This document summarizes a study that examined the academic English reading proficiency of 578 Norwegian university students. The study found that about 30% had serious difficulties reading in English, while an additional 44% found it more difficult than reading in their first language. Poor vocabulary knowledge and slow reading were main problems. The study suggests that Norwegian secondary school English instruction fails to develop the academic English reading skills needed for higher education.
A Synthesis Of Technique And Proficiency In Teaching WritingJasmine Dixon
This document discusses a study that examined the relationship between language proficiency and writing ability in English among students in undergraduate and graduate programs. Twenty-eight students participated in the study: fifteen graduate students and thirteen undergraduate students. The study used a questionnaire and analysis of student essays to investigate whether higher-proficiency graduate students faced the same difficulties in writing as lower-proficiency undergraduates. The findings provide insight into the most challenging aspects of teaching writing to students with different English proficiency levels.
Second language acquestion errors analysisjanechristinea
This document discusses grammatical errors made by Swedish students learning English as a second language. It aims to analyze and compare the types of errors made by junior and senior secondary students. The study will identify the most common grammatical errors, examine similarities and differences between the two groups, and explore possible reasons for differences. Understanding learners' errors can help improve teaching methods and aid students in better acquiring English grammar. The document provides background on second language acquisition and error analysis theory, which serves as the framework for the study.
Error analysis is a type of linguistic studies that focuses on the errors that learners make. To identify and explain the errors which are committed by second/foreign language learners, error analysis is one of the best ways of such purpose. This study aimed at analyzing the errors in the use of prepositions made by Kurdish EFL learners. One-hundred and seven students studying English at University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan, Iraq participated in this study. Based on the result of Oxford Placement Test participants of this study were at three different levels of proficiency; elementary, lower-intermediate and upper-intermediate. This study tries to find out the sources of the errors and specify the differences between learners at different levels of proficiency. An Oxford Placement test and a preposition test were used to elicit the data. After analyzing the data by SAS ver. 9 and SPSS VER. 22, it was revealed that, Kurdish EFL learners have problems in the use of English prepositions. The students at different levels of proficiency were different in making errors and the sources behind making errors. The students of higher levels of proficiency were least effected by the interlingual source of errors and also intralingual errors, and they committed fewer errors; it might be because students at higher levels of proficiency have more practice compare to the lower levels of proficiency. In the light of findings, this study has some pedagogical implications for teaching prepositions. Teachers are advised to draw their students’ attention to the fact that literal translation into their mother tongue may lead to errors.
Bilingual Education Challenges and Possibilitieslascuola
The document discusses challenges and possibilities in bilingual education. It summarizes key findings from research that show bilingual programs can produce better academic outcomes than immersion programs and that developing literacy in two languages provides cognitive and linguistic advantages. The document also discusses the importance of bringing languages into contact to promote transfer of skills across languages and empowering students' identity development through engaging uses of both languages.
This document discusses the role of applied linguistics in teaching English in Saudi Arabia. It explains that applied linguistics helps English teachers analyze errors made by students and identify areas for improvement. Error analysis examines transfer errors from students' first language and intralingual errors developed in their learning of English. Contrastive analysis also helps identify differences between a student's first language (Arabic) and their target language (English) that may cause difficulties. The document provides several examples of how the sound systems and specific phonemes of Arabic and English differ, which challenges Saudi students in pronouncing English. Applied linguistics gives teachers tools to understand sources of errors and design effective teaching strategies that account for the influences of students' first language.
