstein, Guenther, Levy, Savino, and Fulwiler (1999) assessed differences
in academic measures such as cumulative GPA, number of enrolled credits, and probation
status, between college students with ADHD and non-ADHD college students. In
addition to more academic difficulties and lower GPAs, the researchers also reported that
students with ADHD were more likely than non-ADHD students to be on academic
probation. Similarly, Norwalk, Norvilitis & Maclean (2009) found that students with a
greater number of inattentive symptoms displayed poorer academic adjustment measured
by the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire (SACQ; Baker & Siryk, 1989).
These students also reported poorer study habits and study skills. However, they did not
find a difference in GPA between ADHD students and non-ADHD students. This may be
due to differences in comorbidities, learning disabilities, and/or medication use between
the samples.
Utilizing both student and parent reports of ADHD symptoms, Frazier et al.
(2007) studied how self-reported symptoms and symptoms reported by parents predicted
academic achievement. College students with ADHD and their parents completed the
College ADHD Response Evaluation (CARE) two months before the first semester, or at
the beginning of the first semester. At the end of the student’s first year, information on
academic status was obtained. Symptoms of inattention, as rated by both students and
parents, predicted academic probation, while hyperactive and impulsive symptoms did
not predict academic probation. This may be due to the decreased influence of
hyperactive/impulsive symptoms with age, or the difficulty of accurately reporting these
symptoms (Frazier et al., 2007). Overall, inattentive symptoms, as rated by students or
7. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 7
parents, seem to be related to academic achievement and study skills to a greater extent
than hyperactive/impulsive symptoms (Frazier et al., 2007; Norwalk et al., 2009).
Overall, the literature supports the idea that college students with symptoms of
ADHD face a higher risk of academic impairment and difficulty keeping up with the
academic demands of college. However, there are a number of weaknesses in the current
literature. Existing studies on students with ADHD excluded those with comorbidities
(Heiligenstein et al., 1999) or did not screen for comorbidities. Excluding those with
comorbidities may decrease the generalizability of the findings, since comorbidities with
ADHD are so prevalent. In the current clinical population of adults with ADHD, 25-50%
display symptoms of comorbidity, most commonly depression and/or anxiety (Fischer et
al., 2007). Some studies also excluded participants taking psychotropic medication
(Heiligenstein et al., 1999), or did not screen for use of psychotropic medication
(Overbey, Snell, & Callis, 2009). About 56% of people with an ADHD diagnosis are
prescribed stimulant ADHD medication (Wilens et al., 2008). Most college students with
ADHD use stimulant medications to treat symptoms, and may take other medication as
well. Also, some studies did not screen for learning disabilities (Norwalk et al., 2009;
Heiligenstein et al., 1999). Having participants with learning disabilities may have
influenced the academic performance of students with and without ADHD.
Social Adjustment
Social adjustment is defined as the degree to which individuals adapt to their new
college setting and integrate themselves into social groups, instead of experiencing
negative relationships, loneliness, or missing family and social networks from home
(Crede & Niehorster, 2012). Having stable relationships in academic, social, and home
8. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 8
environments is extremely important for college adjustment. Social support from faculty
and staff can increase academic adjustment, while support from friends and family will
help facilitate social adjustment to a greater extent (Crede & Niehorster, 2012).
The presence of ADHD symptoms in college students has been found to affect the
maintenance of close relationships as well. Higher levels of ADHD symptoms were
found to be associated with less relationship satisfaction, and greater use of maladaptive
coping strategies in their relationships, such as self-criticism and problem avoidance
(Overbey, Snell, & Callis, 2009). In contrast, Rabiner et al. (2008) found that students
with ADHD did not report more social impairment in their first semester of college
compared to their non-ADHD peers. This may be due to the short duration of time in
their new college setting. Over time, students may feel less social satisfaction and more
issues with social adjustment as negative social experiences occur.
