1. Organic chemistry deals with carbon compounds. Naming organic compounds involves identifying the carbon chain, functional group, and structure. (2)
2. Alkanes have single bonds between carbons and are generally unreactive except for combustion and halogen substitution reactions. Alkenes contain double bonds and undergo addition reactions. (3)
3. Physical properties like boiling point depend on molecular mass and structure. Functional groups determine solubility and chemical reactivity. Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but different bonding arrangements. (3)
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1. Organic compounds are found in materials like fuels, polymers, dyes and medicines. Their structures can be represented using Lewis structures, condensed formulas, and bond line drawings.
2. Organic molecules can be classified as acyclic, alicyclic, or aromatic. Nomenclature systems like IUPAC are used to systematically name organic compounds to correlate names with structures.
3. Isomerism, including chain, position, functional group, and metamerism can occur when compounds have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas.
The document provides information about organic chemistry nomenclature. It discusses the need for systematic nomenclature given the large number of known organic compounds. It introduces IUPAC nomenclature rules which allow any complex organic compound to be systematically named. The key aspects covered are:
- Root words, primary suffixes to indicate saturation/unsaturation, and secondary suffixes to indicate functional groups are used to systematically name compounds.
- Prefixes are used to indicate substituents.
- Examples demonstrate how to apply nomenclature rules to arrive at IUPAC systematic names for various organic structures.
The document discusses different types of isomerism including constitutional isomerism, stereoisomerism, and functional group isomerism. Constitutional isomers have the same molecular formula but differ in how atoms are bonded. Examples of constitutional isomers are chain isomers and position isomers. Stereoisomers have the same connectivity of atoms but differ in three-dimensional orientation. Cis-trans isomers are one type of stereoisomer. Functional group isomers have the same molecular formula but different functional groups, placing them in different homologous series with different properties.
[ Visit http://www.wewwchemistry.com ] This is a summary presentation of the introductory topics in Organic Chemistry, prepared according to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE A Level 9647 H2 Chemistry syllabus.
1. Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics are classes of organic compounds. Nomenclature systems have evolved over time to systematically name organic structures.
2. The IUPAC system involves identifying the parent chain, numbering it to give substituents the lowest numbers, and naming substituents as prefixes to the parent name.
3. Functional groups like alcohols and carboxylic acids are named by identifying the parent chain, replacing the ending with the functional group suffix, and numbering/naming substituents.
The document discusses the chemical properties of amino acids and the structure of proteins. It explains that amino acids can act as acids or bases and have ionizable groups that determine their isoelectric point. Peptides form through condensation reactions between amino acids. Proteins are polymers made of one or more polypeptide chains that combine to take on quaternary structures. The structures of proteins determine their chemical properties and functions in the body.
APEX INSTITUTE was conceptualized in May 2008, keeping in view the dreams of young students by the vision & toil of Er. Shahid Iqbal. We had a very humble beginning as an institute for IIT-JEE / Medical, with a vision to provide an ideal launch pad for serious JEE students . We actually started to make a difference in the way students think and approach problems. We started to develop ways to enhance students IQ. We started to leave an indelible mark on the students who have undergone APEX training. That is why APEX INSTITUTE is very well known of its quality of education
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1. Organic compounds are found in materials like fuels, polymers, dyes and medicines. Their structures can be represented using Lewis structures, condensed formulas, and bond line drawings.
2. Organic molecules can be classified as acyclic, alicyclic, or aromatic. Nomenclature systems like IUPAC are used to systematically name organic compounds to correlate names with structures.
3. Isomerism, including chain, position, functional group, and metamerism can occur when compounds have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas.
The document provides information about organic chemistry nomenclature. It discusses the need for systematic nomenclature given the large number of known organic compounds. It introduces IUPAC nomenclature rules which allow any complex organic compound to be systematically named. The key aspects covered are:
- Root words, primary suffixes to indicate saturation/unsaturation, and secondary suffixes to indicate functional groups are used to systematically name compounds.
- Prefixes are used to indicate substituents.
- Examples demonstrate how to apply nomenclature rules to arrive at IUPAC systematic names for various organic structures.
The document discusses different types of isomerism including constitutional isomerism, stereoisomerism, and functional group isomerism. Constitutional isomers have the same molecular formula but differ in how atoms are bonded. Examples of constitutional isomers are chain isomers and position isomers. Stereoisomers have the same connectivity of atoms but differ in three-dimensional orientation. Cis-trans isomers are one type of stereoisomer. Functional group isomers have the same molecular formula but different functional groups, placing them in different homologous series with different properties.
[ Visit http://www.wewwchemistry.com ] This is a summary presentation of the introductory topics in Organic Chemistry, prepared according to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE A Level 9647 H2 Chemistry syllabus.
1. Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics are classes of organic compounds. Nomenclature systems have evolved over time to systematically name organic structures.
2. The IUPAC system involves identifying the parent chain, numbering it to give substituents the lowest numbers, and naming substituents as prefixes to the parent name.
3. Functional groups like alcohols and carboxylic acids are named by identifying the parent chain, replacing the ending with the functional group suffix, and numbering/naming substituents.
The document discusses the chemical properties of amino acids and the structure of proteins. It explains that amino acids can act as acids or bases and have ionizable groups that determine their isoelectric point. Peptides form through condensation reactions between amino acids. Proteins are polymers made of one or more polypeptide chains that combine to take on quaternary structures. The structures of proteins determine their chemical properties and functions in the body.
APEX INSTITUTE was conceptualized in May 2008, keeping in view the dreams of young students by the vision & toil of Er. Shahid Iqbal. We had a very humble beginning as an institute for IIT-JEE / Medical, with a vision to provide an ideal launch pad for serious JEE students . We actually started to make a difference in the way students think and approach problems. We started to develop ways to enhance students IQ. We started to leave an indelible mark on the students who have undergone APEX training. That is why APEX INSTITUTE is very well known of its quality of education
This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry for A-level students. It begins with an overview of organic chemistry and the special properties of carbon that allow for the vast number of carbon compounds. It then discusses specific topics like functional groups, isomers, naming conventions (IUPAC), and more. The document is intended to help students understand key concepts in organic chemistry.
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds. The document discusses various types of organic compounds including:
1) Aliphatic compounds which contain open chains of carbon atoms.
2) Saturated and unsaturated compounds which contain single or multiple carbon bonds.
3) Aromatic compounds like benzene which have ring structures.
It also introduces IUPAC nomenclature which systematically names organic compounds based on parent chains, functional groups, and substituents using prefixes, root words, and suffixes in a standardized manner.
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-based compounds and their properties, structures, and reactions. The document outlines several important functional groups that are present in organic molecules, including hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and others. These functional groups determine the chemical reactivity and characteristics of organic compounds.
Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-containing compounds, which include not only hydrocarbons but also compounds with any number of other elements, including hydrogen (most compounds contain at least one carbon–hydrogen bond), nitrogen, oxygen,
IUPAC NOMENCLATURE_ORGANIC_for JEE(MAIN)-JEE(ADVANCED)-NEETSupratim Das
This document discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds. It begins by listing common names and IUPAC names for some simple organic molecules. It then describes the system for naming hydrocarbons based on identifying the parent chain, numbering carbons, and indicating substituents. Rules are provided for naming saturated and unsaturated compounds, cyclic compounds, branched compounds, and compounds containing common functional groups like alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, and others. Substituted benzene compounds are also discussed. The goal is to systematically name compounds to identify parent structures and functional groups.
1. To name organic compounds, identify the parent chain and any side groups. Number the parent chain to assign positions to side groups or functional groups like double/triple bonds.
2. Name the parent chain using Greek or Latin prefixes. Add suffixes to indicate functional groups like -ane, -ene, -yne.
3. Name side groups in alphabetical order and indicate their positions on the parent chain.
4. Common functional groups that require specific naming conventions include alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, ethers, esters, and amines.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons whose carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2. The first ten alkanes are methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane, heptane, octane, nonane and decane. Alkanes undergo combustion reactions and halogenation reactions when exposed to halogens like chlorine in the presence of UV light or heat. Haloalkanes are named according to IUPAC rules by identifying the parent alkane, halogen prefix, and halogen position number.