English as a Second Language A Reflective Review of Policiesijtsrd
The purpose of this review is to synthesise the available research on ESL reading instruction in the United States and provide those findings. Reading instruction for ESL English for Speakers of Other Languages students in the United States has been the subject of a lot of research, although its typically superficial. Still, certain emerging themes emerged. The following were some of the most important assertions that might be made. First, we identified the classrooms most fundamental limitations Educators may primarily work in small groups, emphasising word knowledge as well as oral reading classic educational discourse patterns may well be incompatible with common home discourse patterns and ESL teachers may function properly with lower ESL cultural changes and underscore bottom level skills even more than with higher ESL groups. Second, there is a lack of clarity on the role and timing of born and bred reading instruction and ESL reading training in relation with ESL reading skills. Third, instruction that relied on students existing knowledge, such as that which emphasised vocabulary, context, and sentence construction, was usually useful. And last, critical areas of teacher support for ESL reading instruction were insufficient. Dr. Dinesh Kumar | Manav "English as a Second Language: A Reflective Review of Policies" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-1 , February 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd52772.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/english/52772/english-as-a-second-language-a-reflective-review-of-policies/dr-dinesh-kumar
Correlation of academic excellence and cognitive academic language proficienc...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the relationship between academic language proficiency and academic performance at the university level. It begins by defining academic language proficiency as the linguistic knowledge and skills needed to complete academic tasks. It then discusses how basic interpersonal communication skills differ from cognitive academic language proficiency, with the latter being more cognitively demanding. Finally, it hypothesizes that higher levels of English language proficiency are required for Ethiopian university students to succeed academically.
This document discusses issues related to English language proficiency testing based on native speaker varieties and proposes incorporating English as a lingua franca (ELF) into testing practices. It outlines how English spread globally through colonialism and how testing is still often based on dominant native varieties. However, it notes English is now used more as an international language between non-native speakers. The document examines problems with testing materials being culturally bound and issues around preparing students for specific tests. It proposes redefining English users based on competence rather than nativeness and recognizing ELF norms that promote mutual understanding between international users.
A Synthesis Of Technique And Proficiency In Teaching WritingJasmine Dixon
This document discusses a study that examined the relationship between language proficiency and writing ability in English among students in undergraduate and graduate programs. Twenty-eight students participated in the study: fifteen graduate students and thirteen undergraduate students. The study used a questionnaire and analysis of student essays to investigate whether higher-proficiency graduate students faced the same difficulties in writing as lower-proficiency undergraduates. The findings provide insight into the most challenging aspects of teaching writing to students with different English proficiency levels.
Second language acquestion errors analysisjanechristinea
This document discusses grammatical errors made by Swedish students learning English as a second language. It aims to analyze and compare the types of errors made by junior and senior secondary students. The study will identify the most common grammatical errors, examine similarities and differences between the two groups, and explore possible reasons for differences. Understanding learners' errors can help improve teaching methods and aid students in better acquiring English grammar. The document provides background on second language acquisition and error analysis theory, which serves as the framework for the study.
Error analysis is a type of linguistic studies that focuses on the errors that learners make. To identify and explain the errors which are committed by second/foreign language learners, error analysis is one of the best ways of such purpose. This study aimed at analyzing the errors in the use of prepositions made by Kurdish EFL learners. One-hundred and seven students studying English at University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan, Iraq participated in this study. Based on the result of Oxford Placement Test participants of this study were at three different levels of proficiency; elementary, lower-intermediate and upper-intermediate. This study tries to find out the sources of the errors and specify the differences between learners at different levels of proficiency. An Oxford Placement test and a preposition test were used to elicit the data. After analyzing the data by SAS ver. 9 and SPSS VER. 22, it was revealed that, Kurdish EFL learners have problems in the use of English prepositions. The students at different levels of proficiency were different in making errors and the sources behind making errors. The students of higher levels of proficiency were least effected by the interlingual source of errors and also intralingual errors, and they committed fewer errors; it might be because students at higher levels of proficiency have more practice compare to the lower levels of proficiency. In the light of findings, this study has some pedagogical implications for teaching prepositions. Teachers are advised to draw their students’ attention to the fact that literal translation into their mother tongue may lead to errors.
