An analysis of the social impact of the
stipend program for secondary school girls
of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (in Pakistan)
Sustainable Development Policy Institute
In 2007, the University of Central Lancashire developed a Foundation Degree in
Community Leadership. This course was initially conceived to meet a demand within the
female South Asian community of Burnley for a higher education programme that would
build their capacity to be more effective community activists, and moreover, a requirement
for a course that would be able to meet family, cultural and social needs. The purpose of
this paper is to explore the value of widening participation to higher education for South
Asian women from Burnley in terms of social capital, community cohesion and contribution
to the local knowledge economy. The authors used an action research methodology as
part of a reflective research process influenced by the work of Paulo Freire (Freire, 1996).
This paper argues that widening participation to higher education for women from minority
backgrounds is a valuable tool in addressing cultural and social segregation. Moreover, it
demonstrates an added value that by broadening the knowledge economy of the Pakistani
diaspora in Burnley there is a resulting resonance within the heritage domicile of Gujrat,
Pakistan.1 widening participation-lifelong-learning-vol14_winter_12-13_article-11
Educational Development of Physically Challenged Persons in India '“ Policies...ijtsrd
Education is the most important vehicle for social, economic and political transformation. Unfortunately, globally numerous Physically Challenged Persons (PCPs) and particularly Children with Disabilities (CWDs) do not get adequate opportunity of education because of social neglect, and absence of support systems in the home and inadequacy of sufficient facilities particularly in schools. The situation is worst for low-income countries compare to high-income countries. In India, as for all children, education is vital for CWDs in itself but also instrumental for participating in employment and other areas of social activity. However, educational outcomes for children and adults with disabilities remain poor in both rural and urban India. The circumstance is more vulnerable for girl children with disability. The situation is started to change. The NSSO data shows some improvement in literacy level. The MHRD has introduced various programmes to provide educational opportunities to PCPs in an inclusive environment and emphasize on the requirement of appropriate vocational training skills to make them self reliant and productive members of the society. But, the coverage under the scheme has remained limited. Eventually, CWDs should have equal access to quality education, because this is key to human capital formation and their participation in social and economic life. Dr. Sujoy Kanti Ghoshal"Educational Development of Physically Challenged Persons in India '“ Policies and Challenges" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-4 , June 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd13038.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/13038/educational-development-of-physically-challenged-persons-in-india-'“-policies-and-challenges/dr-sujoy-kanti-ghoshal
In 2007, the University of Central Lancashire developed a Foundation Degree in
Community Leadership. This course was initially conceived to meet a demand within the
female South Asian community of Burnley for a higher education programme that would
build their capacity to be more effective community activists, and moreover, a requirement
for a course that would be able to meet family, cultural and social needs. The purpose of
this paper is to explore the value of widening participation to higher education for South
Asian women from Burnley in terms of social capital, community cohesion and contribution
to the local knowledge economy. The authors used an action research methodology as
part of a reflective research process influenced by the work of Paulo Freire (Freire, 1996).
This paper argues that widening participation to higher education for women from minority
backgrounds is a valuable tool in addressing cultural and social segregation. Moreover, it
demonstrates an added value that by broadening the knowledge economy of the Pakistani
diaspora in Burnley there is a resulting resonance within the heritage domicile of Gujrat,
Pakistan.1 widening participation-lifelong-learning-vol14_winter_12-13_article-11
Educational Development of Physically Challenged Persons in India '“ Policies...ijtsrd
Education is the most important vehicle for social, economic and political transformation. Unfortunately, globally numerous Physically Challenged Persons (PCPs) and particularly Children with Disabilities (CWDs) do not get adequate opportunity of education because of social neglect, and absence of support systems in the home and inadequacy of sufficient facilities particularly in schools. The situation is worst for low-income countries compare to high-income countries. In India, as for all children, education is vital for CWDs in itself but also instrumental for participating in employment and other areas of social activity. However, educational outcomes for children and adults with disabilities remain poor in both rural and urban India. The circumstance is more vulnerable for girl children with disability. The situation is started to change. The NSSO data shows some improvement in literacy level. The MHRD has introduced various programmes to provide educational opportunities to PCPs in an inclusive environment and emphasize on the requirement of appropriate vocational training skills to make them self reliant and productive members of the society. But, the coverage under the scheme has remained limited. Eventually, CWDs should have equal access to quality education, because this is key to human capital formation and their participation in social and economic life. Dr. Sujoy Kanti Ghoshal"Educational Development of Physically Challenged Persons in India '“ Policies and Challenges" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-4 , June 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd13038.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/13038/educational-development-of-physically-challenged-persons-in-india-'“-policies-and-challenges/dr-sujoy-kanti-ghoshal
The ppt contains information about,
What is Illiteracy?
Causes of Illiteracy
Effects of illiteracy
Solutions/Initiatives taken by government to reduce illiteracy
statistics of at global level as well as in India
Conclusion
Project Proposal: Youth Without ShelterRebecca Sivel
Project proposal written for Youth Without Shelter, A homeless youth shelter in the west end of Toronto. This proposal address mental illness among homeless youth through social programming.
The present paper seeks to explain the issues plaguing higher education in India against the backdrop of globalization and resultant demand for higher standard of quality education. While the demand for higher education has been growing, system has rendered itself as ill-equipped to meet the needs of different strata of society. To government, higher education receives a low priority. Short term measures such as hikes in course fee, appointing part time teachers, introducing paid and market oriented courses are being adopted by the government that in the long run defeat the very social objectives of higher education. In the era of globalization, states are more competitive and even more interdependent. Even the future of state is more dependent on the creation of new knowledge to suit its people in the discharge of their duties in administration, business and in all other areas. This possible if right to higher education is recognized as one of the individual and higher embraces the principle of equality
Being socially responsible means that people & organization must behave ethically & with sensitivity towards social, cultural, economic and environmental issues which will create a positive impact on development, business, and society.
The ppt contains information about,
What is Illiteracy?
Causes of Illiteracy
Effects of illiteracy
Solutions/Initiatives taken by government to reduce illiteracy
statistics of at global level as well as in India
Conclusion
Project Proposal: Youth Without ShelterRebecca Sivel
Project proposal written for Youth Without Shelter, A homeless youth shelter in the west end of Toronto. This proposal address mental illness among homeless youth through social programming.
The present paper seeks to explain the issues plaguing higher education in India against the backdrop of globalization and resultant demand for higher standard of quality education. While the demand for higher education has been growing, system has rendered itself as ill-equipped to meet the needs of different strata of society. To government, higher education receives a low priority. Short term measures such as hikes in course fee, appointing part time teachers, introducing paid and market oriented courses are being adopted by the government that in the long run defeat the very social objectives of higher education. In the era of globalization, states are more competitive and even more interdependent. Even the future of state is more dependent on the creation of new knowledge to suit its people in the discharge of their duties in administration, business and in all other areas. This possible if right to higher education is recognized as one of the individual and higher embraces the principle of equality
Being socially responsible means that people & organization must behave ethically & with sensitivity towards social, cultural, economic and environmental issues which will create a positive impact on development, business, and society.