Nomenclature and introduction of major functional groupssuresh gdvm
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts for an A-Level chemistry book. It introduces the major families of organic compounds, including hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. It discusses the classification, nomenclature and isomerism of these compounds, with examples of naming various straight-chain, branched, cyclic and unsaturated hydrocarbons. It also covers the different types of isomerism including structural, stereoisomerism and geometrical isomerism.
1. The document discusses the nomenclature and classification of organic compounds including hydrocarbons, alcohols, phenols, ethers, thiols, carbonyl compounds, and carboxylic acids.
2. It describes the IUPAC principles for systematic naming including functional, substitutive, conjunctive, additive, subtractive, and replacement names.
3. The main reactions discussed are substitutions and additions for alkenes, aromaticity and electrophilic substitutions for arenes.
This document covers organic chemistry concepts including alkanes, cycloalkanes, and their nomenclature. Key points include:
- The lesson will introduce alkanes and cycloalkanes, with two quizzes to follow. Naming and drawing structural formulas using IUPAC nomenclature will be covered.
- Standards include describing homologous series, naming organic compounds using IUPAC, and drawing and naming alkanes and cyclic structures up to C10.
- Introduction covers bonding rules for carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and halogens in organic compounds. Bonding and structural representations such as Lewis, condensed and line structures are defined.
The document discusses the nomenclature and naming conventions of organic compounds. It begins by explaining how early organic chemists assigned names based on properties or origins, but as more compounds were discovered a standardized system was needed. The body then defines different types of isomers and provides examples. It also outlines IUPAC naming rules such as identifying the parent chain, numbering substituents, and listing them alphabetically. Examples are given to demonstrate writing names and formulas. The conclusion states that understanding naming is important as many current issues involve organic compounds.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry. It discusses the structural representation of organic compounds including Lewis structures, condensed formulas, and bond line drawings. It also describes three-dimensional representations using wedge and dash notation. Additionally, it covers the classification of organic compounds into acyclic, alicyclic, and aromatic groups. The document discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules and naming conventions for functional groups, hydrocarbons, and cyclic compounds. It also touches on isomerism, reaction mechanisms, and common purification methods like crystallization, distillation, and extraction.
Introduction to organic chemistry Foundation In scienceMSU MALAYSIA
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. The four main types of hydrocarbons are saturated, unsaturated, aliphatic, and aromatic. Saturated hydrocarbons contain only single bonds and their general formula is CnH2n+2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain double or triple bonds and include alkenes and alkynes. Aromatic hydrocarbons contain benzene or benzene-like rings. Functional groups are atoms or groups of atoms that are largely responsible for the chemical behavior of organic compounds. Common functional groups include alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, and amines. Organic compounds can exhibit isomerism when they
This document discusses the structure, nomenclature, properties, and synthesis of hydrocarbons. It defines hydrocarbons as compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with an open chain structure. Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2. Constitutional isomers have the same molecular formula but different connectivity of atoms. Higher molecular weight alkanes are liquids or solids at room temperature due to dispersion forces between molecules. Alkanes are important energy sources due to their high heat of combustion when oxidized. Natural gas, petroleum, and coal are major natural sources of alkanes.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry structure and nomenclature. It discusses various ways of representing organic molecules, including 3D formulas, skeletal formulas, and structural formulas. Skeletal formulas are emphasized as they make organic structures easier to understand. The document also covers IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds based on functional groups and carbon chain length and structure. Finally, it discusses different types of isomerism that can occur in organic molecules, including structural isomers, stereoisomers (cis-trans and optical), and functional group isomers.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1) Classification of organic compounds such as hydrocarbons, functional group compounds, and aromatic compounds.
2) Isomerism including structural and stereoisomerism.
3) Bonding theories such as hybridization and resonance that explain organic compound structures and properties.
4) Reactions of organic compounds including substitution, addition, elimination, and oxidation reactions. Mechanisms such as electrophilic addition, free radical halogenation and the effects of stability and electronic effects are discussed.
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds and their properties, structures, compositions, and reactions. Compounds can be acyclic (open chain) or cyclic (closed chain) and contain other elements like hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, halogens, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur. Organic compounds are also classified as aliphatic or aromatic depending on whether they contain benzene rings or other heterocyclic rings. Isomerism is an important concept where compounds with the same molecular formula can exist in different structural or geometric forms.
a. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
b. No, cis-trans isomerism is not possible due to symmetry.
c. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
d. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
85
Sources of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
Alkanes and cycloalkanes are found in petroleum
and natural gas. Petroleum is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons that is formed from the remains of
ancient marine organisms. Natural gas is a gaseous
fossil fuel composed primarily of methane but also
containing significant quantities of ethane
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. There are four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids. Secondary structures form based on hydrogen bonding patterns between amino acids. The two main secondary structures are the alpha helix, where amino acids coil into a helical shape, and the beta sheet, where amino acids align into beta strands connected by hydrogen bonds.
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. There are four levels of protein structure - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids. The two most common types of secondary structure are the alpha helix and beta sheet. In an alpha helix, amino acid residues form a coil stabilized by hydrogen bonds between residues four places apart in the sequence. In a beta sheet, residues form extended zigzag patterns stabilized by hydrogen bonds between residues on adjacent strands running in parallel or anti-parallel directions.
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They have four levels of structure - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the amino acid sequence. Common secondary structures are alpha helices and beta sheets formed by hydrogen bonding between amino acids. Tertiary structure refers to the overall 3D structure formed from secondary structures. Quaternary structure involves interactions between multiple polypeptide subunits.
This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry for A-level students. It begins with an overview of organic chemistry and the special properties of carbon that allow for the vast number of carbon compounds. It then discusses specific topics like functional groups, isomers, naming conventions (IUPAC), and more. The document is intended to help students understand key concepts in organic chemistry.
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds. The document discusses various types of organic compounds including:
1) Aliphatic compounds which contain open chains of carbon atoms.
2) Saturated and unsaturated compounds which contain single or multiple carbon bonds.
3) Aromatic compounds like benzene which have ring structures.
It also introduces IUPAC nomenclature which systematically names organic compounds based on parent chains, functional groups, and substituents using prefixes, root words, and suffixes in a standardized manner.
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-based compounds and their properties, structures, and reactions. The document outlines several important functional groups that are present in organic molecules, including hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and others. These functional groups determine the chemical reactivity and characteristics of organic compounds.
Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-containing compounds, which include not only hydrocarbons but also compounds with any number of other elements, including hydrogen (most compounds contain at least one carbon–hydrogen bond), nitrogen, oxygen,
IUPAC NOMENCLATURE_ORGANIC_for JEE(MAIN)-JEE(ADVANCED)-NEETSupratim Das
This document discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds. It begins by listing common names and IUPAC names for some simple organic molecules. It then describes the system for naming hydrocarbons based on identifying the parent chain, numbering carbons, and indicating substituents. Rules are provided for naming saturated and unsaturated compounds, cyclic compounds, branched compounds, and compounds containing common functional groups like alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, and others. Substituted benzene compounds are also discussed. The goal is to systematically name compounds to identify parent structures and functional groups.
1. To name organic compounds, identify the parent chain and any side groups. Number the parent chain to assign positions to side groups or functional groups like double/triple bonds.
2. Name the parent chain using Greek or Latin prefixes. Add suffixes to indicate functional groups like -ane, -ene, -yne.
3. Name side groups in alphabetical order and indicate their positions on the parent chain.
4. Common functional groups that require specific naming conventions include alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, ethers, esters, and amines.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons whose carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2. The first ten alkanes are methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane, heptane, octane, nonane and decane. Alkanes undergo combustion reactions and halogenation reactions when exposed to halogens like chlorine in the presence of UV light or heat. Haloalkanes are named according to IUPAC rules by identifying the parent alkane, halogen prefix, and halogen position number.
Nomenclature and introduction of major functional groupssuresh gdvm
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts for an A-Level chemistry book. It introduces the major families of organic compounds, including hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. It discusses the classification, nomenclature and isomerism of these compounds, with examples of naming various straight-chain, branched, cyclic and unsaturated hydrocarbons. It also covers the different types of isomerism including structural, stereoisomerism and geometrical isomerism.