Bilingual Education Challenges and Possibilitieslascuola
The document discusses challenges and possibilities in bilingual education. It summarizes key findings from research that show bilingual programs can produce better academic outcomes than immersion programs and that developing literacy in two languages provides cognitive and linguistic advantages. The document also discusses the importance of bringing languages into contact to promote transfer of skills across languages and empowering students' identity development through engaging uses of both languages.
This document discusses the role of applied linguistics in teaching English in Saudi Arabia. It explains that applied linguistics helps English teachers analyze errors made by students and identify areas for improvement. Error analysis examines transfer errors from students' first language and intralingual errors developed in their learning of English. Contrastive analysis also helps identify differences between a student's first language (Arabic) and their target language (English) that may cause difficulties. The document provides several examples of how the sound systems and specific phonemes of Arabic and English differ, which challenges Saudi students in pronouncing English. Applied linguistics gives teachers tools to understand sources of errors and design effective teaching strategies that account for the influences of students' first language.
English as a Second Language A Reflective Review of Policiesijtsrd
The purpose of this review is to synthesise the available research on ESL reading instruction in the United States and provide those findings. Reading instruction for ESL English for Speakers of Other Languages students in the United States has been the subject of a lot of research, although its typically superficial. Still, certain emerging themes emerged. The following were some of the most important assertions that might be made. First, we identified the classrooms most fundamental limitations Educators may primarily work in small groups, emphasising word knowledge as well as oral reading classic educational discourse patterns may well be incompatible with common home discourse patterns and ESL teachers may function properly with lower ESL cultural changes and underscore bottom level skills even more than with higher ESL groups. Second, there is a lack of clarity on the role and timing of born and bred reading instruction and ESL reading training in relation with ESL reading skills. Third, instruction that relied on students existing knowledge, such as that which emphasised vocabulary, context, and sentence construction, was usually useful. And last, critical areas of teacher support for ESL reading instruction were insufficient. Dr. Dinesh Kumar | Manav "English as a Second Language: A Reflective Review of Policies" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-1 , February 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd52772.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/english/52772/english-as-a-second-language-a-reflective-review-of-policies/dr-dinesh-kumar
Correlation of academic excellence and cognitive academic language proficienc...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the relationship between academic language proficiency and academic performance at the university level. It begins by defining academic language proficiency as the linguistic knowledge and skills needed to complete academic tasks. It then discusses how basic interpersonal communication skills differ from cognitive academic language proficiency, with the latter being more cognitively demanding. Finally, it hypothesizes that higher levels of English language proficiency are required for Ethiopian university students to succeed academically.
This document discusses issues related to English language proficiency testing based on native speaker varieties and proposes incorporating English as a lingua franca (ELF) into testing practices. It outlines how English spread globally through colonialism and how testing is still often based on dominant native varieties. However, it notes English is now used more as an international language between non-native speakers. The document examines problems with testing materials being culturally bound and issues around preparing students for specific tests. It proposes redefining English users based on competence rather than nativeness and recognizing ELF norms that promote mutual understanding between international users.
This document discusses cross-linguistic issues in teaching English as a foreign language. It explores how a learner's first language (L1), in this case Arabic, can interfere with their acquisition of English grammar. The author analyzes writing samples from English learners in Saudi Arabia and finds evidence that their L1 influences aspects of English grammar. The study aims to understand this cross-linguistic influence in order to develop effective teaching strategies. It recommends innovative e-learning strategies to help minimize negative transfer from L1 to L2.
Effect of l1 interlinear glosses on l2 reading and translation tasksCeceFrayMartn
This study investigates the effects of different types of glossing (interlinear translation, parallel text translation, and columnar translation) on word recall and cognitive load when reading an English text for English foreign language (EFL) beginner learners. Participants read one English text using one of the three glossing conditions and completed immediate and delayed post-tests to measure word recall. Cognitive load was also measured using a questionnaire. The findings showed that interlinear translation resulted in higher word recall rates on both immediate and delayed post-tests compared to the other conditions. Interlinear translation also induced a lower cognitive load than the other conditions. The conclusions recommend the use of interlinear glossing as an effective reading strategy for EFL beginners
Alderson´s question revisited: Is reading in a foreign language a language pr...B L
A non-experimental correlational research was carried out to study the relationships between reading comprehension of EFL, grammatical knowledge of EFL and reading comprehension of Spanish as a first language of 1.059 freshman engineering and basic sciences students at a South American university.