Healthcare waste is such waste which is generated from healthcare facilities, natal care, treatment centers of human and animals. It mainly includes different types of wastes such as sharps, infected syringes, animal and human tissues, drugs and medicines. There are different health risks associated with each type of waste so their management is necessary.
Healthcare waste is of several types and its exposure to public, nurses, cleanliness staff, patients and paramedical staff is from several routes like inhalation, ingestion and skin contact. Once it gets entry into environment it causes several health impacts which may lead to death. There are guidelines and treatment systems in Pakistan for the treatment of healthcare waste but since there is no system of check and balance so condition is worse here. Most of the diseases are caused from the exposure to different types of healthcare waste. So there is need to treat this waste according to WHO guidelines before its final disposal into environment.
Government and associated departments should step in to control the situation. There is serious need of handling of waste specially sharps and syringes, pathological waste and infectious waste.
Hospitals, which are major part of healthcare waste, must be charged if they don’t handle waste properly.
Workers should be given trainings for the awareness of health hazardous of healthcare waste.
There should be strict rules and regulations for the use of protective equipment such as gloves and masks and special dress for the collection and disposal of waste.
Above all, there should be proper system for the segregation, collection, storage and transportation of waste.
Storage area must be separate and away from healthcare facility so that it cannot affect health of workers.
Plastic waste to energy opportunities - PyrolysisPlant.comPyrolysis Plant
Pyrolysis plant is an industry that converts waste plastic & tires into Pyrolysis Oil, Carbon Black & Hydrocarbon Gas. End products are used as industrial fuels for producing heat, steam or electricity. Pyrolysis plant is also known as: pyrolysis unit, plastic to fuel industry, tire to fuel industry, plastic and tire recycling unit etc.
More info at http://www.pyrolysisplant.com/
Research paper on Millennium Development Goal 2- Achieve Universal Primary Education. This was written this while studying abroad through the Semester at Sea program where there was very limited access to the Internet and resources.
2.Education and Gender Issues in Context of Pakistan
Pakistan, spanning 803,940 square kilometers, shares borders with India, Iran, Afghanistan, and the Arabian Sea. Divided into three territories and four provinces, Punjab is the most populous, with women making up less than half of the population. According to the Constitution of Pakistan, the state shall: ‘remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within minimum possible period’ (Article 37-B, Constitution of Pakistan, 1973). In addition, Article 25 of the Constitution states: ’All citizens are equal before the law and entitled to protection of law, and that nothing in the article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the protection of women and children.’ The Constitution thus supports efforts towards ensuring gender equality and equity in education.
Education and Gender Issues in Pakistan: A Policy Overview
2.1 National Educational Policy 1998-2010: Bridging Gaps and Improving Quality
The government's commitment to international and national agreements is reflected in the National Educational Policy, focusing on enrollment, urban-rural gender balance, and curriculum reform.
2.2. Education Sector Reforms Action Plan 2001-2004: Targeting Gender Disparities
This plan emphasizes gender-desegregated data and women's inclusion, aiming to bridge educational gaps and promote female participation.
2.3. Pakistan Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP 2004): Addressing Challenges
PRSP addresses challenges like infrastructure and teacher shortages, recognizing education as vital in poverty reduction strategies.
2.4. MDGs and Gender Equality: Slow Progress in Pakistan
While MDGs emphasize gender issues, progress in Pakistan is slow. The National Policy and Action Plan 2001 tackles child labor, focusing on education as a key strategy.
2.5. National Plan of Action for Women: Empowering Through Education
This plan aims for gender equality in education by 2013, addressing barriers and recommending formal and informal approaches.
2.6. Challenges in Implementation: CEDAW and National Commission on the Status of Women
Effective implementation of CEDAW and the National Plan of Action faces challenges, with resource constraints hindering gender inequality monitoring.
2.7. Gender Reform Action Plan (2003): Policy Interventions for Women's Education
This plan emphasizes policy interventions for women's education, addressing socio-economic indicators and violence against women.
2.8. Educational Landscape in Pakistan: Class Divisions and Power Structures
Feudal, tribal, and patriarchal power structures impact education. Public schools dominate, but private schools in urban areas offer increased opportunities for girls.
2.9. Education Systems in Pakistan: Access Challenges and Preferences
The public, private, non-formal, and madrassah systems coexist. Traditional customs and religious restrictions often limit girls' access to education.
Inequality education is about the “disparity of access to educational resources between different social groups”. Some examples of these resources of Educational Inequality in Rural and Urban Pakistanis include school funding, experienced and qualified educators, books, technologies, and school facilities such as sports and recreation.
CREDIT : M.HUSNAIN
8 ways to improve education system of pakistan ,education system of pakistan ,education system of pakistan slides ,improve education system of pakistan ,pakistan education system improvements.
The report provides information of the current status of Quality Education. This report will discuss about the Introduction, Overview of current situation goal in Bangladesh, Government initiative to achieve the goal’s target and key challenges of Quality Education.
This report sheds light on the significance of digital trade integration for Pakistan and selected
Central Asian countries including Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Digital trade
integration involves regulatory structures/policy designs, digital technologies, and business
processes along the entire global/regional digital value chain. Digital trade
integration requires free cross-border movement of not only digital products, services, and
technologies but also other manufactured goods, data, capital, talent, and ideas along with the
availability of integrated physical and virtual infrastructure. Hence, digital trade integration requires
the removal of digital trade barriers as well as extensive technology, and legal and policy
coordination between member states.
Countries around the world have actively engaged in establishing new and progressive bilateral and
regional trade agreements to boost trade and economic growth. The significance of digital trade has
increased considerably after the COVID-19 pandemic. Improvement in digital connectivity, ease in
regulations, and skilled workers are key factors to facilitate trade integration and promote the
growth of the e-commerce sector. The report examines the regional trade agreements of Pakistan
and selected Central Asian countries and their relevance for digital trade integration. It also
scrutinizes the challenges faced by the public institutions of Pakistan in the implementation of digital
trade policy. Besides this, the report also observes the challenges faced by SMEs dealing with digital
trade-related products.
The findings show that Pakistan and selected Central Asian countries are at different levels of digital
adoption, including mobile connectivity index and download speed of mobile and broadband.
Kazakhstan and Pakistan have a higher export and import volume compared with other countries.
However, neither country has any major trading partner from the countries selected in this study,
which demonstrates the lack of regional cooperation and the need for regional trade agreements to
boost bilateral and regional trade.
The report discusses the e-commerce laws of Pakistan and selected Central Asian countries, whereas
domestic policies and measures to increase digital trade are also reviewed. The countries are at a
different level in terms of implementing digital trade facilitation measures. Lack of effective
enforcement of intellectual property rights, non-tariff measures, foreign investment restrictions in
digital space, data and information costs, cyber security, and tax policy and administration are all key
policy issues that influence digital trade integration.