1. The document discusses the nomenclature and classification of organic compounds including hydrocarbons, alcohols, phenols, ethers, thiols, carbonyl compounds, and carboxylic acids.
2. It describes the IUPAC principles for systematic naming including functional, substitutive, conjunctive, additive, subtractive, and replacement names.
3. The main reactions discussed are substitutions and additions for alkenes, aromaticity and electrophilic substitutions for arenes.
This document covers organic chemistry concepts including alkanes, cycloalkanes, and their nomenclature. Key points include:
- The lesson will introduce alkanes and cycloalkanes, with two quizzes to follow. Naming and drawing structural formulas using IUPAC nomenclature will be covered.
- Standards include describing homologous series, naming organic compounds using IUPAC, and drawing and naming alkanes and cyclic structures up to C10.
- Introduction covers bonding rules for carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and halogens in organic compounds. Bonding and structural representations such as Lewis, condensed and line structures are defined.
The document discusses the nomenclature and naming conventions of organic compounds. It begins by explaining how early organic chemists assigned names based on properties or origins, but as more compounds were discovered a standardized system was needed. The body then defines different types of isomers and provides examples. It also outlines IUPAC naming rules such as identifying the parent chain, numbering substituents, and listing them alphabetically. Examples are given to demonstrate writing names and formulas. The conclusion states that understanding naming is important as many current issues involve organic compounds.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry. It discusses the structural representation of organic compounds including Lewis structures, condensed formulas, and bond line drawings. It also describes three-dimensional representations using wedge and dash notation. Additionally, it covers the classification of organic compounds into acyclic, alicyclic, and aromatic groups. The document discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules and naming conventions for functional groups, hydrocarbons, and cyclic compounds. It also touches on isomerism, reaction mechanisms, and common purification methods like crystallization, distillation, and extraction.
Introduction to organic chemistry Foundation In scienceMSU MALAYSIA
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. The four main types of hydrocarbons are saturated, unsaturated, aliphatic, and aromatic. Saturated hydrocarbons contain only single bonds and their general formula is CnH2n+2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain double or triple bonds and include alkenes and alkynes. Aromatic hydrocarbons contain benzene or benzene-like rings. Functional groups are atoms or groups of atoms that are largely responsible for the chemical behavior of organic compounds. Common functional groups include alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, and amines. Organic compounds can exhibit isomerism when they
This document discusses the structure, nomenclature, properties, and synthesis of hydrocarbons. It defines hydrocarbons as compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with an open chain structure. Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2. Constitutional isomers have the same molecular formula but different connectivity of atoms. Higher molecular weight alkanes are liquids or solids at room temperature due to dispersion forces between molecules. Alkanes are important energy sources due to their high heat of combustion when oxidized. Natural gas, petroleum, and coal are major natural sources of alkanes.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry structure and nomenclature. It discusses various ways of representing organic molecules, including 3D formulas, skeletal formulas, and structural formulas. Skeletal formulas are emphasized as they make organic structures easier to understand. The document also covers IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds based on functional groups and carbon chain length and structure. Finally, it discusses different types of isomerism that can occur in organic molecules, including structural isomers, stereoisomers (cis-trans and optical), and functional group isomers.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1) Classification of organic compounds such as hydrocarbons, functional group compounds, and aromatic compounds.
2) Isomerism including structural and stereoisomerism.
3) Bonding theories such as hybridization and resonance that explain organic compound structures and properties.
4) Reactions of organic compounds including substitution, addition, elimination, and oxidation reactions. Mechanisms such as electrophilic addition, free radical halogenation and the effects of stability and electronic effects are discussed.
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds and their properties, structures, compositions, and reactions. Compounds can be acyclic (open chain) or cyclic (closed chain) and contain other elements like hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, halogens, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur. Organic compounds are also classified as aliphatic or aromatic depending on whether they contain benzene rings or other heterocyclic rings. Isomerism is an important concept where compounds with the same molecular formula can exist in different structural or geometric forms.
a. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
b. No, cis-trans isomerism is not possible due to symmetry.
c. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
d. Yes, cis-trans isomerism is possible. Draw structures.
85
Sources of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
Alkanes and cycloalkanes are found in petroleum
and natural gas. Petroleum is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons that is formed from the remains of
ancient marine organisms. Natural gas is a gaseous
fossil fuel composed primarily of methane but also
containing significant quantities of ethane
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. There are four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids. Secondary structures form based on hydrogen bonding patterns between amino acids. The two main secondary structures are the alpha helix, where amino acids coil into a helical shape, and the beta sheet, where amino acids align into beta strands connected by hydrogen bonds.
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. There are four levels of protein structure - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids. The two most common types of secondary structure are the alpha helix and beta sheet. In an alpha helix, amino acid residues form a coil stabilized by hydrogen bonds between residues four places apart in the sequence. In a beta sheet, residues form extended zigzag patterns stabilized by hydrogen bonds between residues on adjacent strands running in parallel or anti-parallel directions.
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They have four levels of structure - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the amino acid sequence. Common secondary structures are alpha helices and beta sheets formed by hydrogen bonding between amino acids. Tertiary structure refers to the overall 3D structure formed from secondary structures. Quaternary structure involves interactions between multiple polypeptide subunits.
The document discusses the IUPAC system of nomenclature for naming organic compounds. It explains the key concepts of word roots, prefixes, suffixes, functional groups and rules for naming compounds. The longest carbon chain is identified and numbered from the end closest to the first branch or substituent. Functional groups and multiple bonds are given priority in numbering over substituents.
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They have four levels of structure - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The primary structure is the amino acid sequence. Secondary structures include alpha helices and beta sheets formed by hydrogen bonding. Tertiary structure is the overall 3D shape formed by interactions between secondary structures. Quaternary structure refers to the arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits in a protein.
Here are the key definitions you need to know regarding isomerism:
- Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different connectivity of atoms. They have different structural formulas.
- Stereoisomers are compounds with the same connectivity of atoms (structural formula) but with a different spatial arrangement. The chemical and physical properties are very similar.
- E/Z isomerism refers specifically to stereoisomers around a double bond. The groups on each side of the double bond are either on the same side (cis isomer) or opposite sides (trans isomer).
- Enantiomers are non-superimposable mirror images and an example of stereoisomers. They have identical
The document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1. The main classes of organic compounds are hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, and aromatic compounds.
2. Hydrocarbons are divided into alkanes, alkenes and alkynes based on the presence of single, double or triple carbon bonds. Nomenclature provides the naming structure for different compounds.
3. Functional groups determine the properties and reactivity of organic molecules. Common reactions include combustion, substitution, and addition. Isomers have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas.
Amines are derivatives of ammonia with one or more alkyl groups bonded to the nitrogen. They can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on having one, two, or three alkyl groups respectively. Amines exhibit basic properties due to the lone pair on the nitrogen. The basicity depends on factors like resonance, hybridization, and substituents. Amines undergo reactions like substitution, alkylation, and reactions with carbonyl compounds to form imines. Some amines like pyridine are deactivated toward electrophilic aromatic substitution.
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen. There are two main types of hydrocarbons: aliphatic and aromatic. Aliphatic hydrocarbons can be classified as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, or cycloalkanes depending on the presence of single, double, or triple carbon bonds. Alkanes contain only single bonds and follow the general formula CnH2n+2. Common reactions of alkanes include combustion and halogenation. Alkenes contain double bonds and have the formula CnH2n. They exhibit geometric isomerism and undergo addition reactions. Alkynes have triple bonds and the
Here are the key factors that determine the major product of free radical halogenation of alkanes:
- Halogens prefer to substitute at tertiary > secondary > primary carbon atoms. This is because tertiary radicals are more stable than secondary which are more stable than primary.
- For isomeric structures with the same degree of substitution (e.g. 2-methylbutane vs 3-methylbutane), the major product will be the one where the halogen substitutes to give a more substituted structure.