Role of mother tongue in learning english for specific purposesNelly Valenzuela
This document summarizes a research study that examined students' perceptions of using their native language and translation in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses. The study surveyed 55 students across 3 specializations about their use of translation and native language in various language activities. The results showed that students' need for native language support varied depending on their English proficiency level, with less proficient students requiring more native language use. Students generally agreed that translation and native language were useful supports, especially for vocabulary, reading, and listening activities. The findings provide insights into balancing the use of native language and translation in ESP courses to best support students at different proficiency levels.
The Correlation of Reading Comprehension Ability of Persian and English Langu...inventionjournals
This study investigated the relationship between the reading comprehension abilities in Persian (L1) and English (L2) of 109 Iranian EFL learners at intermediate proficiency levels. The participants completed standardized reading comprehension tests in both languages. Statistical analysis found no significant correlation between the learners' scores on the Persian and English tests. This suggests there is no significant relationship between the learners' reading comprehension abilities in their first and second languages. The study aimed to provide insight into how L1 abilities may or may not transfer to L2 reading comprehension to help inform EFL teaching practices.
Literature review on the role of mother tongue in learning and teaching engli...Alexander Decker
The document discusses the role of mother tongue in learning and teaching English for Specific Purposes. It reviews previous studies that have found both positive and negative effects of language transfer when learning a new language. The similarities and differences between a learner's native language and the target language can influence how easily concepts and structures are acquired. While exclusive use of the target language is emphasized in communicative methods, many learners still benefit from occasional use of their mother tongue for instructions, checking understanding, or discussing difficult texts. The influence of the native language depends on various factors and individual learning strategies.
159PROFILE Vol. 14, No. 1, April 2012. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá,.docxaulasnilda
159PROFILE Vol. 14, No. 1, April 2012. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 159-172
The English as a Foreign Language / Lingua Franca Debate:
Sensitising Teachers of English as a Foreign Language Towards
Teaching English as a Lingua Franca
El debate del inglés como lengua extranjera o como lengua franca:
sensibilización de docentes de inglés como lengua extranjera hacia la enseñanza
del inglés como lengua franca
Gillian Mansfield*
University of Parma, Italy
Franca Poppi**
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
The function of English as a lingua franca for communication needs rethinking in the teaching of
English as a foreign language classroom as a consequence of globalisation. The present contribution is
an empirical study carried out in an Italian university environment which aims to show how teachers
should take on board awareness raising activities in the recognition of other varieties of English which,
albeit not exploited as benchmarks for language testing and certification, must nevertheless boast a rel-
evant place in the global scenario. This can be achieved in practical terms by interrogating an expressly
made corpus of Chinese English news texts and carrying out simple concordance activities.
Key words: Awareness raising, concordances, English as a foreign language, English as a lingua franca,
globalisation.
Debido a los procesos de globalización, la función del inglés como herramienta internacional o
como lengua franca para la comunicación exige un replanteamiento de la enseñanza del inglés como
idioma extranjero. En este artículo se presenta un estudio empírico llevado a cabo en un contexto
universitario italiano que pretende mostrar cómo los docentes deberían desempeñar actividades para
facilitar el reconocimiento de otras variedades del inglés que, al no ser utilizadas como modelos de
evaluación y certificación lingüística, exigen en cambio una mayor atención en el escenario global.
En la práctica, esto puede realizarse analizando un corpus específico de textos periodísticos en inglés
chino y llevando a cabo actividades sencillas de concordancias.