Students with ADHD symptoms have also been found to report lower levels of
social skills and self-esteem compared to their non-ADHD peers with matched age,
gender, and GPA (Shaw-Zirt, Popali-Lehane, Chaplin, & Bergman, 2005). A strong
positive correlation between GPA and academic achievement is often reported
(Heiligenstein et al., 1999; Frazier et al., 2007), but Shaw-Zirt et al. (2005)’s study
suggests that GPA does not always correlate with social adjustment. Although a few
studies have found contrasting results, many studies have found that students with ADHD
struggle with social adjustment, and building relationships (Shaw-Zirt et al., 2005;
Overbey et al., 2009), which may also be affected by personality characteristics and
psychological difficulties.
Personality Characteristics and Academic Achievement
9. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 9
The interplay between ADHD symptoms and personality characteristics may
affect academic achievement in college students with ADHD. Specifically,
conscientiousness and neuroticism are two personality characteristics that are thought to
have a direct impact on the academic achievement of students with ADHD (Rabiner et
al., 2008).
Conscientiousness is shown by behaviors of goal making, motivation, impulse
control, and thoughtfulness, while neuroticism is shown by behaviors that express
emotional instability such as anxiety, worry, and self-consciousness. Conscientiousness is
a key trait for academic success because it is associated with organizational skills and
planning, while neuroticism weakens academic success since it is associated with
instability and impairment (Crede & Niehorster, 2012). Students with more conscientious
traits have been shown to adjust to college more easily than students with more traits of
neuroticism (Crede & Niehorster, 2012). High levels of neuroticism can negatively
impact college adjustment due to the difficulty of adjusting to a new environment and
coping with change.
Adults with ADHD have been found to score significantly higher on a neurotic
personality scale, and significantly lower on a conscientious personality scale (Ranseen,
Campbell & Baer, 1998; Rabiner et al., 2008) compared to their non-ADHD peers.
Levels of inattention are seen as negatively correlated with conscientiousness and
emotional stability, suggesting that individuals with these symptoms will have a harder
time adjusting in both academic and social domains (Rabiner et al., 2008). Therefore,
college students with ADHD may show greater difficulty compared to students without
ADHD, especially when placed in a new academic setting.
10. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 10
Personality characteristics also contribute to social impairment in individuals with
ADHD symptoms, and may affect how these symptoms are manifested (Kern,
Rasmussen, Byrd, & Wittschen, 1997). A more recent study found that ADHD
symptoms were significantly associated with maladaptive personality problems such as
self-control, responsibility, and social concordance measured by the Severity Indices of
Personality Problems (Gudjonsson et al., 2010). Lower self-control, less awareness of
responsibility, and social issues can also relate to neurotic behavior. Students with ADHD
were also found to score lower on social scales such as going along, liked by all, and
softness (Kern et al., 1997), and were described as more confrontational and aggressive.
Thus, students with ADHD may display more independence and rebellion towards
conventions and rules, may be less influenced by corrective feedback, and may be
harsher in social settings. Having low scores on these social scales may negatively affect
social adjustment in a college environment.
Psychological Functioning and Stress
Psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety are extremely common in
adolescents and young adults. Compared to students without an ADHD diagnosis, college
students with ADHD are more at risk for depressive symptoms (Fleming & McMahon,
2012; Norwalk et al., 2009; Rabiner et al., 2008). Students with ADHD are also more at
risk for substance abuse, overall psychological difficulties (Fleming & McMahon, 2012),
and a lower quality of life (Grenwald-Mayes, 2002), compared to students without an
ADHD diagnosis. Researchers have examined how depression, anxiety, and other
psychological disorders may affect college students with ADHD. However, there are very
11. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 11
few studies that have focused on how stress affects the ADHD student population in
particular.
Stress can be defined as feeling overwhelmed or being unable to cope effectively
with events in one's life (Dey, Rahman, Bairagi, & Roy, 2014). Stress has been found to
be strongly and negatively related to overall adjustment to college in the general college
population due to new responsibilities, independence, and new academic and social
demands (Crede & Niehorster, 2012). Therefore, persistent symptoms of ADHD, and the
social and academic impairments common in those with ADHD are likely to be related to
stress. In college students, stress was more strongly related to academic adjustment rather
than social adjustment (Crede & Niehorster, 2012).