- Markovnikov's rule states that for addition to alkenes and alkynes, halogens will add on the side of the carbon atom that has the most hydrogen atoms. This
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. Carbon forms strong covalent bonds and can form long chains and rings, resulting in a vast number of possible structures. Organic molecules are classified based on their functional groups, such as alkanes (no functional group), alkenes (C=C double bond), and haloalkanes (halogen atom attached to carbon). Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures, including positional isomers (functional group in a different position), chain isomers (different carbon skeleton arrangement), and functional isomers (different functional groups). Nomenclature involves naming compounds based on the parent chain, functional groups, and location of any branches.
HYDROCARBON ALAKANE ALKENE AND ALKYNE.pptzilamaskam1
This document discusses organic chemistry concepts including:
- Defining organic compounds and listing common elements found in them
- Examples of organic compounds used in various industries
- Different types of bonds and distinguishing saturated and unsaturated compounds
- Drawing structural formulas and identifying carbon atom types
- Naming conventions for alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes like using IUPAC nomenclature
- General formulas for different hydrocarbon groups and practice drawing their structures
The document discusses carbon, an essential component of cells. Carbon permeates all living things, from the structural organization of cells to energy requirements and genetic information storage. Carbon is necessary for the existence of the biosphere. The document then discusses how hydrogen and other elements bond covalently to carbon to form important organic compounds in living things like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It also examines the electronic configuration and hybridization of carbon atoms that allows them to form chains, branches, and rings with other carbon and non-carbon atoms.
This document discusses hydrocarbons including alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes. It covers their structures, nomenclature, physical properties, and chemical reactions. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. Their properties include increasing boiling point with longer carbon chains. Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and have the general formulas CnH2n for acyclic and CnH2n-2 for cyclic. Alkynes have carbon-carbon triple bonds with the general formula C2H2n-2. Both alkenes and alkynes undergo reactions of addition and oxidation. This document provides detailed information on naming conventions and structural is
This document discusses alkanes, which are organic compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen. Alkanes contain chains or rings of single-bonded carbon atoms. Key points include:
- Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n+2. Butane and larger alkanes can exhibit structural isomerism.
- The IUPAC system is used to systematically name alkanes based on the number and position of carbon atoms and any substituents.
- Common alkyl substituents and their names are given. Examples of naming substituted alkanes are provided.
- At high temperatures, alkanes undergo combustion reactions with oxygen to produce
This document provides a summary of Lesson 1 from an organic chemistry textbook chapter on carbon compounds. It covers 10 learning objectives related to the unique properties of carbon, isomers, functional groups, saturated vs unsaturated compounds, and IUPAC naming conventions. Key topics include how carbon can form multiple bonds and chains/rings, the importance of functional groups for classifying compounds, and systematic naming of organic molecules.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry. It discusses the structures of organic compounds including Lewis structures, condensed structures, and bond line representations. It also describes three-dimensional representations using wedges and dashes. The document classifies organic compounds as acyclic, alicyclic, or aromatic. It discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds including hydrocarbons, functional groups, and isomers. Finally, it briefly touches on reaction mechanisms and bond cleavage in organic reactions.
This document discusses alkanes, which are saturated hydrocarbons composed of carbon and hydrogen. Alkanes can undergo structural isomerism when they have the same molecular formula but different bonding arrangements. The document outlines rules for naming alkanes based on backbone chain length and substituent position. Common alkyl substituents and their names are listed. Combustion and substitution reactions of alkanes are described. Cyclic alkanes can form rings of carbon atoms connected by single bonds.
The document discusses organic chemistry topics including:
- Classes of organic compounds such as aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, and functional groups.
- Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 and contain only single bonds. Cycloalkanes contain carbon atoms joined in rings.
- Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and have the general formula CnH2n. Alkynes contain carbon-carbon triple bonds and have the formula CnH2n-2.
- Aromatic compounds contain benzene rings, and their naming involves indicating substituted groups on the ring.
A tale of scale & speed: How the US Navy is enabling software delivery from l...sonjaschweigert1
Rapid and secure feature delivery is a goal across every application team and every branch of the DoD. The Navy’s DevSecOps platform, Party Barge, has achieved:
- Reduction in onboarding time from 5 weeks to 1 day
- Improved developer experience and productivity through actionable findings and reduction of false positives
- Maintenance of superior security standards and inherent policy enforcement with Authorization to Operate (ATO)
Development teams can ship efficiently and ensure applications are cyber ready for Navy Authorizing Officials (AOs). In this webinar, Sigma Defense and Anchore will give attendees a look behind the scenes and demo secure pipeline automation and security artifacts that speed up application ATO and time to production.
We will cover:
- How to remove silos in DevSecOps
- How to build efficient development pipeline roles and component templates
- How to deliver security artifacts that matter for ATO’s (SBOMs, vulnerability reports, and policy evidence)
- How to streamline operations with automated policy checks on container images
GridMate - End to end testing is a critical piece to ensure quality and avoid...ThomasParaiso2
End to end testing is a critical piece to ensure quality and avoid regressions. In this session, we share our journey building an E2E testing pipeline for GridMate components (LWC and Aura) using Cypress, JSForce, FakerJS…
Alt. GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using ...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
GraphSummit Singapore | The Future of Agility: Supercharging Digital Transfor...Neo4j
Leonard Jayamohan, Partner & Generative AI Lead, Deloitte
This keynote will reveal how Deloitte leverages Neo4j’s graph power for groundbreaking digital twin solutions, achieving a staggering 100x performance boost. Discover the essential role knowledge graphs play in successful generative AI implementations. Plus, get an exclusive look at an innovative Neo4j + Generative AI solution Deloitte is developing in-house.
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
Unlocking Productivity: Leveraging the Potential of Copilot in Microsoft 365, a presentation by Christoforos Vlachos, Senior Solutions Manager – Modern Workplace, Uni Systems
Climate Impact of Software Testing at Nordic Testing DaysKari Kakkonen
My slides at Nordic Testing Days 6.6.2024
Climate impact / sustainability of software testing discussed on the talk. ICT and testing must carry their part of global responsibility to help with the climat warming. We can minimize the carbon footprint but we can also have a carbon handprint, a positive impact on the climate. Quality characteristics can be added with sustainability, and then measured continuously. Test environments can be used less, and in smaller scale and on demand. Test techniques can be used in optimizing or minimizing number of tests. Test automation can be used to speed up testing.
In his public lecture, Christian Timmerer provides insights into the fascinating history of video streaming, starting from its humble beginnings before YouTube to the groundbreaking technologies that now dominate platforms like Netflix and ORF ON. Timmerer also presents provocative contributions of his own that have significantly influenced the industry. He concludes by looking at future challenges and invites the audience to join in a discussion.
Generative AI Deep Dive: Advancing from Proof of Concept to ProductionAggregage
Join Maher Hanafi, VP of Engineering at Betterworks, in this new session where he'll share a practical framework to transform Gen AI prototypes into impactful products! He'll delve into the complexities of data collection and management, model selection and optimization, and ensuring security, scalability, and responsible use.
zkStudyClub - Reef: Fast Succinct Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Regex ProofsAlex Pruden
This paper presents Reef, a system for generating publicly verifiable succinct non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs that a committed document matches or does not match a regular expression. We describe applications such as proving the strength of passwords, the provenance of email despite redactions, the validity of oblivious DNS queries, and the existence of mutations in DNA. Reef supports the Perl Compatible Regular Expression syntax, including wildcards, alternation, ranges, capture groups, Kleene star, negations, and lookarounds. Reef introduces a new type of automata, Skipping Alternating Finite Automata (SAFA), that skips irrelevant parts of a document when producing proofs without undermining soundness, and instantiates SAFA with a lookup argument. Our experimental evaluation confirms that Reef can generate proofs for documents with 32M characters; the proofs are small and cheap to verify (under a second).
Paper: https://eprint.iacr.org/2023/1886
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
Communications Mining Series - Zero to Hero - Session 1DianaGray10
This session provides introduction to UiPath Communication Mining, importance and platform overview. You will acquire a good understand of the phases in Communication Mining as we go over the platform with you. Topics covered:
• Communication Mining Overview
• Why is it important?