Palabras clave: concordancias, inglés como lengua extranjera, inglés como lengua franca, facilitación
del reconocimiento, globalización.
* E-mail: [email protected]
** E-mail: [email protected]
This article was received on June 30, 2011, and accepted on November 2, 2011.
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras160
Mansfield & Poppi
Introduction
The worldwide spread of English is just one
of the many different developments subsumed
under the general phenomenon of globalisation. It
is furthermore associated with boundless mobili-
ties and, as such, is the language of globalisation
(Gnutzmann & Intemann, 2008, p. 9).
If, on the one hand it is true that language is
a vital commodity in the globalised world, it is on
the other also true that globalisation raises issues
for se ...
28 Corpus Approaches to L 2 Learner Profiling Research.pdfTina Gabel
This document summarizes corpus approaches to L2 learner profiling research. It discusses three main areas of L2 learner profiling research: lexical, grammatical, and textual profiles. It then describes three notable projects that have conducted learner profiling using corpora: the English Profile project, Pearson's Global Scale of English (GSE), and the CEFR-J Reference Level Description (RLD) project. The CEFR-J RLD project developed wordlists and a grammar profile for different CEFR levels based on an analysis of English textbooks from various Asian countries/regions.
Code Switching: a paper by Krishna BistaAna Azevedo
The document discusses code switching, which is the mixing of words or phrases from two languages in speech or writing. It examines a study on the factors influencing code switching among bilingual English students in university classrooms. The study found that students most often code switch due to not knowing the English word, to fill gaps in speaking, or because it is easier to express themselves in their native language. While code switching can help communication, it may also hinder the learning of the target language if overused.
Students attitude towards teachers code switching code mixingSamar Rukh
This document summarizes a study that examined business students' attitudes toward their teachers' use of code-switching between English and the local language (Urdu) in class, and the impact of this on the students' English language learning. Quantitative and qualitative data was collected through questionnaires given to 100 business students and 6 English teachers at universities in Sargodha, Pakistan. The findings from the student questionnaire showed that most students had a positive attitude toward their teachers' code-switching and believed it helped their understanding and strengthened their English. The teacher questionnaire explored the teachers' views, with most believing code-switching facilitated clearer communication and instruction. In conclusion, the study found that business students generally viewed teachers' code-switch
The document summarizes the origins and evolution of the distinction between basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) as proposed by Jim Cummins. It discusses how the distinction was introduced to draw attention to differences between conversational fluency and academic language skills for second language learners. Over time, the distinction has been refined and related to other theoretical frameworks, while still highlighting the important differences between everyday conversational abilities and the specialized language needed for academic success. Research has supported the distinction and shown its relevance in addressing inappropriate assessment and low expectations of bilingual students.
A Study on the Perception of Jordanian EFL Learners’ Pragmatic Transfer of Re...Yasser Al-Shboul
This study investigates the perception of Jordanian EFL learners’ (JEFL) pragmatic transfer of refusal strategies in
terms of contextual and cultural factors. Data were collected using a discourse completion test (DCT) and a scaledresponse
questionnaire (SRQ) to elicit perception data from the participants. Data from the SRQ were analyzed based
on the speaker’s right to refuse the initiating act. Findings revealed that the right the speaker has to refuse the initiating
act was assigned high ratings by the three groups (i.e., M > 3.00) in all social categories. Individually, however, the
groups displayed the rating value differently where the AEL1 group’s perception of the speaker’s right was relatively
higher than that of the JEFL and JAL1 groups in all the social categories. The JEFL participants’ negative pragmatic
transfer criteria were met in the first and third social categories. The study concludes with a discussion of important
directions for future research.
Article Errors In The English Writing Of Saudi EFL Preparatory Year StudentsNatasha Grant
This study analyzed errors in the use of articles (a, an, the) by Saudi EFL students in their writing compositions. The researchers collected writing samples from 98 students and identified 512 errors related to article usage. Most errors were omissions of articles (64.1%), followed by insertions (27.5%) and substitutions (8.4%). Errors with the indefinite article "a" were more common than with "an". The errors likely stemmed from interference between the students' first language (Arabic) and English, as Arabic uses articles differently. The study aims to help understand sources of article errors and improve teaching of English articles.
