Intro to gross anatomy and physiology

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Chapter 01
The Human Organism
Seeley’s
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Thirteenth Edition
Cinnamon VanPutte, Jennifer
Regan, Andrew Russo
© 2023 McGraw Hill, LLC. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill, LLC.

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Lecture Outline
The human body is a
complex system. The
structures in the body
work in concert to
maintain homeostasis,
a balance in the body's
internal environment.
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1.1 Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy: scientific discipline that investigates the body’s
structure, such as the size and shape of a bone.
Physiology: scientific investigation of the processes or
functions of living things.
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Topics of Anatomy
Gross: structures examined without a microscope.
• Regional: studied area by area.
• Systemic: studied system by system.
• Surface: external form used to visualize deeper
structures.
Structures so small they require aid of microscope.
• Cytology: cellular anatomy.
• Histology: study of tissues.
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Anatomical Imaging
• X-ray: electromagnetic radiation moves through body and is exposed
on photographic plate; creates radiograph.
• Ultrasound: sound waves pass into body and bounce back to
receiver; visualized as a sonogram.
• Computed Tomography (CT): computer-analyzed x-ray images.
• Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA): similar to a CT scan but
uses a radiopaque dye to enhance differences in areas.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): radio waves directed to patient
while under electromagnetic field; radio waves collected and analyzed
by computer.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET): radioactively labeled
glucose usage by a tissue is detected; provides info on metabolic
state.
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Topics of Physiology
Goals of studying physiology include how the body responds
to stimuli and how it maintains stable internal conditions in a
constantly changing environment.
Considers operations at many levels.
• Cell physiology: examines processes in cells.
• Systemic physiology: functions of organ systems.
• Neurophysiology: focuses on the nervous system.
• Cardiovascular physiology: the heart and blood vessels.
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Subjects That Encompass Both Anatomy and
Physiology
Anatomy and physiology are studied together because they
are interwoven and changes in one will affect the other;
structure and function are interdependent.
• Pathology: structural and functional changes caused by
disease.
• Exercise Physiology: changes in structure and function
caused by exercise.
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1.2 Biomedical Research
Shared characteristics between living things drive research.
• Single-celled bacteria = cell.
• Mammalian research furthers human surgery and
medicine.
• Strict laws govern research to minimize suffering.
• Current knowledge is constantly being updated through research in
anatomy and physiology.
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1.3 Structural and Functional Organization of the Human
Body1
• Chemical level: interaction of atoms and molecules
• Cell level: structural and functional unit of living
organisms. Combinations of molecules for structures
called organelles that carry out specific functions.
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1.3 Structural and Functional Organization of the Human
Body2
• Tissue level: group of similar cells and the materials
surrounding them. Four tissue types – epithelial,
connective, muscular, and nervous.
• Organ level: two or more tissues functioning together.
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Major Organs of the Body
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1.3 Structural and Functional Organization of the Human
Body3
(baby girl) BJI/Blue Jean Images/Getty Images
• Organ System level: group of organs functioning together.
(The following slides present an overview of the human
organ systems.
• Organism level: any living thing, whether composed of
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Organ Systems of the Body1
• Integumentary System
• Provides protection,
regulates temperature,
prevents water loss, and
helps produce vitamin D.
Consists of skin, hair,
nails, and sweat glands.
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Organ Systems of the Body2
• Skeletal System
• Provides protection and
support, allows body
movements, produces
blood cells, and stores
minerals and fat. Consists
of bones, associated
cartilages, ligaments, and
joints.
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Organ Systems of the Body3
• Muscular System
• Produces body
movements, maintains
posture, and produces
body heat. Consists of
muscles attached to the
skeleton by tendons.
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Organ Systems of the Body4
• Nervous System
• A major regulatory system
that detects sensations
and controls movements,
physiological processes,
and intellectual functions.
Consists of the brain,
spinal cord, nerves, and
sensory receptors.
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Organ Systems of the Body5
• Endocrine System
• A major regulatory system
that influences
metabolism, growth,
reproduction, and many
other functions. Consists
of glands, such as the
pituitary, that secrete
hormones.