The study offers a way forward in which action points are provided for governments, the nongovernmental
sector (notably, business associations and networks), academia and think tanks, and
development partners. #DigitalTradeIntegration
#RegionalTradeAgreements
#EconomicGrowth
#DigitalConnectivity
#EcommerceLaws
The policy brief by the Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI) outlines the urgent need to address the high consumption of Industrially Produced Trans Fatty Acids (iTFA) in Pakistan, which poses significant health risks, particularly in contributing to cardiovascular diseases. Despite being the second-highest per capita consumer of iTFA in the WHO-Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pakistan lacks comprehensive regulations and enforcement mechanisms to mitigate iTFA consumption effectively. The brief recommends a multi-faceted approach involving uniform standards, transparent enforcement, public awareness campaigns, capacity building for regulatory authorities, and collaboration with the food industry to promote healthier alternatives. It highlights the importance of political commitment, intersectoral collaboration, and public-private dialogue to successfully eliminate iTFA from the food supply chain and improve public health outcomes in Pakistan.
In his comprehensive analysis, Vaqar Ahmed highlights the challenges and impediments faced by Pakistan's trade and industrial policies, particularly concerning macroeconomic stability, energy shortages, rising costs, and regulatory constraints. The recent decline in the value of the Pakistani Rupee has further intensified issues for the manufacturing sector. The adverse macroeconomic conditions, including high inflation and a policy rate exceeding 20 percent, have hampered the sector's ability to secure working capital. Large firms' reluctance to operate in special economic zones due to supply-side gaps, coupled with global economic uncertainties, has delayed the next phase of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). Ends with some policy recommendations.
Creating a conducive environment for sustainable economic development, improve living standards for all citizens, and secure a brighter future for the nation.
Highlights the country's large and young labor force, with a 1.94% population growth rate and 65.5 million individuals actively seeking work according to the 2017-18 Labor Force Survey. However, the unemployment rate currently stands at 5.8%, with the highest rate (11.56%) among youth aged 20-24. In response, the government launched the Prime Minister's Kamyab Jawan Programme, allocating Rs 100 billion to support entrepreneurship and create employment opportunities for youth. This program encompasses six key initiatives, including the Youth Entrepreneurship Scheme, Hunermand Pakistan Programme, Green Youth Movement, Startup Pakistan, National Internship, and Jawan Markaz. By focusing on skills development, entrepreneurship, and youth empowerment, the government aims to address unemployment challenges and foster a more vibrant economy.
The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Urban Policy aims to transform KP's urban centers into engines of social, economic, and cultural growth by promoting vibrant communities, sustainable practices, and economic opportunities. It focuses on inclusive development, infrastructure improvement, efficient governance, environmental protection, and cultural preservation, aiming to make cities globally competitive and provide a high quality of life for all citizens. This policy, reviewed every five years, provides a roadmap for urban development in KP, seeking to create a brighter future for its residents.
This study aims to explain the macroeconomic and welfare impacts of changes in indirect taxes brought about in response to COVID-19. We study whether the tax relief provided for in the federal budget for fiscal year 2020-21 was effective in providing relief to private enterprises and the trade sector. We also study whether production subsidies granted during the first wave of COVID-19 were effectively able to support firms in the agricultural sector. This assessment allows us to draw lessons that may be useful for designing tax benefit policies amid future waves of the pandemic or during other emergency times.
The Government of Pakistan has offered export facilitation schemes
to exporters with the objectives to lower trade costs and expand
output. Currently, nearly one dozen export facilitation schemes are
active. They also include those which are run by the Federal Board
of Revenue (FBR). The question of ‘effectiveness’ of such schemes
in boosting Pakistan’s exports has remained a consistent theme of
interest among policymakers, international development partners
and private sector. This policy brief builds on a firm-level survey,
conducted by the Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI),
and is an attempt to understand the effectiveness, overall gains,
and shortcomings of four major export facilitation schemes offered
by the FBR, including Duty and Tax Remission for Exports (DTRE),
Manufacturing Bond (MB), Export Oriented Unit (EOU) and Export
Facilitation Scheme (EFS). The study aims to provide insights on how
best to improve design of Export Facilitation Scheme 2021, which will
absorb all other schemes by the end of 2023.
The Ministry of Commerce in Pakistan unveiled the National Tariff Policy 2019-24 (NTP 2019-
24) in November 2019. The core aims of the policy were to: i) remove tariff-related
anomalies in the short-term to lower businesses’ cost of inputs and increase their
turnover, ii) increase employment generation in the medium-term, and iii) gain
competitiveness and exports in the long-term.
After its announcement, there remains a need to analyze the effectiveness and
impact of the policy. SDPI team conducted primary research to assess the impact
of tariff policy on Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) with the help of a firm-level
survey.
This specific survey aims to bridge the evidence gap by providing an in-depth
analysis on the NTP-2019-24 impact in terms of its three prime objectives. Besides,
the study also attempts to understand the business community’s challenges and
expectations vis-à-vis tariff-related matters.
Digital trade is increasing rapidly throughout the world whereas digital platforms and Coronavirus have further enhanced the importance of the digital economy and digital trade. Countries are focusing on promoting digital trade and integration through various measures including free trade agreements and bilateral negotiations. This study examined digital trade as defined by WTO E-commerce work and USITC. The study included the items that come under the definition of digital trade and examined the digital trade volume of Pakistan from 2010-2020 through three-step methodology. This includes the identification of digital trade items based on Harmonized System at a six-digit level, examining trade volume for digital goods, and identification of top ten export and import items along with top ten markets for digital trade. Favorable government policies and measures have helped Pakistan in promoting digital trade flows. However, there is a need to develop information and communication technology infrastructure in Pakistan to flourish trading activities. Furthermore, Pakistan has to reduce the fiscal and trade barriers such as rules and regulations for foreign investment in digital space, data and information costs, and ensure online security and data protection to promote digital trade integration.
by Asif Javed & Vaqar Ahmed
This study presents a pathway for fostering regional digital trade integration through
South-South and Triangular cooperation. Our main study goals include answering the
following questions:
» What are the challenges faced in the digital trade sector of Afghanistan, Pakistan
and Sri Lanka? How can these be overcome through various cooperative models?
» How can inclusive regional and free trade agreements help to overcome barriers
and enable digital trade integration?
» What can Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) dealing with digital trade-related
products learn from literature on South-South and Triangular cooperation?
Suggested citation:
Ahmed, V. and Javed, M. Digital Trade Integration: South-South and Triangular
Cooperation in South Asia (unpublished). South-South Idea Paper Series, United Nations
Office for South-South Cooperation (UNOSSC),Washington D.C.New York, 2022.
Pakistan is facing numerous socioeconomic impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic, including on food security. Food insecurity, which is a long-standing issue, has become more visible since the pandemic. Covid-19 Responses for Equity (CORE) partner the Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI) – a leading policy research thinktank – has been supporting the Government of Pakistan to maintain essential economic activity and protect workers and small producers during the pandemic. One notable contribution has been the development of a Food Security Portal, which is being used by the government to better manage food security in the country. It is the first track and trace system from farm to fork for essential food items.