Analyzing Common Errors In English Composition At Postgraduate Level In Khybe...Deja Lewis
The document summarizes a study that analyzed common errors in English composition among postgraduate students in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The study found that the most frequent errors were verb tense, spelling, inappropriate vocabulary use, and subject-verb agreement issues. It reviewed literature on error analysis and its importance for identifying areas of difficulty for students, teachers, and curriculum developers. The study aimed to investigate the types of errors postgraduate students commonly make in English writing.
This document discusses research on second language reading. It addresses several areas of interest in L2 reading, including its importance for academic learning and ability to learn independently. Key differences between L1 and L2 reading are identified, such as differing language proficiency levels and socio-cultural backgrounds. Several aspects of L2 reading are then examined in more detail, including word recognition, vocabulary knowledge, use of context, reading rate and fluency, and the role of metacognition. Research findings on each of these topics are presented and sometimes conflicting findings are noted. Throughout, the document emphasizes that results from L1 reading research may not directly apply to L2 reading due to important linguistic and individual differences between the two.
This document discusses key aspects of the new National Curriculum for English that support EAL and low-attaining pupils. It summarizes five aspects: 1) distinguishing between decoding and language comprehension using the Simple View of Reading framework; 2) teaching spelling in detail including phonics, morphology and etymology; 3) actively building vocabulary; 4) promoting reading for pleasure; and 5) teaching English grammar. It provides context and evidence for why these aspects are important for supporting EAL and low-attaining pupils.
The impact of the usage of contracted British Braille Code on the spelling pr...Ng lily
The document discusses a study that investigated the impact of using contracted British Braille code on the spelling proficiency of visually impaired students in a bilingual education setting. The study used a quasi-experimental time series design and administered English spelling tests before and after using contracted Braille to 5 congenitally blind students, 6 with acquired blindness, and 4 with functional blindness. Analysis of spelling errors identified the most common as grapheme substitution and direct translation of first language syllables. The study aims to improve understanding of spelling challenges for visually impaired students using contracted Braille.
R021 Kilborn, K., & Ito, T. (1989). Sentence processing strategies in adult b...Takehiko Ito
R021 Kilborn, K., & Ito, T. (1989). Sentence processing strategies in adult bilinguals. In B. MacWhinney & E. Bates. (Eds.), Cross-linguistic studies of language processing. New York : Cambridge University Press. pp.257-291.
Advantages Of Not Knowing Your Students Language A Case Study Of A Multilin...Lisa Brewer
This document summarizes a case study on the advantages and challenges of teaching English to a multilingual group of students where the teacher does not share a common language with the students. The study examined a group of 8 students from Turkey, Russia, and Georgia studying English at a university in Georgia. Key findings included:
1) Teachers found it difficult to explain new vocabulary and grammar points without being able to use students' native languages. They had to rely more on visual aids, simplifying language, and reducing explicit grammar instruction.
2) Students had lower English proficiency and self-confidence than other Georgian students. They also relied heavily on mobile dictionaries during class.
3) While challenging, not being able to
A Genre-Based Approach To Preparing For IELTS And TOEFL Essay Writing TasksMary Calkins
This document proposes adopting a genre-based approach to teaching essay writing for the IELTS and TOEFL tests. Recent test results show writing is the lowest scoring section, especially for Asian learners. A genre-based methodology is presented that involves building context, modeling exemplar texts, jointly constructing essays, and independent writing practice. This approach aims to not only help learners achieve satisfactory test scores, but develop abilities to communicate effectively using various genres in future contexts. The proposed genre teaching cycle scaffolds learning and empowers students through collaborative and independent practice.