• How can it help today’s business and the benefits
• Phases in Communication Mining
• Demo on Platform overview
• Q/A
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
Removing Uninteresting Bytes in Software FuzzingAftab Hussain
Imagine a world where software fuzzing, the process of mutating bytes in test seeds to uncover hidden and erroneous program behaviors, becomes faster and more effective. A lot depends on the initial seeds, which can significantly dictate the trajectory of a fuzzing campaign, particularly in terms of how long it takes to uncover interesting behaviour in your code. We introduce DIAR, a technique designed to speedup fuzzing campaigns by pinpointing and eliminating those uninteresting bytes in the seeds. Picture this: instead of wasting valuable resources on meaningless mutations in large, bloated seeds, DIAR removes the unnecessary bytes, streamlining the entire process.
In this work, we equipped AFL, a popular fuzzer, with DIAR and examined two critical Linux libraries -- Libxml's xmllint, a tool for parsing xml documents, and Binutil's readelf, an essential debugging and security analysis command-line tool used to display detailed information about ELF (Executable and Linkable Format). Our preliminary results show that AFL+DIAR does not only discover new paths more quickly but also achieves higher coverage overall. This work thus showcases how starting with lean and optimized seeds can lead to faster, more comprehensive fuzzing campaigns -- and DIAR helps you find such seeds.
- These are slides of the talk given at IEEE International Conference on Software Testing Verification and Validation Workshop, ICSTW 2022.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 5DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 5. In this session, we will cover CI/CD with devops.
Topics covered:
CI/CD with in UiPath
End-to-end overview of CI/CD pipeline with Azure devops
Speaker:
Lyndsey Byblow, Test Suite Sales Engineer @ UiPath, Inc.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 5
Alcohols
1. 10 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Functional groups and homologous series
NAMING ORGANIC This may come at the beginning or at HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
COMPOUNDS the end of the name, e.g. The alkanes form a series of compounds
Organic chemistry is concerned with alkane: only hydrogen (-H) joined all with the general formula CnH2n+2,
the compounds of carbon. Since there to chain = -e e.g.
are more compounds of carbon alcohol: –OH = -ol
methane CH4
known than all the other elements put amine: –NH2 = amino-
together, it is helpful to have a ethane C2H6
halogenoalkane: -X: chloro-,
systematic way of naming them. bromo, or iodo- propane C3H8
1. Identify the longest carbon chain. O butane C4H10
1 carbon = meth- ||
2 carbons = eth- aldehyde: –C–H (on the end of the If one of the hydrogen atoms is removed
3 carbons = prop- chain) = -al what is left is known as an alkyl radical
4 carbons = but- R – (e.g methyl CH3–; ethyl C2H5–).
O
5 carbons = pent- || When other atoms or groups are
6 carbons = hex- ketone: – C – (not on the end of attached to an alkyl radical they can
7 carbons = hept- the chain) = -one form a different series of compounds.
8 carbons = oct- These atoms or groups attached are
O
|| known as functional groups and the
2. Identify the type of bonding in the carboxylic acid: – C–OH = -oic series formed are all homologous series.
chain or ring acid
All single bonds in the carbon Homologous series have the same
chain = -an- OO general formula with the neighbouring
|| members of the series differing by –CH2;
One double bond in the carbon ester: – C–OR: = -oate
chain = -en- for example the general formula of
One triple bond in the carbon 4. Numbers are used to give the alcohols is CnH2n+1OH. The chemical
chain = -yn- positions of groups or bonds along properties of the individual members of
the chain. an homologous series are similar and
3. Identify the functional group they show a gradual change in physical
joined to the chain or ring. properties.
SOME COMMON FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Formula Name Examples
R–H alkane H–C–H H– C– C– C– C–H H– C– C– C– H
methane butane 2-methylpropane
R–OH alcohol H–C–C–O–H H–C–C–C–O–H H–C–C– C– H
ethanol propan-1-ol propan-2-ol
R–NH2 amine H–C–C–N H–C–C–C–C–H
ethylamine (aminoethane) 2-aminobutane
Cl Cl Cl H
R–X halogenoalkane H – C – C – Br H–C–C–H H–C–C– H
(X = F, Cl, Br, or I) Cl
bromoethane 1,2-dichloroethane 1,1-dichloroethane
O O O
R–C–H aldehyde H–C–C H–C–C–C
H H
ethanal propanal
O O O O
R–C–R´ ketone H3C – C – CH3 H3C – C – CH2 – CH2– CH3 H3C – CH2 – C – CH2– CH3
(R´ may be the same
as or different to R) propanone pentan-2-one pentan-3-one
O O O
R–C–OH carboxylic acid H–C C2H5 – C
O–H O–H
methanoic acid propanoic acid
O O O
R–C–OR´ ester H–C–C–O–C–C–H H – C – O – C3H7
ethyl ethanoate propyl methanoate
Organic chemistry 61
2. Properties of different functional groups Structural isomers
BOILING POINTS STRUCTURES OF HYDROCARBONS
As the carbon chain gets longer the mass of the molecules increases and the van der Isomers of alkanes
H–C–C–C–C–C–H
Waals’ forces of attraction increase. A plot of boiling point against number of carbon Each carbon atom contains four single
atoms shows a sharp increase at first, as the percentage increase in mass is high, but as b. pt 36.3 °C bonds. There is only one possible
successive –CH2– groups are added the rate of increase in boiling point decreases. structure for each of methane, ethane,
H
and propane however two structures of
When branching occurs the molecules become more spherical in shape, which reduces
butane are possible.
the contact surface area between them and lowers the boiling point. butane 2-methylpropane
Other homologous series show similar trends but the actual temperatures at which the b. pt 27.9 °C
compounds boil will depend on the types of attractive forces between the molecules.
H
The volatility of the compounds also follows the same pattern. The lower members of These are examples of structural isomers.
the alkanes are all gases as the attractive forces are weak and the next few members are Structural isomers have the same
volatile liquids. Methanol, the first member of the alcohols is a liquid at room molecular formula but a different
temperature, due to the presence of hydrogen bonding. Methanol is classed as volatile structural formula. They normally have
H b. pt 9.5 °C
as its boiling point is 64.5 °C but when there are four or more carbon atoms in the similar chemical properties but their
chain the boiling points exceed 100 °C and the higher alcohols have low volatility. physical properties may be slightly pentane 2-methylbutane 2,2-dimethylpropane
Compound Formula Mr Functional group Strongest type of attraction B. pt / °C different. There are three structural (b. pt 36.3 °C) (b. pt 27.9 °C) (b. pt 9.5 °C)
isomers of pentane.
butane C4H10 58 alkane van der Waals’ –0.5
butene C4H8 56 alkene van der Waals’ –6.2
butyne C4H6 54 alkyne van der Waals’ 8.1
Structures of alkenes
methyl methanoate HCOOCH3 60 ester dipole:dipole 31.5 Ethene and propene only CH3 CH2 – CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
propanal CH3CH2CHO 58 aldehyde dipole:dipole 48.8 have one possible structure CH3
propanone CH3COCH3 58 ketone dipole:dipole 56.2 each but butene has three
structural isomers. ethene propene but-1-ene but-2-ene 2-methylpropene
aminopropane CH3CH2CH2NH2 59 amine hydrogen bonding 48.6
propan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2OH 60 alcohol hydrogen bonding 97.2
ethanoic acid CH3COOH 60 carboxylic acid hydrogen bonding 118 CLASSIFICATION OF ALCOHOLS AND NAMING STRUCTURAL ISOMERS
HALOGENOALKANES The naming system explained on page 61 is known as the IUPAC
Alcohols and halogenoalkanes may be classified (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system. The
SOLUBILITY IN WATER according to how many R- groups and how many IUPAC names to distinguish between structural isomers of alcohols,
Whether or not an organic compound will be soluble in water depends on the polarity of the functional group and on the chain hydrogen atoms are bonded to the carbon atom aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and halogenoalkanes
length. The lower members of alcohols, amines, aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids are all water soluble. However, as the containing the functional group. containing up to six carbon atoms are required.
length of the non-polar hydrocarbon chain increases the solubility in water decreases. For example, ethanol and water mix in all
For example, four different structural isomers with the molecular
proportions, but hexan-1-ol is only slightly soluble in water. Compounds with non-polar functional groups, such as alkanes, and
primary (on R-group bonded to C atom) formula C6H12O are shown.