URI
https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/17619
Citation
Suleri, A.Q.; Ahmed, V.; Ahmad, S.M.; Shah, Q.; Zahid, J. and Gatellier, K. (2022) Strengthening Food Security in Pakistan During the Covid-19 Pandemic, Covid-19 Responses for Equity (CORE) Stories of Change, Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, DOI: 10.19088/CORE.2022.008
Political and socio-economic discussions in Pakistan’s popular discourse are often inward-looking and generally focus on the country itself, or on its relationships to its immediate neighbors (Afghanistan, India, and China). We suggest here that Pakistan is part of a global system, as well. It is influenced not just by its direct neighbors, but also by: international events (war in Ukraine is just one example); by global economic factors (e.g. oil prices, changing terms of trade, or the danger of a global recession); and by various other global governance arrangements (e.g. Financial Action Taskforce and its demands from Pakistan). At the same time, Pakistan is not insulated from the global systemic changes. The global pandemic has overwhelmed the policymakers with possibilities of future epidemics also not being ruled out. In the past migration of people, both incoming and outgoing, has impacted the social fabric.
Likewise, the country is suffering from global warming and the resulting patterns of weather and precipitation. Pakistan is also a player at the international arena and is expected to play a responsible and proactive role at various global governance forums. The speech of the former Prime Minister of Pakistan at the UN General Assembly on September 27, 2019 has indicated regarding this responsibility and highlighted Pakistan’s role in the Cold War, or the engagement of Pakistani soldiers abroad, either in the United Nations peace keeping framework, or bilaterally. While many Pakistanis are aware of some of Pakistan’s international roles and dependencies, and of Pakistan’s image abroad, there is limited discussion about the country’s global role – what it should be? Who are the internal and external actors that shape Pakistan’s role, engagement, influence, and perception abroad? What role does the state and citizens play in deciding Pakistan’s global role? These are some of the questions that our chapter authors aimed to touch upon in this book. A conscious effort has been made to reach out to Pakistanis living and working abroad. Chapters have been invited from such resource persons who are not only Pakistanis but also study Pakistan from abroad and often through various lens external to Pakistan.
Web: https://pakistan.fes.de/e/global-pakistan-pakistan%CA%BFs-role-in-the-international-system
The Covid-19 pandemic and related
restrictions have had profound
socioeconomic impacts worldwide.
Governments have been faced with
responding urgently to mitigate such
effects, especially for the most
vulnerable. Covid-19 Responses for
Equity (CORE) partner Partnership for
Economic Policy (PEP) – a Southernled
organisation which believes that
evidence produced from an in-country
perspective, by empowered and
engaged local researchers and
policymakers, results in better policy
choices – has been working closely
with policymakers in Pakistan to
assess the Covid-19 impacts and the
effectiveness of current and potential
policies. As a result, PEP has helped
introduce tax reforms for the hardest
hit, agricultural subsidies for farmers,
and the reduction of trade tariffs for
struggling businesses.
Marginalization of Researchers in the Global
South in Global, Regional, and National
Economic-Development Consulting
Authors Ramos E. Mabugu | Vaqar Ahmed | Margaret R Chitiga-Mabugu
| Kehinde O. Omotoso
Date February 2022
Working Paper 2022-05
PEP Working Paper Series
ISSN 2709-7331
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Stipend program for Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan
1. An analysis of the social impact of the
stipend program for secondary school girls
of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Vaqar Ahmed & Muhammad Zeshan
Educational Research for Policy and
Practice
ISSN 1570-2081
Educ Res Policy Prac
DOI 10.1007/s10671-013-9154-4
1 23
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1 23
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V. Ahmed, M. Zeshan
discussed. Thorpe et al. (2013) claims that female education has a greater impact on their
well-being but in a longer time frame. The short-run rigidities in the labor market (particularly
in developing countries) do not favor females, making it difficult to overcome poverty in the
short run. This claim is supported by Roche (2013), who finds that educated women reap considerably lower economic rewards for their services. This heterogeneity in returns to education
creates difficulties for women to rise out of poverty in the short run. However, United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) believes that education can lead
to a reduction in poverty and promote growth in developing countries by gradually reducing anomalies in the labor markets (UNESCO 2012a). Education provides opportunities to
deprived marginalized classes and makes them active players in the economic growth process.
At the Rio 20 conference held in Brazil in 2012, the United Nations declared that the
education gap was the key difference between the developed and developing worlds.1 In
response to the findings of this conference, many developing countries are now set to redesign
their national and subnational education policies to address the various forms of poverty and
inequality that represent the main hurdles to sustained growth. The key idea here is to use
education as an active tool for job-oriented growth and welfare improvements.
The Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995, recognized that female
literacy is a key determinant of empowerment for women.2 It enables them to participate in
household decision-making processes and makes them active members of household affairs.
In this era of rapid development, depriving females of equal opportunities will result in an
unsustainable development milieu (see also World Bank 2012).
Several past governments in Pakistan prioritized education; however, the sector faces enormous difficulties in implementing policy and practice corrections. Following passage of the
18th constitutional amendment, the education policy is now a provincial subject. Provincial
governments are now working rigorously toward province-specific education policies. The
setup of society and the prevalant social capital are also important ingredients in the success
of any policy. As Pakistani culture is dominated by a patriarchal social structure, a vast body
of literature recommends advocacy and outreach programs aimed at promoting literacy.
The conservative culture that maintains a status quo in gender roles is also an obstacle in
the way of achieving the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs), especially in remote areas
of Pakistan where females have little participation in decision making regarding their or their
children’s education. Women are supposed to get permission from the household head, who is
normally male, before seeking out educational, travel, employment, or business opportunities.
Most families traditionally tend to make relatively less investment in the education of girls
compared to boys. Figure 1 exhibits the trend over time in female education in Pakistan.
Progress is far from satisfactory, particularly in the case of secondary education.
It is also important to see the trend in the availability of female teachers in Pakistan
(Fig. 2). Due to the conservative norms in parts of Pakistan, parents will only send their
female children to school where there are female teachers. Schools without female teachers
have seen a decline in female enrollments. Growth in the availability of female teachers,
particularly at the primary-school level, has been less than desired.
The government’s budgetary allocations and their disbursements over time indicates the
low priority attached to education in general. In fact, this raises doubts about the government’s
1 http://www.uncsd2012.org/about.html.
2 United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (2012), http://www.un.org/
womenwatch/daw/beijing/fwcwn.html.
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Fig. 1 Female gross enrollments (%). Source World Development Indicators
Fig. 2 Availability of female teachers (%). Source World Development Indicators
claims regarding the seriousness of its commitment toward achieving MDGs. More recently,
just 2 % of GDP was allocated for education in the fiscal year 2010–2011. This inadequate
investment resulted in a literacy rate of only 67 % for males and 42 % for females, whereas the
rate is 65 % for males and 28 % for females in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (the province on which
we will focus in this paper).3 Some studies indicate that even these low levels of allocations
are not fully disbursed by year end (Government of Pakistan 2012).