Stress is an extremely important factor when assessing academic achievement in
college students because it can hinder a student’s true academic potential. Overbey et al.
(2009) found that scores on the Inventory of College Students Recent Life Experiences
(ICSRLE) that measure stressful life events were positively and significantly correlated
with ADHD symptoms; however, there are very few studies to date that have examined
how stress may affect the academic careers of college students with ADHD. It is
hypothesized that students with ADHD may score higher on a stress scale compared to
students without ADHD. High scores on a stress scale would suggest that students with
ADHD may have a more difficult time dealing with stress, and need to utilize more
coping strategies than their peers.
Current Study
The presence of ADHD symptoms has been found to affect academic
achievement and academic and social adjustment in college students. Personality
12. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 12
characteristics, such as neuroticism and conscientiousness, have also been found to
interfere with and predict college adjustment. The existing studies contribute greatly to
the understanding of college students with ADHD and academic, social, and
psychological impairments. However, the research on ADHD students and stress is
minimal. It is clear that college students dealing with symptoms of ADHD face difficulty
throughout their college careers. The current study examined the extent to which stress,
the personality characteristics of neuroticism and conscientiousness, and symptoms of
inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity predicted academic success and adjustment in
college students with ADHD. It was hypothesized that there would be positive
correlations between ADHD symptoms, stress, and neuroticism as well as negative
correlations between ADHD symptoms, academic and social college adjustment, and
conscientiousness. In addition, we hypothesized that inattentive and
hyperactive/impulsive symptoms of ADHD would predict academic adjustment, social
adjustment, and GPA when stress, anxiety, and depression were controlled for. Although
both inattentive symptoms and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms will be predictors of
academic adjustment, social adjustment, and GPA, inattentive symptoms will be a
stronger predictor.
Method
Participants
Twenty-eight Purchase College students (16 female, 12 male) between the ages of
18 and 26 (M = 20.82 years, SD = 1.91) participated. All participants reported a previous
diagnosis of ADHD from a physician or psychologist. The average age of first diagnosis
was M = 11.85 years, SD = 4.37. Eighty six percent of the participants (n = 24) were
13. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 13
currently taking medication, or have previously taken medication for ADHD. There was a
high rate of comorbidity in our sample. Sixty four percent of the participants had at least
one other mental disorder diagnosis. The primary comorbidities were generalized anxiety
disorder (n = 12) and major depressive disorder (n = 7).
Nineteen participants identified as Caucasian (54.3%), four participants identified
as Latino/Hispanic (11.4%), two participants identified as African American (5.7%), two
participants identified as Other (5.7%), and one participant identified as more than one
race (Caucasian and African American, 2.9%). Five participants were freshman (14.3%),
eight participants were sophomores (22.9%), nine participants were juniors (25.7%), and
six participants were seniors (17.1%).
Procedure and Materials
Participants were recruited through class announcements, flyers posted around
campus, the psychology subject pool, and by posting a picture of the recruitment flier on
the Purchase College Open Forum Facebook page. Participants recruited through the
psychology subject pool received research credit, and all other participants received ten
dollars reimbursement for participation.
Students who expressed interest in participating were scheduled for a private
laboratory appointment. Following the informed consent procedure, participants were
asked to open their Degree Progress Report on a laboratory computer to accurately report
their grade point average. The degree progress report is a live document transcript that
tells you information about credits in progress, credits completed, and GPA. Then, the
participants completed a packet containing the questionnaires listed below. The full
questionnaire packet for the larger study took between 60 and 90 minutes to complete.
14. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 14
The human subjects committee approved the methods of this study, which was part of a
larger study on the influence of stigma, personality, and stress on academic and social
adjustment in college students with ADHD.
Demographics Form. A demographics questionnaire consisted of items regarding
age, gender, race and ethnicity, grade point average, and psychiatric history.
The Connors Adult ADHD Rating Scale- Self-Report: Long Version (CAARS-S:
L; Conners, Erhardt, & Sparrow, 1999) is a 66-item scale measures current symptoms of
ADHD. Scores on the DSM-IV Inattentive Symptoms Index and DSM-IV Hyperactive-
Impulsive Symptoms Index were utilized.