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Organ Systems of the Body6
• Cardiovascular System
• Transports nutrients,
waste products, gases,
and hormones throughout
the body; plays a role in
the immune response and
the regulation of body
temperature. Consists of
the heart, blood vessels,
and blood.
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Organ Systems of the Body7
• Lymphatic System
• Removes foreign
substances from the blood
and lymph, combats
disease, maintains tissue
fluid balance, and absorbs
fats from the digestive
tract. Consists of the
lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes, and other
lymphatic organs.
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Organ Systems of the Body8
• Respiratory System
• Exchanges oxygen and
carbon dioxide between
the blood and air and
regulates blood pH.
Consists of the lungs and
respiratory passages.
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Organ Systems of the Body9
• Digestive System
• Performs the mechanical
and chemical processes
of digestion, absorption of
nutrients, and elimination
of wastes. Consists of the
mouth, esophagus,
stomach, intestines, and
accessory organs.
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Organ Systems of the Body10
• Urinary System
• Removes waste products
from the blood and
regulates blood pH, ion
balance, and water
balance. Consists of the
kidneys, urinary bladder,
and ducts that carry urine.
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Organ Systems of the Body11
• Female Reproductive
System
• Produces oocytes and is
the site of fertilization and
fetal development;
produces milk for the
newborn; produces
hormones that influence
sexual function and
behaviors. Consists of the
ovaries, vagina, uterus,
mammary glands, and
associated structures.
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Organ Systems of the Body12
• Male Reproductive
System
• Produces and transfers
sperm cells to the female
and produces hormones
that influence sexual
functions and behaviors.
Consists of the testes,
accessory structures,
ducts, and penis.
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1.4 Characteristics of Life1
• Organization: condition in which there are specific
interrelationships and functions among the parts of an
organism.
• Metabolism: the ability to used energy to perform vital
functions; all chemical reactions of the body.
• Responsiveness: ability to sense changes in the interior
and exterior environment and adjust; cell-to-cell
communication is necessary
• Growth: increase in size and/or number of cells.
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1.4 Characteristics of Life2
• Development: changes in an organism over time.
Differentiation: change from general to specific.
Morphogenesis: change in shape of tissues, organs, or
the entire organism.
• Reproduction: formation of new cells or new organisms
for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on
their genes to their offspring.
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1.5 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis: maintenance of relatively constant internal
environment within the body.
• Values of variables (conditions) fluctuate around the set
point (ideal normal value) to establish a normal range of
values.
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Feedback Loops
Homeostasis is regulated by feedback loops that allow for a
process to be adjusted by the outcome.
The two types of feedbacks loops are negative feedback and
positive feedback.
Components of a feedback loop:
• Receptor: monitors the value of some variable by
detecting a stimulus (a change in the variable)
• Control center: establishes the set point and receives
input from the receptor.
• Effector: generates the response which can change the
value of the variable.
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Negative Feedback
• Regulates most systems in
the body.
• Counteracts a change in a
variable (for example, body
temperature) by decreasing
the change to help maintain
homeostasis by returning to
the set point.
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Negative-Feedback Mechanism: Body Temperature
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Negative-Feedback Control of Body Temperature
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Changes in Blood Pressure During Exercise
During exercise, muscle tissue demands more oxygen. To
meet this demand, blood pressure (BP) increases, resulting
in an increase in blood flow to the tissues. The reset range is
higher and broader than the resting range. After exercise
ceases, the range returns to the resting condition.
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Positive Feedback 1
When a deviation occurs, the response is to make the
deviation greater.
• Unusual in normal, healthy individuals, leads away from
homeostasis and can result in death.
• Examples of normal positive feedback: childbirth, lactation,
blood clotting.
• Example of harmful positive feedback: after hemorrhage,
blood pressure drops and the heart’s ability to pump blood
decreases.
• Effectors continue the response beyond the set point until
the original stimulus is removed.
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Positive Feedback 2
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1.6 Terminology and the Body Plan1
Anatomical Position.
• Body erect, face forward, feet together,
palms face forward.
Other Body Positions.
• Supine: lying face upward.
• Prone: lying face downward.
Directional Terms.
• Superior (Cephalic) versus Inferior
(Caudal) toward or away from the
head.
• Medial versus Lateral relative to the
midline.