alkenes, do not dissolve in water but are soluble in other non-polar solvents. Propan-1-ol is a good solvent because it contains
both polar and non-polar groups and can to some extent dissolve both polar and non-polar substances. H H
H
R C OH R C Br
H C H
STRUCTURAL FORMULAS H H H H O
The difference between the empirical, molecular and structural formulas of a compound has been covered in Topic 1 -
H C C C C
quantitative chemistry. Because the physical and chemical properties of organic compounds are determined by the functional secondary (two R-group bonded to C atom)
group and the arrangement of carbon atoms within the molecule, the structural formulas for organic compounds are often used. R may be the same as R' or different H H H H H O H
H H
The structural formula unambiguously shows how the atoms are bonded together. All the hydrogen atoms must be shown when H H H C C C C C C H C H
drawing organic structures. The skeletal formula showing just the carbon atoms without the hydrogen atoms is not acceptable R C OH R C Br
H
H H H H H H
except for benzene (see below). However, unless specifically asked, Lewis structures showing all the valence electrons are not
necessary. The bonding must be clearly indicated. Structures may be shown using lines as bonds or in their shortened form e.g. R' R' or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CHO CH3C(CH3)2CH2CHO
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 or CH3–(CH2)3–CH3 for pentane but the molecular formula C5H12 will not suffice. hexanal 3,3-dimethylbutanal
Tertiary (three R-group bonded to C atom)
H H H H H H H R" R" H H
H C C C C C C H C C C C C C H C R C OH R C Br H C H H C H
H
C C H O H H H O H H
H H H H H H R' R'
C C H C C C C C H H C C C C C H
structural formula of hexane skeletal formula of hexane H C H
also acceptable not acceptable as structural formula H H H H H H H H
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 H
or CH3COCH(CH3)CH2CH3 or CH3CH(CH3)COCH2CH3
three different ways of showing the structural formula
and CH3(CH2)4CH3
of benzene, all are acceptable
3-methylpentan-2-one 2-methylpentan-3-one
62 Organic chemistry Organic chemistry 63
3. Alkanes Alkenes
LOW REACTIVITY OF ALKANES MECHANISM OF CHLORINATION ADDITION REACTIONS
Because of the relatively strong C–C and C–H bonds and OF METHANE The bond enthalpy of the C=C double bond in alkenes has a value of 612 kJ mol–1. This is less than twice the average value of
because they have low polarity, alkanes tend to be quite The mechanism of an organic reaction describes the 348 kJ mol–1 for the C–C single bond and accounts for the relative reactivity of alkenes compared to alkanes. The most important
unreactive. They only readily undergo combustion reactions individual steps. When chemical bonds break they may reactions of alkenes are addition reactions. Reactive molecules are able to add across the double bond. The double bond is said
with oxygen and substitution reactions with halogens in break heterolytically or homolytically. In heterolytic fission to be unsaturated and the product, in which each carbon atom is bonded by four single bonds, is said to be saturated.
ultraviolet light. both of the shared electrons go to one of the atoms resulting
in a negative and a positive ion. In homolytic fission each of
the two atoms forming the bond retains one of the shared C=C + X –Y –C–C–
electrons resulting in the formation of two free radicals. The unsaturated saturated
bond between two halogen atoms is weaker than the C–H
COMBUSTION or C–C bond in methane and can break homolytically in the Addition reactions include the addition of hydrogen, bromine, hydrogen halides, and water.
Alkanes are hydrocarbons - compounds that contain carbon presence of ultraviolet light.
and hydrogen only. All hydrocarbons burn in a plentiful
Cl2 → Cl• + Cl•
supply of oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water. The
general equation for the combustion of any hydrocarbon is: This stage of the mechanism is called initiation. H–C–C–H
y y
CxHy + (x + )O2 → xCO2 + H2O Free radicals contain an unpaired electron and are highly
4 2
reactive. When the chlorine free radicals come into contact
Although the C–C and C–H bonds are strong the C=O and with a methane molecule they combine with a hydrogen (alkane)
O–H bonds in the products are even stronger so the reaction is atom to produce hydrogen chloride and a methyl radical.
very exothermic and much use is made of the alkanes as fuels. H2
H3C–H + Cl• → H3C• + Cl•
e.g natural gas (methane)
Since a new radical is produced this stage of the mechanism
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ΔH o = –890.4 kJ mol–1 is called propagation. The methyl free radical is also
Br Br Br
HBr Br2
extremely reactive and reacts with a chlorine molecule to H–C–C–H C=C H–C–C–H
gasoline (petrol)
form the product and regenerate another chlorine radical.
C8H18(l) + 121⁄2O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 9H2O(l) ΔH o = –5512 kJ mol–1 This is a further propagation step and enables a chain
reaction to occur as the process can repeat itself. bromoethane H2O 1,2-dibromoethane
If there is an insufficient supply of oxygen then incomplete (halogenoalkane) (H2SO4 catalyst) (dihalogenoalkane)
combustion occurs and carbon monoxide and carbon are also CH3 + Cl2 → CH3–Cl + Cl•
•
produced as products. In theory a single chlorine radical may cause up to 10 000 OH
molecules of chloromethane to be formed. Termination
H–C–C–H
occurs when two radicals react together.
Cl • + Cl • → Cl2 ⎫
SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS CH3 + Cl • → CH3Cl
•
⎬ termination
(alcohol)
Alkanes can react with chlorine (or other halogens) in the CH3 + CH3 → C2H6
• • ⎭
presence of ultraviolet light to form hydrogen chloride and a
substituted alkane, e.g. methane can react with chlorine to Further substitution can occur when chlorine radicals react
with the substituted products. For example: USES OF ADDITION ADDITION POLYMERIZATION
form chloromethane and ethane can react with bromine to
REACTIONS Under certain conditions ethene can also undergo addition reactions with itself
form bromoethane.
H H 1. Bromination to form a long chain polymer containing many thousands (typically 40 000 to
Pure bromine is a red liquid but it has 800 000) of carbon atoms.
H H Cl C H + Cl Cl – C + HCl
a distinctive yellow/orange colour in
UV
H C H + Cl – Cl H C Cl + H – Cl H H solution. When a solution of bromine
is added to an alkene the product is
H H H H
colourless. This decolorization of n C=C ( (n
– CH2 – CH2 –
methane chloromethane bromine solution provides a useful test
then Cl C + Cl2 Cl – C – Cl + Cl poly(ethene)
to indicate the presence of an alkene (also known as
H H H H H H dichloromethane ethene
group. polythene)
UV
H C C H + Br – Br H C C Br + H– Br The substitution can continue even further to produce 2. Hydration
trichloromethane and then tetrachloromethane. Ethene is an important product formed These addition reactions can be extended to other substituted alkenes to give a
H H H H
during the cracking of oil. Although wide variety of different addition polymers.
ethane bromoethane The overall mechanism is called free radical substitution.
ethanol can be made from the
[Note that in this mechanism hydrogen radicals H• are not
fermentation of starch and sugars, e.g. H Cl
formed.]
much industrial ethanol is formed n C=C ( (n
– CH2 – CHCl –
from the addition of steam to ethene. H H
poly(chloroethene)
3. Hydrogenation
chloroethene (also known as polyvinylchloride, PVC)
The addition of hydrogen to
unsaturated vegetable oils is used F F
industrially to make margarine. n C=C ( (
– CF2 – CF2 –n
Hydrogenation reduces the number of F F
double bonds in the polyunsaturated poly(tetrafluoroethene), PTFE
vegetable oils present in the tetrafluoroethene (also known as Teflon or ‘non-stick’)
margarine, which causes it to become
a solid at room temperature.