The Wender-Utah Rating Scale (WURS; Ward, Wender, & Reimherr, 1993), is a
61-item Likert scale, was used to provide a retrospective assessment of childhood ADHD
symptoms in adult patients. A subset of twenty-five items associated with an ADHD
diagnosis was rated on a scale from 0 (Not at All or Very Slightly) to 4 (Very Much). A
cutoff score of 46 out of 100 is considered confirmation of clinically significant ADHD
symptoms in childhood.
The Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire (SACQ; Baker & Siryk, 1989)
is a 67-item self-report questionnaire that assesses four domains of adjustment to college:
academic, social, personal-emotional, and institutional attachment. Higher scores on each
of the four subscales indicate greater levels of adjustment. The current study utilized the
academic adjustment and social adjustment subscales. Each subscale on The Student
Adaptation to College Questionnaire has a maximum T-score of above 75.
The Student-Life Stress Inventory (Gadzella, 1991) is a 52-item self-report
inventory that assesses stressors in five domains: frustrations, conflicts, pressures,
15. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 15
changes, and self-imposed stress. The inventory also assesses physiological, emotional,
behavioral, and cognitive reactions to stressors. The current study utilized one total stress
score, which was the combination of the five stressor domains. The stressful experience
subscales of the Student Life Stress Inventory have a maximum score of 115. The
sample’s score of 75.6 indicates substantially high levels of stress.
The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II; Beck, Epstein, Brown, & Steer, 1988) is
a 21-item inventory that measures the presence and severity of depressive symptoms. For
each item, participants were asked to recount how they have been feeling during the past
week on a 4-point Likert scale.
The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI; Beck & Steer, 1993) is a symptom inventory
that measures levels of current anxiety. Participants were given a list of 21 common
symptoms of anxiety, and were asked to recount how much the symptom has bothered
them during the past week on a 4-point Likert scale 0 (Not at All) to 4 (Severely). The
inventory has a maximum score of 63, and scores between 26-63 indicate severe anxiety.
The NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1989) is a 60-item
self-report scale that measures the five major dimensions of adult personality:
neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
with 12 items per domain. The current study utilized scores on the neuroticism and
conscientiousness subscales. The sample’s score of 62.8 indicates a very high level of
neuroticism, and the score of 34.9 indicates a very low level of conscientiousness.
Research Design and Analysis
The current study used a correlational design. First, the relationships between
scores on the BDI (depression), the BAI (anxiety), the NEO (neuroticism and
16. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 16
conscientiousness), the Student Life Stress Inventory (stress), and scores on the CAARS
Inattentive Symptom Index and Hyperactive/Impulsive Symptom Index were examined
using Pearson correlations. Then, three hierarchical regressions were performed to
examine the extent to which personality, stress, and ADHD symptoms predicted the
dependent variables of academic adjustment, social adjustment, and GPA, after
controlling for depression and anxiety. Since depression and anxiety are common in
students with ADHD and can affect academic and social functioning, scores on the BDI
and BAI were entered in the first step of the regression to control for these factors. On the
second step of each regression, scores on neuroticism and conscientiousness were
entered. These personality factors are considered to be relatively stable over time. On the
third step of each regression, scores on the stress inventory were entered to examine if
stress associated with the college environment predicted the dependent variables after
controlling for depression, anxiety, and personality factors. Finally, scores on the
Inattentive and Hyperactive/Impulsive indices of the CAARS were entered in the fourth
step to determine if either cluster of ADHD symptoms predicted our dependent variables
above and beyond the influence of all other factors in our model.
Scores for neuroticism and conscientiousness were missing for one participant.
The regression analyses were run twice: once replacing the values for the missing data
with the means for each personality score, and once excluding the participant from the
analyses. The results of these analyses differed only slightly; therefore, the results
reported include data from all participants with replacement of the missing personality
variables with the mean scores of the sample. Since four first-semester freshmen were
included, there were four missing values for GPA. The analyses were rerun excluding
17. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 17
these participants, and there were only slight differences in the results. The results
reported include data from the entire sample with the missing GPA values replaced with
the mean GPA of the sample.