The literacy rate is low compared to global trends, which is 61 % for young females
between the ages of 15 and 25 and 79 % for males in the same age group. UNESCO (2012b)
explains how a committed implementation by government of its own policies could raise
literacy rates up to 72 and 82 % for males and females, respectively, by the year 2015.
However, the challenge is that about half of the female population has never visited a school
and 35 % of them live in rural areas. To overcome this situation, in 2000, governments at
various levels in the country introduced targeted educational policies. The stipend program
for female secondary-school students was also introduced for the same purpose in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa province.
1.1 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa’s context
The provincial government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa initiated a stipend program for female
secondary-school students in 2007 that aimed to increase secondary-school enrollments of
3 Source: Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement 2010–2011.
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V. Ahmed, M. Zeshan
Table 1 Literacy rate for 2010–2011 (%)– population 10 years and older
Region
Urban
Rural
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Total
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
77
50
63
67
29
48
68
33
50
Upper Dir
67
35
52
71
25
50
71
25
50
Shangla
0
0
0
58
16
37
58
16
37
Bonair
0
0
0
53
14
32
53
14
32
Hangu
77
38
56
69
15
41
71
20
44
Tank
81
44
64
54
10
33
57
14
36
Battagram
0
0
0
70
28
49
70
28
49
Kohistan
0
0
0
42
6
26
42
6
26
Source Pakistan social and living standards measurement (PSLM) Survey 2010–2011
Battagram
Bonair
Hangu
Kohistan
14308
Shangla
Tank
80
14308
80
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010 2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
Upper Dir
14308
80
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
Boys’ Enrollments
Girls’ Enrollments
Fig. 3 Trends in middle-level schooling 2002–2010. Source Bureau of Statistics Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
females. The target area of this stipend program comprised seven of the poorest districts,
including Battagram, Bonair, Hangu, Kohistan, Shangla, Tank, and Upper Dir. A disaggregated analysis of these districts is provided in Table 1. It is evident that most of these districts
have literacy rates below the provincial average, except for Upper Dir and Battagram. Other
than the low literacy rate, the gender gap is obvious, especially in rural areas.
The enrollment trend in middle-level4 schooling for boys and girls indicates that the gender
gap is smaller in those districts where the overall student population is small, for example, the
Battagram, Hangu, Kohistan, and Tank districts. On the other hand, the differences are larger
in districts where total enrollments are high, such as in the Banair, Upper Dir, and Shangla
districts. This explains the fact that gender discrimination is relatively more pronounced in
larger districts (populationwise) compared to smaller districts (see Fig. 3 for details).
4 Class 6–8 is middle-level schooling.
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Table 2 Genderwise educational statistics of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province
School level
No. of
schools
Male
Enrollment
rate
Female Male
Primary (Class 1–5) 14,600 7,583
Participation
rate
Female
Male
(%)
Budgetary
allocation (%)
Female
(%)
1,610,024
803,204 98
66
Middle (Class 6–8)
1,436
920
142,407
74,714 51
25
51
15
High (Class 9–10)
1,069
310
358,383
128,550 40
17
34
Source PC-1 Document, Planning & Development Department, Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 2011
More specifically, the gender disparity is low in the Tank, Hangu, and Kohistan districts.
This is interesting because these three districts are close to the Afghanistan border and have
suffered due to the ongoing war on terror. These primary findings show that even if parents
are interested in educating their female children, there are lacunae in the female schooling
system that need to be identified. The present study aims to precisely identify these factors.
This analysis is conducted with the help of quantitative and qualitative techniques discussed
in the following sections.
It is important here to discuss some programmatic details about this stipend program.
Primarily it aims to reduce the gender gap in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, which is currently 26 % in secondary-level schooling. To this end, it allocated 30 billion Pakistan rupees
(PKR) under the Annual Development Program (ADP) in 2007. This program is part of
the Mid-Term Development Framework that aims to reduce gender imbalances to allow the
development process to work on a more equitable basis. In 2008, the province had a 57 %
literacy rate for males and 20 % for females. The fundamental reason for this low female
literacy rate is low income and a conservative social context. In this province, girls are also
expected to work with their parents to obtain the basic necessities of life. The stipend program intends to create an incentive for parents to send their children to secondary school
because many rural families follow the decades-old tradition of not sending their girls to
school beyond the primary level. Table 2 specifies some basic facts of the educational system
in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.
From Table 2 it is obvious that a substantial proportion of girls are not enrolled in secondary
schools, which in turn increases the gender gap. The budgetary allocation seems unfair for
females despite the government’s claim that it is committed to reducing the gender gap. The
incentive of the stipend at the secondary level aims at incentivizing poor families to educate
their girls and create a mindset change in the region. In the target districts, girls are the main
victims of educational poverty, so this stipend program targets only poor girls. The expected
outcome is a reduction in the number of dropouts and improvements in girls’ enrollments
at the secondary level, especially in remote areas. In this program, stipend money of PKR
200/month was given to each girl starting in 2006 (between Classes 6 and 10). After 1 year, in
2007, around 0.28 million female students were registered under this program. This project
also fulfills the objectives of the National Education policy, Education Sector Reforms, and
the Poverty Reduction Strategy of the Government.
The conditions imposed on the stipend money brings opportunity costs for households.
Supporters of such conditions are of the view that a conditional cash transfer (CCT) allows
efficient resource utilization. Hence, the gains from these conditions might outweigh the
organizational costs and society might achieve a society would have a better human capital
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V. Ahmed, M. Zeshan
(Bassett 2008). In a rural setting, in making decisions about their children’s schooling, parents
are also interested in the social benefits associated with investment in education. In this case,
the imposition of conditions might increase enrollments of females when parents see a stream
of higher future income. To obtain the desired results, the disbursement of funds is based on
some condition, for example, a female student must attain 80 % school attendance to receive
the next installment of funds.
The present study also aims to conduct an impact analysis of the conditional cash transfers
in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to date. At the same time, we aim to identify the prospective changes
required in this program to enhance its progress. We will examine the various transmission
channels through which this CCT in the education sector can impact various forms of poverty.
To this end, our approach analyzes the educational and noneducational factors that add to or
detract from the intended impact of the transfer program.
The rest of the study is organized as follows. In the next section we discuss the contemporaneous literature on this topic, which includes global and national studies. Section 2 elaborates
on the research methodology adopted in this study. Section 3 explains the empirical results,
and Sect. 4 concludes the study and provides policy recommendations.
1.2 Literature review
This section briefly looks at the relationship between female education, poverty, and welfare.