64 Organic chemistry Organic chemistry 65
4. Alcohols Substitution reactions and reaction pathways
COMBUSTION SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS OF HALOGENOALKANES
Ethanol is used both as a solvent and as a fuel. It combusts completely in a plentiful supply of oxygen to give carbon dioxide and Because of the greater electronegativity of the halogen atom compared with the carbon atom halogenoalkanes have a polar
water. bond. Reagents that have a non-bonding pair of electrons are attracted to the carbon atom in halogenoalkanes and a substitution
reaction occurs. Such reagents are called nucleophiles
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ΔH o = –1371 kJ mol–1
A double-headed curly arrow represents the movement of a pair
Ethanol is already partially oxidized so it releases less energy than burning an alkane of comparable mass. However, it can be
of electrons. It shows where they come from and where they
obtained by the fermentation of biomass so in some countries it is mixed with petrol to produce ‘gasohol’ which decreases the Nu– Cδ+ C + Br –
move to.
dependence on crude oil. Brδ− Nu
The general equation for an alcohol combusting completely in oxygen is:
CnH(2n+1)OH + (2n–1)O2 → nCO2 + (n+1)H2O
MECHANISM OF NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION Tertiary halogenoalkanes (three alkyl groups attached
to the carbon atom bonded to the halogen)
Primary halogenoalkanes (one alkyl group attached to e.g. the reaction between 2-bromo-2-methylpropane and
OXIDATION OF ETHANOL the carbon atom bonded to the halogen) warm dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
Ethanol can be readily oxidized by warming with an acidified solution of potassium dichromate(VI). During the process the e.g. the reaction between bromoethane and warm dilute
orange dichromate(VI) ion Cr2O72– is reduced from an oxidation state of +6 to the green Cr3+ ion. Use is made of this in simple sodium hydroxide solution.
C(CH3) Br + OH– C(CH3) OH + Br –
breathalyser tests, where a 3 3
C2H5Br + OH– → C2H5OH + Br–
motorist who is suspected of H H H
O
H
O The experimentally determined rate expression for this
Cr2O72–/H+ Cr2O72–/H+
having exceeded the alcohol C C C OH H C C H C C The experimentally determined rate expression is: reaction is: rate = k[C(CH3)3Br]
limit blows into a bag containing H H H
H H
O H rate = k [C2H5Br][OH–]
crystals of potassium ethanol ethanol ethanoic acid A two-step mechanism is proposed that is consistent with this
(’wine’) (’vinegar’) The proposed mechanism involves the formation of a rate expression.
dichromate(VI).
transition state which involves both of the reactants.
Ethanol is initially oxidized to ethanal. The ethanal is then oxidized further to ethanoic acid.
slow
H H H
C(CH3) Br C(CH3)+ + Br –
Unlike ethanol (b. pt 78.5 °C) and ethanoic acid (b. pt 118 °C) ethanal (b. pt 20.8 °C) does not have hydrogen bonding between – 3 3
its molecules, and so has a lower boiling point. To stop the reaction at the aldehyde stage the ethanal can be distilled from the HO– Cδ+ HO C Br C + Br –
reaction mixture as soon as it is formed. If the complete oxidation to ethanoic acid is required, then the mixture can be heated
CH3 Brδ− CH3 H HO CH3 fast
under reflux so that none of the ethanal can escape. H H C(CH3)+ + OH– C(CH3) OH
3 3
In this reaction it is the first step that is the rate determining
Because the molecularity of this single-step mechanism is step. The molecularity of this step is one and the mechanism
OXIDATION OF ALCOHOLS
two it is known as an SN2 mechanism (bimolecular is known as SN1 (unimolecular nucleophilic substitution).
Ethanol is a primary alcohol, that is the carbon atom bonded to the –OH group is bonded to two hydrogen atoms and one alkyl
nucleophilic substitution).
group. The oxidation reactions of alcohols can be used to distinguish between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
The mechanism for the hydrolysis of secondary
All primary alcohols are halogenoalkanes (e.g 2-bromopropane CH3CHBrCH3) is
H
oxidized by acidified potassium Cr2O72–/H+ O Cr2O72–/H+ O more complicated as they can proceed by either SN1 or SN2
R – C – OH R–C R–C
dichromate(VI), first to H OH
pathways or a combination of both.
H
aldehydes then to carboxylic
primary alcohol aldehyde carboxylic acid
acids.
REACTION PATHWAYS
H dihalogenoalkane trihalogenoalkane Using the scheme on the left which summarizes the organic
Secondary alcohols are oxidized O alkane
Cr2O72– /H+
R – C – R′
tetrahalogenoalkane reactions in the text, it is possible to devise reaction
to ketones, which cannot R – C – OH
R′
pathways. These should involve no more than two steps
undergo further oxidation.
and should include the reagents, conditions and relevant
secondary alcohol ketone
equations.
R halogenoalkane alkene poly(alkene) e.g. to convert but-2-ene to butanone
Tertiary alcohols cannot be R′ – C – OH Step 1. Heat but-2-ene in the presence of H2SO4 as a
oxidized by acidified R″ catalyst to form butan-2-ol
dichromate(VI) ions as they have
tertiary alcohol H OH
no hydrogen atoms attached H H H2SO4
directly to the carbon atom containing the –OH group. It is not true to say that tertiary alcohols can never be oxidized, as they alcohol aldehyde carboxylic acid C C + H2O H3C C C CH3
burn readily, but when this happens the carbon chain is destroyed. H3C CH3
H H
but-2-ene butan-2-ol
Step 2. Oxidize butan-2-ol to but-2-ene by warming with
ketone
acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution
H OH H O
H+/Cr2O72-
H3C C C CH3 H3C C C CH3
H H H
butan-2-one
66 Organic chemistry Organic chemistry 67
5. Identifying and naming more functional groups Nucleophilic substitution
AMINES (R-NH2) ESTERS (R-COO-R’) NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION
IUPAC accepts several different ways of naming amines. Esters take their IUPAC name from the acid and alcohol The reaction between halogenoalkanes and a warm dilute aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is a
The most straightforward system is to prefix the longest chain from which they are derived. The first part of the ester is nucleophilic substitution reaction. Other nucleophiles are CN–, NH3 and H2O. The nucleophiles are
alkane by the word amino- with the location of the NH2– named after the R- group from the alcohol. There is then a attracted to the δ+ carbon atom and substitute the halogen atom in halogenoalkanes.
group being indicated. For example, 2-aminopentane and 1- space followed by the name for the carboxylic acid anion.
Primary halogenoalkanes react by an SN2 mechanism:
aminohexane. It is also correct to call them by the longest For example, methyl ethanoate, ethyl propanoate and
alkane with the suffix –amine e.g. pentan-2-amine. If the propyl methanoate. C2H5Br + OH– → C2H5OH + Br –
number of carbon atoms is small (one, two or three) then the H O H and tertiary halogenoalkanes react by an SN1 mechanism.
old names of methylamine, ethylamine and propylamine CH3CH2COOCH2CH3
tend to be used rather than aminomethane, aminoethane H C C O C H C(CH3)3 Br + OH– ⎯⎯→ C(CH3)3 OH + Br –
and aminopropane. IUPAC accepts 1-butylamine, 1-
H H ethyl propanoate There are several factors which affect the rate of the substitution reactions.
butanamine and 1-aminobutane for CH3CH2CH2CH2NH2. O
methyl ethanoate
H NH2 H H H H H H H H H H C O CH2 CH2 CH3
H C C C C C H H C C C C C C NH2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION
propyl methanoate
H H H H H H H H H H H
CH3CH(NH2)CH2CH2CH3 CH3(CH2)5NH2
THE NATURE OF THE THE NATURE OF THE THE NATURE OF THE
2-aminopentane 1-aminohexane NITRILES (R-CN)
(or pentan-2-amine ) (or hexan-1-amine )
Nitriles used to be called cyanides so that C2H5CN was NUCLEOPHILE HALOGEN HALOGENOALKANE
known as ethyl cyanide. IUPAC bases the name on the The effectiveness of a nucleophile For both SN1 and SN2 reactions the Tertiary halogenoalkanes react faster
For secondary amines the main name of the amine is taken depends on its electron density. iodoalkanes react faster than than secondary halogenoalkanes,
from the longest carbon chain attached to the nitrogen atom. longest carbon chain (which includes the carbon atom of
the nitrile group) with the word –nitrile is added to the Anions tend to be more reactive than bromoalkanes, which in turn react which in turn react faster than
The other chain is prefixed as an alkyl group with the the corresponding neutral species. For faster than chloroalkanes. This is primary halogenoalkanes. The SN1
location prefix given as an italic N. Examples include alkane. For example, the IUPAC name for C2H5CN is
propanenitrile. Ethanenitrile has the formula CH3CN, and example, the rate of substitution with due to the relative bond energies, route, which involves the formation
N-methylethanamine and N-ethylpropanamine. Tertiary the hydroxide ion is faster than with as the C–I bond is much weaker of an intermediate carbocation, is
amines conatin two prefixes with an italic N, for example butanenitrile the formula C3H7CN.
water. Among species with the same than the C–Cl bond and therefore faster than the SN2 route, which
CH3CH2N(CH3)2 is N,N-dimethylethanamine. H H H H H H
charge a less electronegative atom breaks more readily. involves a transition state with a
H C C C N H C C N H C C C C N carrying a non bonded pair of relatively high activation energy.