• Proximal versus Distal used to
describe linear structures.
• Superficial versus Deep relative to the
surface of the body.
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1.6 Terminology and the Body Plan2
Directional Terms (cont.).
• Anterior (Ventral) versus
Posterior (Dorsal). Anterior is
forward; posterior is toward the
back.
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Directional Terms for Humans
TABLE 1.2 Directional Terms for Humans
Term Etymology* Definition Example
Right Toward the right side of the body Right ear
Left Toward the left side of the body Left eye
Superior L. higher A structure above another The chin is superior to the navel.
Inferior L. lower A structure below another The navel is inferior to the chin.
Cephalic G. kephale, head Closer to the head than another structure (usually
synonymous with superior)
The chin is cephalic to the navel.
Caudal L. cauda, a tail Closer to the tail than another structure (usually
synonymous with inferior)
The navel is caudal to the chin.
Anterior L. before The front of the body The navel is anterior to the spine.
Posterior L. posterus, following The back of the body The spine is posterior to the
breastbone.
Ventral L. ventr-, belly Toward the belly (synonymous with anterior) The navel is ventral to the spine.
Dorsal L. dorsum, back Toward the back (synonymous with posterior) The spine is dorsal to the breastbone.
Proximal L. proximus, nearest Closer to the point of attachment to the body than
another structure
The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
Distal L. di- plus sto, to stand
apart or be distant
Farther from the point of attachment to the body
than another structure
The wrist is distal to the elbow.
Lateral L. latus, side Away from the midline of the body The nipple is lateral to the breastbone.
Medial L. medialis, middle Toward the midline of the body The nose is medial to the eye.
Superficial L. superficialis, toward
the surface
Toward or on the surface (not shown in figure
1.10)
The skin is superficial to muscle.
Deep O.E. deop, deep Away from the surface, internal (not shown in
figure 1.10)
The lungs are deep to the ribs.
*Origin and meaning of the word: L., Latin; G., Greek; O.E., Old English.
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Body Parts and Regions1
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Body Parts and Regions2
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Subdivisions of the Abdomen
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Planes Through the Body1
Sagittal divides body into left and right portions.
• Median is a sagittal plane down the midline of body.
Frontal (coronal) divides body into anterior and posterior
sections.
Transverse (horizontal) divides body into superior and
inferior sections.
Oblique: Other than at a right angle.
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Planes Through the Body2
(a, b, c) McGraw Hill
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Planes Through an Organ
• Longitudinal: cut
along the length of an
organ.
• Transverse (cross):
cut at right angle to the
length of the organ.
• Oblique: cut at any but
a right angle.
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Body Cavities
The body contains dorsal and ventral body cavities.
Dorsal body cavity:
• Cranial cavity houses the brain.
• Vertebral canal houses the spinal cord.
Ventral body cavity contains majority of viscera; divisions include:
• Thoracic cavity, which is further divided into pleural cavities, each
enclosing a lung, and a medial mediastinum, which contains the
heart, some major blood vessels, thymus, trachea, esophagus.
• Abdominopelvic cavity, consisting of the abdominal cavity and
pelvic cavity.
• Abdominal: contains many digestive organs (for example, stomach,
intestines, liver) and spleen.
• Pelvic: contains urinary bladder, urethra, rectum, reproductive organs.
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Trunk Cavities
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Serous Membranes
• Cover the organs of body cavities and line the cavity.
• Fist represents an organ.
• Inner balloon wall represents visceral serous membrane that covers
the organ.
• Outer balloon wall represents parietal serous membrane line lines the
cavity.
• Cavity between two membranes filled with lubricating serous fluid that
is produced by the membranes.
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Location of Serous Membranes
• Pericardium surrounds
the heart; contains
pericardial fluid.
• Pleura surrounds the
lungs and lines the
thoracic cavity; contains
pleural fluid.
• Peritoneum surrounds
many abdominal organs
and lines the
abdominopelvic cavity;
contains peritoneal fluid.
Ltd./McGraw Hill Education
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Inflammation of Serous Membranes
Inflammation due to infection, can be very serious.
• Pericarditis – inflammation of the pericardium
• Pleurisy – inflammation of the pleura
• Peritonitis – inflammation of the peritoneum
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