Thorpe et al. (2013) has evaluated the impact of female education on the well-being of African
American females using a logistic model. It finds that female education has a greater impact
on their well-being but in the longer run. The rigidities in the labor market provide smaller
incentives for females in the shorter run. This also implies that females find it difficult to
overcome poverty in the short run but can avoid poverty in the long run. Similar results
are provided by Roche (2013), who finds self-employed women receive relatively lower
economic rewards for their services compared with self-employmed men. This difference in
returns to education makes it difficult for women to escape poverty in the short run.
Further, Johnson (2013) finds that graduate-level enrollment has a countercyclical impact
on female employment but an acyclical impact on male employment. This result implies
that during a recessionary phase, the number of women losing their jobs is higher than the
number of males. Hence the labor markets offer a substitution effect in favor of males during
recessions. In the following part of this section, we review the existing literature on the role
of conditional cash transfer programs and their impact on education and social well-being.
We split these studies into global and national studies for ease of creating linkages with this
paper. Moreover, in the case of national-level studies, we will also look at the case of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa province and the state of female education.
1.3 Global literature
Conditional cash transfers are frequently employed around the world to alleviate education
poverty. Along with facilitating education, they also work to change the mindsets of local
populations and mold their thinking in favor of positive externalities arising from eduction
(see Faith and Vinay 2010). Certain conditions are generally attached to the availability of
CCT funds, increasing the efficiency of the programs. Skoufias and Maro (2008) examine the efficiency effects of the Progresa Program in Mexico. This program is designed to
increase school enrollments among children so that they can become active participants in the
future labor market. These educational grants are provided only to households with children
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enrolled in Grades 3–9. The study concludes that these CCTs are effective at increasing the
literacy rate and labor force participation over time in Mexico (see also Saavedra and Garcia
2012).
These CCT programs are also designed to promote gender equality in the education
sector. In this regard, Schurmann (2009) has worked on a female secondary-school stipend
project in Bangladesh aiming to increase female enrollments. The program has an overarching
objective of increasing female empowerment by generating employment opportunities for
them. Using the Social Exclusion Framework, it finds that harassment, poverty, early-age
marriages, and childbirth are responsible for preventing girls from attending school. The
results illustrate that the CCT project was able to increase women’s empowerment in various
ways via increased female secondary schooling. Furthermore, Barrera-Osorio et al. (2008)
asserts that conditional cash transfers should be based on school attendance and part of the
money should be paid before admission. Students’ own attitudes should also be considered
before granting these scholarships.
Along with the provision of educational grants, some transfer programs are designed to
invest in the health and nutrition of students, especially female students. Barham (2009)
evaluates the performance of a pilot CCT program called Red de Protección Social (RPS),
which was implemented in two regions of Nicaragua. RPS was a multipronged approach to
promoting the gender equality with balanced human capital. It provides cash payments to
females for increasing their participation in education, schooling of children, health services,
and nutrition. Results showed that this program had a positive impact on school enrollments.
However, its impact was greatly reduced by negative economic shocks such as droughts and
dwindling coffee prices.
1.4 Literature on Pakistan
The UNESCO (2012a) report proposes that developing countries should spend at least 4 %
of their GDP on education. In contrast, Pakistan spends around 2 % of its GDP on education.
Furthermore, a lack of schools, inadequate facilities at existing schools, and ghost schools
in remote areas are adding to this problem.5 Under the business-as-usual scenario, Pakistan
will need 38 years to achieve universal primary education, and it will require approximately
16 years to attain an 86 % literacy rate. There is evidence that education and income poverty
reinforce each other. Chaudhry et al. (2010) finds that education has a direct impact on skill
development, which in turn has positive effects on the overall economic growth process. Some
indirect effects are also accrued such as awareness about basic rights, health issues such as
clean drinking water, and sanitation. Empirical results indicate that education significantly
alleviates the incidence of absolute poverty.
In developing countries, the views of local communities on female education are very
important. Most decisions in such countries are based on the perceptions of society regarding education. Shahzad et al. (2011) analyzed the attitude of the community and parents
toward female education in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. The authors found that people
were unaware of the direct and indirect benefits associated with educating female children.
Independent Evaluation Group (2011) produced the same results for Punjab province. The
short-run impact evaluation shows that CCTs increase female school enrollment by 23 %.
Furthermore, they have a significant impact on productivity, consumption, and intergenera5 The term ghost school refers to those educational institutions that have a physical infrastructure but no
teachers or students. There have been instances where local influential persons use these state-owned premises
for their own interests.
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V. Ahmed, M. Zeshan
tional human capital accumulation in the long run. In view of the aforementioned factors and
given the gaps in the literature specific to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, the objectives of
our inquiry in this paper are given as follows.
• Review outputs and outcomes associated with the stipend (CCT) allocated to female
students attending secondary school in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.
• Identify changes required in program design and compensatory schemes to enhance
progress in schooling for girls.
• Evaluate the transmission channels and their capacity to reach the poor.
• Evaluate the role played by the program in reducing the gender gap in education indicators.
• Assess the monitoring and evaluation system associated with the program.
• Review the process of stipend distribution.
• Identify the actions needed for better implementation of the program.
2 Methodology
This section briefly discusses the quantitative and qualitative tools that are used to assess the
impact of stipends on female education. The following chart summarizes the methodology
employed in the present study.
Our household survey (given the time and physical constraints in this region bordering
Afghanistan) was comprised of randomly selected households from three randomly selected
districts: Battgram, Hangu, and Shangla. In total, the sample size was 600 households. Further, 25 in-depth key informant interviews (KIIs) were also conducted in each of the specified
districts. We also validated our quantitative output through a qualitative method, for example, focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in each district. The household-level
questionnaire focused on (a) location variables, (b) employment, income and consumption
profile of households, (c) community environment, (d) availability of and access to school,
and (e) quality of school infrastructure.
This study used a limited dependent variable model for estimation purposes, also known as
a probit model. It is a maximum-likelihood estimation technique widely used in the literature
(Njong 2010; Geda et al. 2005; Ai and Norton 2003). In this model, female education depends
on multiple factors including financial well-being, access to education, family size, household
bias in favor of male children’s education, awareness, education level of household head, and
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economic conditions of the household. The detailed results of this binary response function
are discussed in the next section.
3 Results from survey exercise
This section combines our results from household-level survey data, community-level FGDs,
and KIIs with government officials and community representatives. We examine how the
stipend program has impacted the enrollment levels and public awareness about female
education. Most of the households believe that stipend money has a favorable impact on
female education and that CCTs alleviate their financial constraints as well. The districtwise
impact of the stipend program reveals that female enrollment has increased in secondary
schools in all the surveyed districts. According to the results, 93 % of families have availed
themselves of the stipend program, resulting in a 7 % increase in female enrollments over the
time period of this program. Just in Hangu and Battagram districts, female enrollment rates
increased by 16 and 12 %, respectively. It may be mentioned here that Hangu is a hard-hit
district due to the ongoing war on terrorism.