Results
The means and standard deviations of each scale are shown in Table 1. The mean
scores on these scales support our hypotheses about college students with ADHD.
Notably, the current sample had a mean CAARS inattentive index score in the clinically
significant range (M = 69.8, SD = 14.4), but the mean score for hyperactive/impulsive
index was not in the clinically significant range (M = 59.8, SD = 13.6). The sample
reported a mean score on the Wender Utah scale that was indicative of clinically
significant childhood symptoms (M = 51.8, SD = 17.5).
Table 2 shows the results of the Pearson correlation analyses. Almost all of the
variables of interest were significantly correlated with each other. Supporting our first
hypothesis, stress was positively correlated with inattentive (r = .63, p < .01) and
hyperactive/impulsive symptoms (r = .47, p < .05). Neuroticism was also positively
correlated with inattentive (r = .76, p < .01), and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms (r =
.60, p < .01). Further supporting our first hypothesis, conscientiousness was negatively
correlated with inattentive (r = -.74, p < .01), and hyperactive symptoms (r = -.41, p <
.01). Academic adjustment was also negatively correlated with inattentive (r = -.72, p <
.01), and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms (r -.72, p < .01). Contrary to our hypothesis
and past research, symptoms of inattention had a significant positive correlation with
GPA (r = .41, p < .05). Compared to hyperactive/impulsive symptoms, inattentive
symptoms seemed to have more significant relationships with stress, neuroticism, and
18. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 18
conscientiousness. However, academic adjustment had equally strong correlations with
both inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms.
Table 3 is a summary of the regression analysis results with beta and p-values.
The hierarchical multiple regression predicting academic adjustment revealed that at the
first step, depression and anxiety accounted for 55% of the variance in academic
adjustment, F (2,25) = 15.25, p < .01. Depression was a significant predictor of academic
adjustment, while anxiety was not. Higher scores on the BDI predicted lower scores on
the academic adjustment subscale. Introducing the personality characteristics of
neuroticism and conscientiousness explained an additional 14.4% of variance in
academic adjustment, and this ∆R² was significant, F (2,23) = 5.39, p < .01. Both
neuroticism and stress were significant predictors of academic adjustment. Low levels of
neuroticism and high levels of conscientiousness predicted greater academic adjustment.
Adding stress to the regression model explained an additional 7.6% of the variance in
academic adjustment, and this change in R² was significant, F (1,22) = 7.24, p < .01.
Stress was positively related to academic adjustment. Finally, the addition of inattentive
and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms to the regression model explained an additional
3.79% of the variance in academic adjustment, and this ∆R² square was also significant,
F (2,20) = 3.78, p < .05. When all independent variables were included in stage four of
the regression model, they accounted for 77.4% of the variance in academic adjustment.
The hierarchical multiple regression predicting social adjustment revealed that
entering depression and anxiety in the first step accounted for 49.3% of the variance in
social adjustment, F (2,25) = 12.15, p < .001. Anxiety was a significant predictor, while
depression was not. Entering the personality characteristics of neuroticism and
19. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 19
conscientiousness only explained an additional 1.1% of variance in social adjustment,
and this ∆R² was not significant, F (2,23) = .25, p = .78. Adding stress to the regression
model on the third step only explained an additional .70% of the variance in social
adjustment, and this ∆R² was also not significant, F (1,22) = .33, p = .57. Stress was not
positively related to social adjustment. Finally, the addition of inattentive and
hyperactive/impulsive symptoms to the regression model explained an additional 14.8%
of the variance in social adjustment, and this ∆R² square was significant, F (2,20) = 4.33,
p = .03. When all independent variables were included in stage four of the regression
model, they accounted for 65.9% of the variance in social adjustment. Only anxiety,
inattentive symptoms and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms significantly predicted social
adjustment.