H H CH3 Bond enthalpy / kJ mol –1
electrons is a better nucleophile than
N N N H H H H H H a more electronegative one. Thus C–I 238
H3C C2H5 C2H5 C3H7 H3C C2H5 propanenitrile ethanenitrile butanenitrile ammonia is a better nucleophile than
C–Br 276
water. This is because the less
N-methylethanamine N-ethylpropanamine N,N-dimethylethanamine
electronegative atom can more easily C–Cl 338
donate its pair of electrons as they are
held less strongly.
CN– > OH– > NH3 > H2O
AMIDES (R-CO-NH2) order of reactivity of common
Amides are named after the longest carbon chain (which nucleophiles
includes the carbon atom in the functional group) followed
by –amide. For example, ethanamide and
2-methylpropanamide. Secondary amides are named rather
like amines in that the other alkyl group attached to the
In addition to forming alcohols when water or hydroxide The nucleophilic substitution reactions of halogenoalkanes
nitrogen atom is prefixed by an N, e.g., N-methylethanamide
ions are used as the nucleophile, halogenoalkanes can react makes them particularly useful in organic synthesis. The
O H H O O
with ammonia to form amines and with cyanide ions to form reaction with potassium cyanide provides a useful means of
CH3 nitriles. With primary halogenoalkanes the mechanism is increasing the length of the carbon chain by one carbon
CH3 C NH2 H C C C NH2 CH3 C N SN2 in both cases, e.g. with bromoethane and cyanide ions atom. The nitrile can then be converted either into amines
H propanenitrile is produced. by reduction using hydrogen with a nickel catalyst or into
H
H H
carboxylic acids by acid hydrolysis, e.g.
H C H – H
– H2 / Ni
H NC C NC C Br C + Br – CH3CH2CH2NH2
H Br H propanamine ( propylamine)
ethanamide 2-methylpropanamide N-methylethanamide CH3
CH3 NC CH3 CH3CH2CN
H
H+ / H2O
When bromoethane reacts with ammonia, ethylamine is CH3CH2COOH + NH4+
produced. However ethylamine also contains a nitrogen propanoic acid
atom with a non- bonding pair of electrons so this too can
act as a nucleophile and secondary and tertiary amines can
be formed. Even the tertiary amine is still a nucleophile and
can react further to form the quaternary salt.
C2H5Br C2H5Br C2H5Br C2H5Br
NH3 C2H5NH2 (C2H5)2NH (C2H5)3N (C2H5)4N+Br–
+ HBr + HBr + HBr
68 Organic chemistry Organic chemistry 69
6. Elimination and condensation reactions Condensation polymerization and reaction pathways
ELIMINATION REACTIONS OF HALOGENOALKANES CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION
The reactions of halogenoalkanes with hydroxide ions provide an example of how altering the reaction conditions can cause Condensation involves the reaction between two molecules to eliminate a smaller molecule, such as water or hydrogen
the same reactants to produce completely different products. (Note that another good example is the reaction of chloride. If each of the reacting molecules contain two functional groups that can undergo condensation, then the
methylbenzene with chlorine.) With dilute sodium hydroxide solution the OH– ion acts as a nucleophile and substitution condensation can continue to form a polymer.
occurs to produce an alcohol, e.g.
An example of a polyester is polyethene terephthalate (known as Terylene in the UK and as Dacron in the USA) used for
textiles, which is made from benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid and ethane-1,2-diol.
HO–: R–Br ⎯→ R–OH + Br –
O O O O
n HO – C – C – OH + n H – O – CH2 – CH2 – OH HO C C – O – CH2 – CH2 – O H + (2n–l) H2O
However with hot alcoholic sodium hydroxide solution (i.e. sodium hydroxide dissolved in ethanol) elimination occurs and n
benzene-1, 4-dicarboxylic acid ethane-1, 2-diol repeating unit ‘Terylene’ or ‘Dacron’
an alkene is formed, e.g.
H Br Amines can also condense with carboxylic acids to form an amide link (also known as a peptide bond). One of the best known
examples of a polyamide is nylon.
C C + OH– ⎯→ C=C + H2O + Br –
amide link
O O O O H
H H H
In this reaction the hydroxide ion reacts as a base. The elimination of HBr can proceed either by a carbocation or as a n HO – C – CH2– C – OH + n N – CH2 – N HO C CH2 – C – N – (CH2)6 – N + (2n–l) H2O
4 6 nH
concerted process, e.g. H H 4
H H H H H H hexane-1, 6-dioic acid 1,6-diaminohexane
repeating unit nylon 6,6
–
–
–
–
–
–
H–C–C–C–H H – C – C – C – H + Br– (6, 6 because each monomer contains 6 carbon atoms)
+
–
–
–
–
–
H Br H H H
:
OH–
H– H
C=C– – + H2O REACTION PATHWAYS
–
H CH3 The compounds and reaction types covered in the AHL can be summarized in the following scheme:
or
–
HO:
alkene halogenoalkane nitrile
H H H H– H
–
–
–
–
–
H–C–C–C–H C=C– + H2O + Br
–
–
–
–
H CH3
H Br H
In the presence of ethanol there will also be some ethoxide ions present. Ethoxide is a stronger base than hydroxide so the
equilibrium lies to the left but some ethoxide ions will be present and these may be the actual species acting as the base. alcohol amine
HO– + C2H5OH H2O + C2H5O–
ester carboxylic acid amide
CONDENSATION REACTIONS Given the starting materials, two step syntheses for new products can be devised. For example, the conversion of
A condensation reaction involves the reaction between two molecules to produce a larger molecule with the elimination of a 1-bromopropane to 1-aminobutane (1-butylamine) can be performed in the following two stages.
small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride. One important condensation reaction is the formation of esters when an
alcohol reacts with a carboxylic acid.
Step 1. 1-bromopropane can undergo nucleophilic substitution with potassium cyanide solution to form propanenitrile.
H O H H H O H H
CH3CH2CH2Br + CN– ⎯→ CH3CH2CH2 CN + Br –
e.g. H C C OH + H O C C H H C C O C C H + H2O
H H H H H H Step 2. Propanenitrile can be reduced by heating with hydrogen over a nickel catalyst.
ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate Ni
CH CH CH CN + 2H ⎯→ CH CH CH CH NH
3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2
Most esters have a distinctive, pleasant, fruity smell and are used both as natural and artificial flavouring agents in food. For
example, ethyl methanoate HCOOCH2CH3 is added to chocolate to give it the characteristic flavour of ‘rum truffle’. Esters are
Another example would be the formation of ethylamine starting with ethane. Now reactions covered in the core can also be
also used as solvents in perfumes and as plasticizers (substances used to modify the properties of polymers by making them
included.
more flexible).
Step 1. React ethane with chlorine in ultraviolet light so that chloroethane is formed by free radical substitution.
Another example of a condensation reaction is the formation of secondary amides by reacting a carboxylic acid with an
amine. uv
C H + Cl ⎯→ C H Cl + HCl
2 6 2 2 5
O H O
R C OH + H N R' R C N R' + H2O Step 2. React chloroethane with ammonia.
amide C2H5Cl + NH3 ⎯→ C2H5NH2 + HCl
This reaction is important in biological reactions as amino acids contain an amine group and a carboxylic acid group so that
amino acids can condense together in the presence of enzymes to form poly(amides).
70 Organic chemistry Organic chemistry 71