After the receipt of stipend money, females devote their relatively greater time to study,
which in turn results in a reduced dropout rate from secondary school. Transfer payments have
an income effect and make it easier for households to increase their consumption because
they have access to stipend money. Because the transfers are in the form of CCTs, though
households are free to allocate the cash received (among their competing demands) as they
see fit, but with one condition – that school attendance of female children should not drop
below 80 %. In this way, we find that the stipends reduce poverty, and results indicate that
only 49.7 % of the stipend amount is consumed for female education expenses while the rest
of it is used to meet household consumption demands. In addition, 58 % of families responded
that this stipend money was sufficient, whereas 42 % of families responded that it was not
according to their expectations. The benefits associated with stipend money are not uniform
across all households. For families earning less than PKR 5,000/month, the stipend amount
was the basic source of education for their female children. In our sample this was the case
for 82 % of households. For relatively higher income groups, the need for stipend money is
relatively less urgent.
In the absence of stipend money, the female enrollment rate at the secondary level was
found to be low at 65 %, implying that 35 % of female students might drop out in the absence
of this stipend. This confirms the importance of such CCTs for female education, particularly
for the poorest regions. On the whole, the stipend program shows a pareto improvement in
society: someone is better off without making anyone worse off. The stipend program has
brought many females to a better position with no adverse effects on society.
The data show that around 80 % of households were aware of schools, teaching staff,
infrastructure, and the stipend program. About 84 % of households reported that schools
provided basic facilities like furniture, chairs, tables, and desks; 94 % of female schools
had trained and qualified teaching staff. Hence the argument of scarcity of resources, lack
of trained teachers, and nonavailability of educational facilities is not correct; rather, other
factors are responsible for the low enrollment rates.
The enrollment rate of girls is 86 % in secondary schools, showing a structural change
toward female education. People are realizing the importance of education for females; several community members reported that educated female members can now contribute to the
development of subsequent generations. This trend is very encouraging in the Shangla district, where 97 % of females now attend secondary school. However, uneven socioeconomic
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conditions make female education less attractive, and in the overall sample, 14 % of girls were
unable to attend secondary school because of communal constraints (i.e., related to individual
or household harsh living conditions, distance to school, and lack of transportation).
The parental economic status matters greatly for female education because a sound family
background in terms of education and earnings might facilitate children’s education as well.
Results show that 32 % of dropouts were due to severe financial constraints as these families
were barely able to meet basic household needs. The distance of schools from home and
the availability of safe public transportation are important determinants of female education.
The former in particular forces parents to send their daughters to informal schools (e.g.,
madrassah). Around 81 % of the girls in our sample perform household chores, whereas 10 %
were working in nonfarm activities. On average, a female child could earn PKR 2,500/month,
and this is part of the reason that some respondents opted to drop out of secondary school.
3.1 Results from probit model
This section reports the findings based on our probit model. Household decisions are determined by various factors, including social interaction and economic and cultural aspects,
so the present study examines the impact of these factors on girls’ likelihood of attending
school. More precisely, these factors include the education level of household heads and
their spouse, family size, awareness about the benefits of education, household economic
conditions, distance of home from school, and satisfaction with services provided by the
school.
Our results reveal that all the variables in the model are statistically significant except child
illness. Family size has a negative impact on female education. A large family size reduces the
chances of female education by 0.7 % (Table 3). This phenomenon also explains the impact
of resource constraints faced by families, which in turn results in dropout or nonenrolllment.
Under such circumstances it is common to see families preferring the education of male over
female children (Mogstad and Wiswall 2009).
Attitudes toward female education are influenced by the parents’ education level. Educated parents realize the importance of education for both boys and girls. Our results confirm
that one additional year of schooling of the household head increases the chances of female
education by 1.8 %. This is also the case with the educational level of the spouse of the household head: one additional year of schooling of the spouse of the household head improves
the chances of female education by 3.3 %. Chevalier and Lanot (2002) argue that the impact
of financial constraints on female education is less important than parental educational level.
The distance of the school from the home is an important determinant of female education;
the chances that a female will receive an education decrease if the school is located far from
home. Our results indicate a negative and significant impact of an increase in distance of
the school from home. The chances of female education decrease by 2.8 % if there is a 1 %
increase in the school distance. Furthermore, the quality of education plays a role. Satisfactory
educational services have a significant impact on female education. The likelihood of female
education increases by 11 % if the family is satisfied with the educational services provided
by the school.
Family income is an important determinant of female education in the selected districts
because the average family located at a distant place faces severe resource constraints. However, smaller families with higher incomes can invest more in education, but they are few
in number. A 1 % rise in household income increases the chances of female education by
0.3 %. This result is consistent with the findings of Hobcraft and Kiernan (2001). The lack
of resources causes poor families to pull their girls out of school and put them in an informal
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Table 3 Probit model for
females attending school
Dependent variable: female attending school = 1, 0 otherwise.
Variables
Probit model
Marginal fixed effects
Illness at home
−0.11
−0.046
(0.128)
(0.051)
Spouse education
−0.02**
−0.007**
(0.006)
Household size
(0.002)
HH education
0.08***
0.033***
(0.023)
(0.009)
Radio (awareness)
0.018***
(0.002)
0.008*
.003*
(0.003)
HH income
0.05***
(0.005)
(0.0015)
0.052*
(0.057)
Economic conditions of HH
0.13*
(0.023)
0.12***
0.047***
(0.027)
(0.010)
0.03
0.011
(0.024)
Local economic conditions
(0.009)
Satisfaction with school
−0.07***
−0.028***
(0.020)
Distance from high school
(0.008)
0.110***
(0.028)
0.07***
0.0003***
(0.002)
Conditional cash transfers
0.28***
(0.072)
(0.000)
District level controls
−0.33***
−0.131***
(0.087)
Shangla
(0.033)
−0.10
−0.038
(0.082)
Bonair
(0.033)
−0.37**
−0.14**
(0.085)
Hangu
(0.033)
−0.11***
(0.036)
Battagram
−0.72***
−0.27***
(0.115)
Kohistan
The probit model uses zero and
one as its fundamental units.
Therefore, correlations may not
be very accurate. This is a
limitation of this research study
Standard errors are reported in
parentheses. ***, **, and *
indicate 1, 5, and 10 % levels of
significance, respectively. HH
Household
−0.28***
(0.094)
Tank
(0.038)
0.19***
0.074***
(0.081)
(0.032)
−0.81***
–
(0.213)
–
Observations
3,123
–
LR Chi2
394.43
Constant
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V. Ahmed, M. Zeshan
labor situation so that they can earn money to feed the family. The relationship between the
attainment of education and income has become more important in the context of increasing
income inequalities.
Household awareness about the importance of education plays a crucial role in girls’
education. If the family head recognizes the short- and long-term benefits associated with
education, then the family will be more interested in the education of girls. The present study
employs radio use at home as a proxy of awareness. Results explain that socioeconomic
awareness increases the chances of female education by 5.2 %. Economic conditions of the
household and of the local area are both essential determinants of female education. Results
indicate that improved economic conditions of a household and local area increase the chances
of female education by 4.7 and 1.1 %, respectively, consistent with Chevalier (2004).