For the hierarchical multiple regression predicting GPA, adding depression and
anxiety in the first step accounted for 10% of the variance in GPA, and did not contribute
significantly to the regression model, F (2,25) = 1.38, p = .27. No relationships were
found between levels of depression, anxiety, and GPA. Introducing the personality
characteristics of neuroticism and conscientiousness explained an additional 5.6% of
variance in GPA, and this ∆R² was not significant, F (2,23) = .76, p = .48. Neither
neuroticism nor conscientiousness were significant predictors of GPA. Adding stress to
the regression model explained an additional 1.9% of the variance in GPA, but this ∆R²
was also not significant, F (1,22) = .51, p = .48. Stress was not predictive of GPA.
Finally, the addition of inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms to the regression
model explained an additional 4% of the variance in GPA, and this final ∆R² square was
also not significant, F (2,20) = .51, p = .61. When all independent variables were
20. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 20
included in the model, they accounted for 21.5% of the variance in GPA. GPA was not
significantly predicted by depression, anxiety, personality, stress or inattentive and
hyperactive/impulsive symptoms.
Discussion
The present study examined the relationships between inattentive and
hyperactive/impulsive symptoms, stress, personality, academic achievement and
academic and social adjustment to college in students with ADHD. Specifically, these
factors included experience with stressors, neuroticism, conscientiousness, academic
adjustment, social adjustment, and GPA. This study expanded on prior research of
college students with ADHD by examining the specific effects of stress and personality
on their adjustment.
It was predicted that there would be positive relationships between ADHD
symptoms, stress, and neuroticism as well as negative relationships between ADHD
symptoms, academic and social college adjustment, and conscientiousness. Supporting
the first hypothesis, significant positive relationships were found between inattentive and
hyperactive/impulsive symptoms, stress, and neuroticism, and significant negative
relationships were found between inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms,
academic adjustment, social adjustment, and conscientiousness. These results are not
surprising, since students with ADHD have been found to report greater academic
difficulties, poorer study habits, lower GPAs (Frazier et al., 2007), lower levels of social
skills and self-esteem (Shaw-Zirt et al., 2005), high levels of neuroticism, and low levels
of conscientiousness (Ranseen et al., 1998; Rabiner et al., 2008). Contrary to the findings
of Frazier et al. (2007), neither inattentive nor hyperactive/impulsive symptoms were
21. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 21
negatively related to GPA. In fact, there was a positive correlation between inattentive
symptoms and GPA. This result suggests that there may be an outside factor that is
mediating the relationship between GPA and inattention in our sample, such as the use of
stimulant medication.
The results from our hierarchical models show that academic adjustment was
predicted by all of our variables of interest: stress, personality, and symptoms of ADHD.
Although conscientiousness and neuroticism are thought to have a direct impact on
academic achievement (Rabiner et al., 2008) and social relationships (Gudjonsson et al.,
2010; Kern et al., 1997), our results showed that they did not significantly predict GPA or
social adjustment. Stress also did not significantly predict GPA or social adjustment. This
also supports Crede & Niehorster (2012)’s report that stress is more strongly related to
academic adjustment rather than social adjustment. These findings partially support the
second hypothesis, and suggest that academic adjustment might be the area that requires
most attention in college students with ADHD.
Overall, ADHD symptoms predicted academic and social adjustment above and
beyond depression, anxiety, personality, and stress. Depression, anxiety, personality, and
stress significantly predicted academic adjustment, but did not predict social adjustment.
GPA was not predicted by any of the independent variables. Contrary to the third
hypothesis, hyperactive/impulsive symptoms were a stronger predictor of academic
adjustment. High levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity seemed to predict lower levels of
academic adjustment, while inattentive symptoms were not predictive of academic
adjustment.
22. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 22
The high rate of comorbidity between depression, anxiety, and ADHD in our
sample supports previous findings that students with ADHD are at higher risk for
depressive symptoms and psychological difficulties (Fleming & McMahon, 2012;
Norwalk et al., 2009; Rabiner et al., 2008). When examining college adjustment it is
important to consider the role of depression and anxiety, especially in students with
comorbid ADHD. The strong relationships among depression, anxiety, and ADHD
indicate that they are important factors to examine in future research.