The provincial government in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province is working under the
assumption that CCTs would increase the transitional income of households. In this way, the
government might improve the efficiency of female education in the province. Our results
indicate that this stipend money improves the chances of female education by 0.03 %, which
is very low. This result is consistent with actual government data on treatment and control
groups (given in the next section), which assert that the impact of CCTs falls after 2 years.
Hence, along with the provision of CCTs the government should eliminate other bottlenecks that represent the main hurdles preventing female education in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
province.
3.2 Results from secondary data
This section evaluates the impact of stipend money on the treatment group as compared
to the control group. The treatment group comprises the cluster of districts where CCTs
are distributed in households, whereas the control group comprises the nonprogram areas.
The treatment group includes the Battagram, Bonair, Hangu, Kohistan, Shangla, Tank, and
Upper Dir districts, whereas the control group includes the Chitral, DI Khan, Karak, Kohat,
Lakki, Lower Dir, and Malakand districts. This analysis covers the period 2006–2010. Our
examination reveals that from 2006 to 2008, school enrollments in the treatment group
increased more rapidly compared to the control group (Fig. 4). However, the relative growth
in enrollments did not remain constant for the next 2 years, implying that the impact of CCTs
Fig. 4 Enrollment in treatment and control groups (percentage change)
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An analysis of the social impact of the stipend program
starts decreasing after just 2 years. This result indicates some obstacles (other than educationrelated expenses) that discouraged female enrollments in the target districts after 2008.
4 Conclusion
In 2006, the government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in Pakistan initiated a CCT in
the form of a stipend program for female secondary-school students that aimed to increase
secondary-school enrollments among girls. In this program, stipend money in the amount
of PKR 200/month was given to each girl starting in 2006. After 1 year, in 2007, around
0.28 million female students were registered under this program. This project shows the
commitment of the provincial government to attaining MDGs. The target area of this stipend
program comprised seven backward districts, including Battagram, Bonair, Hangu, Kohistan,
Shangla, Tank, and Upper Dir. Preliminary analysis indicated that all these districts were
below the average provincial literacy rate except Upper Dir and Battagram. Other than the
low literacy rate, the gender gap is very obvious in these districts.
Our household-level survey exercise reveals that the stipend program has a significant
impact on female education because it eases household financial constraints. It has increased
female enrollment in secondary schools, and around 93 % of families have availed themselves
of the stipend program, resulting in a 7 % increase in female enrollments. Survey results
reveal that 35 % of girls might drop out in the absence of stipend money. Around 80 % of the
households were aware of schools, teaching staff, infrastructure, and the stipend program.
Approximately 84 % of households reported that the schools provided basic facilities like
furniture, chairs, tables, and desks; 94 % of female schools had trained and qualified teaching
staff.
The female secondary-school enrollment rate is 86 %, showing a structural change toward
female education. However, uneven socioeconomic conditions make female education less
attractive, and 14 % of girls were unable to attend secondary school because of constraints
related to harsh living conductions, distance from school, and lack of safe transportation.
Results showed that 32 % of the dropouts left school due to severe financial constraints;
they were barely able to meet basic household needs. Females in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa also
work in household and nonfarm activities, and 81 % of girls performed household chores,
whereas 10 % worked in nonfarm activities (making the decision for education difficult for
their households).
The results of the probit model reveal that family size has a negative impact on female
education. A marginal increase in family size decreases the chances of female education by
0.7 %. One additional year of education of the head of household has a positive and significant
impact on female education, raising the chances of female education by 1.8 %. This is also the
case with the educational level of household head’s spouse, one additional year of schooling
for whom improves the chances of female education by 3.3 %.
The chances of female education decrease by 2.8 % with a 1 % increase in distance from
school. The likelihood of a female attending school increases by 11 % if her family is satisfied
with the educational services provided by the school. A 1 % rise in family income increases the
chances of female education by 0.3 %. The results also show that if the family is aware of the
socioeconomic benefits of education, then the chances of female education increase by 5.2 %.
The economic conditions of the household and of the local area are essential determinants
of female education. Results indicate that improved economic conditions in both households
and the local area increase the chances of female education by 4.7 and 1.1 % respectively.
Finally, stipend money through CCTs improves the chances of female education by 0.03 %.
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V. Ahmed, M. Zeshan
This low level of gain associated with stipend disbursement indicates that provision of CCTs
must be supplemented by other reforms that would improve community awareness about
education, reduce the distance from school, provide safe public transportation to children,
and address lacking facilities at female schools.
4.1 Policy recommendations
Over the course of this study, we also conducted in-depth interviews with education department officials. Therefore, a few of our recommendations focus on process and institutional
mechanisms that can further strengthen the efficiency of this program. What follow are the
main policy recommendations of our study.
• For families earning less than PKR 5,000/month, the stipend amount is the basic source
of motivation for educating their children. Ensuring a smooth and timely flow of funds
can facilitate female education in these households. In the past there have been delays
in the receipt of promised stipends, which discouraged parents and in some cases led
to discontinuing a child’s education. Such lapses in the government’s own organization
need to be addressed.
• Cultural constraints make female education difficult in places, and therefore regular
awareness campaigns are recommended to reduce the impact of such taboos. Engagement
with communities can take the form of local language literature focusing on the benefits
of female education, street theaters, and the strengthening of parent–teacher associations.
• The distance of schools from home is a major impediment to female education; parents
prefer to send their daughters to informal schools (e.g., madrassah in mosques) in cases
where formal schools are far away. Accessibility to school should be made easy through
the provision of safe public transportation or by constructing new schools in far-flung
regions. The latter is only possible if there are teachers willing to serve in the distant
areas.
• Many females are involved in household chores and other nonfarm activities, which
reduces female enrollments in schools. Mandatory female education enforced by law
can increase female enrollments in secondary schools.
• The impact of financial constraints on female education is less important than parental
education. Female enrollments can be increased by educating their parents. The aforementioned awareness programs can be customized for parental knowledge.
• The stipend money only slightly improves the chances of female education because
of the many operational bottlenecks. The impact of stipend money can be increased if
government would consider and address the following impediments:
(a) Secondary education budget formulation is based upon arbitrary assumptions; a more
scientific approach by the Department of Education of the government of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa would bring greater efficiency to the system.
(b) An interdepartmental committee is needed to address coordination issues (resulting
in delayed processing of stipends), including representatives from the finance department, planning and development department, education department, Pakistan post
office, accounting general office, and Executive District Officers in the government
of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.
(c) A transparent procedure for the monitoring and evaluation of the stipend program is
required. The government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province is responsible for laying
down clear monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for the development budget in
the province in accordance with the 18th constitutional amendment in Pakistan.
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An analysis of the social impact of the stipend program
Acknowledgments The authors are economists at the Sustainable Development Policy Institute. We would
like to acknowledge the financial support of UNDP and the government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Pakistan
and the technical advice of two internal referees.
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