The current study had several limitations. To measure ADHD symptomology, this
study relied solely on the CAARS self-report scale with no formal clinical assessment by
a diagnostician. Although all participants reported receiving a clinical diagnosis of
ADHD, future studies should include a clinical interview to further verify the current
presence of ADHD symptoms. Although GPA was one of the dependent variables of
interest, four first-semester freshmen were included that were unable to provide a GPA.
Not obtaining these GPA values may have altered the relationship between GPA and
other variables. If there was a larger sample of college students with ADHD, ADHD
symptomology and personality may have been significant predictors of GPA. Also, it is
possible that our variables may change over time. For example, the relationships between
variables may not be the same during the initial adjustment period, compared to students
who are further along. Future studies should be sure to compare levels of adjustment
between lower and upperclassmen to see if these variables do change over time. The
demographics form did not ask participants to specify whether they were transfer or
commuter students. This may have affected college adjustment results, since experience
living on campus versus at home can be very different. The surveys did not include
23. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 23
questions about how the participant’s were handing their ADHD, and what types of skills
or interventions they found the most helpful. The average GPA of the sample was 3.11,
which indicates good academic standing. Knowing what skills have actually helped these
students could be the first step for building a better intervention. Further, the current
sample size was very small. Future studies need larger samples of ADHD college
students to see if these predictors of adjustment remain significant, and can be
generalized to a larger student population.
Despite the limitations of this study, it is one of very few that examined the
interplay between ADHD symptomology, stress, and personality, and how they all play a
role in student adjustment to college. The students with ADHD who participated in this
study provided important insight into the difficulties of college adjustment when ADHD
symptoms are present. Understanding areas of difficulty associated with ADHD in
college students is crucial, and can lead to tailored interventions to help promote success
and college retention. The results of this study suggest that adjusting to academic
demands may be the most difficult aspect of college for students with ADHD, and should
be the focus of future interventions. This can serve as the basis for interventions that
educate young adults with ADHD about the importance of strengthening academic skills,
and minimizing stress to do well in college. In addition to learning how to utilize
academic skills and coping strategies, learning ways to manage stress can potentially ease
the college adjustment process for students with ADHD. Future longitudinal studies are
needed to explore the relationship between stress and adjustment in students with ADHD,
and which interventions should be combined to produce the best results. Over time, these
24. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 24
tailored interventions can minimize stress and promote the use of coping strategies
throughout their college career.
25. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 25
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29. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 29
Table 1.
Mean Scores of Individual Scales
Scale Mean Standard Deviation Interpretive Range
GPA 3.11 .44 -
CAARS: Inattentive 69.8 14.4 Clinically significant
CAARS: Hyp./Imp. 59.8 13.6 Not clinically significant
Wender Utah 51.8 17.5 Clinically significant
Student Life Stress 75.6 11.6 High
Academic Adjustment 45.4 9.4 Low
Social Adjustment 43.7 8.9 Low
Neuroticism (NEO) 62.8 10.6 High
Conscientiousness (NEO) 34.9 10.4 Low
Beck Anxiety Inventory 26.7 16.2 Severe Anxiety
Beck Depression Inventory 16.9 13.4 Mild Depression
30. PREDICTORS OF ADJUSTMENT IN ADHD 30
Table 2.
Correlations Between All Variables of Interest
CAARS: CAARS: Stress GPA Academic Social Anxi. Dep. Neurot.
Inattentive Hyp./Imp. Adjustment Adjustment
CAARS:
Inattentive
CAARS:
Hyp./Imp. .71**
Total Stress .63** .47*
GPA .41* .19 .36
Academic -.72** -.72** -.50** -.16
Adjustment
Social Adjustment -.56** .29 -.60** -.21 .42*
Anxiety (BAI) .44* .46* .67** .34 -.46* -.68**
Depression (BDI) .59** .58** .76** .21 -.74** -.60** .68**
Neuroticism .76** .60** .80** .33 -.56** -.56** .65** .78**
Conscientiousness -.74** -.41* -.57** -.30 .67** .43* -.43* -.56** -.55**
Note. p <.05*; p <.01**