Free Printable Stationery - Letter Size. Online assignment writing service.Kayla Jones
Here are the key details about the Coffee Cult religion:
- The Coffee Cult was created as a unifying religion that accepts all kinds of coffee drinkers, regardless of how they take their coffee.
- Members of the Coffee Cult, known as coffee drinkers, have been in conflict with tea, hot chocolate and soda drinkers for dominance since the beginning of time.
- Coffee is at the center of all rituals and worship. Morning and afternoon prayers center around the ritualistic preparation and drinking of coffee.
- Converts are expected to forsake other beverages and dedicate their lives to the consumption and promotion of coffee.
- Traditional garb includes comfortable clothes and accessories featuring coffee-related symbols like coffee
Critique Response Sample Summary Response EssaKayla Jones
Here are the key points made in the document:
- Since the Age of Enlightenment, people have emphasized words like "how" and "why" to acquire knowledge.
- There remains an insatiable desire for information and understanding across all disciplines.
- This quest for knowledge through questioning dates back to the Enlightenment era but continues today.
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This document discusses cross-linguistic issues in teaching English as a foreign language. It explores how a learner's first language (L1), in this case Arabic, can interfere with their acquisition of English grammar. The author analyzes writing samples from English learners in Saudi Arabia and finds evidence that their L1 influences aspects of English grammar. The study aims to understand this cross-linguistic influence in order to develop effective teaching strategies. It recommends innovative e-learning strategies to help minimize negative transfer from L1 to L2.
Effect of l1 interlinear glosses on l2 reading and translation tasksCeceFrayMartn
This study investigates the effects of different types of glossing (interlinear translation, parallel text translation, and columnar translation) on word recall and cognitive load when reading an English text for English foreign language (EFL) beginner learners. Participants read one English text using one of the three glossing conditions and completed immediate and delayed post-tests to measure word recall. Cognitive load was also measured using a questionnaire. The findings showed that interlinear translation resulted in higher word recall rates on both immediate and delayed post-tests compared to the other conditions. Interlinear translation also induced a lower cognitive load than the other conditions. The conclusions recommend the use of interlinear glossing as an effective reading strategy for EFL beginners
Alderson´s question revisited: Is reading in a foreign language a language pr...B L
A non-experimental correlational research was carried out to study the relationships between reading comprehension of EFL, grammatical knowledge of EFL and reading comprehension of Spanish as a first language of 1.059 freshman engineering and basic sciences students at a South American university.
Role of mother tongue in learning english for specific purposesNelly Valenzuela
This document summarizes a research study that examined students' perceptions of using their native language and translation in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses. The study surveyed 55 students across 3 specializations about their use of translation and native language in various language activities. The results showed that students' need for native language support varied depending on their English proficiency level, with less proficient students requiring more native language use. Students generally agreed that translation and native language were useful supports, especially for vocabulary, reading, and listening activities. The findings provide insights into balancing the use of native language and translation in ESP courses to best support students at different proficiency levels.
The Correlation of Reading Comprehension Ability of Persian and English Langu...inventionjournals
This study investigated the relationship between the reading comprehension abilities in Persian (L1) and English (L2) of 109 Iranian EFL learners at intermediate proficiency levels. The participants completed standardized reading comprehension tests in both languages. Statistical analysis found no significant correlation between the learners' scores on the Persian and English tests. This suggests there is no significant relationship between the learners' reading comprehension abilities in their first and second languages. The study aimed to provide insight into how L1 abilities may or may not transfer to L2 reading comprehension to help inform EFL teaching practices.
Literature review on the role of mother tongue in learning and teaching engli...Alexander Decker
The document discusses the role of mother tongue in learning and teaching English for Specific Purposes. It reviews previous studies that have found both positive and negative effects of language transfer when learning a new language. The similarities and differences between a learner's native language and the target language can influence how easily concepts and structures are acquired. While exclusive use of the target language is emphasized in communicative methods, many learners still benefit from occasional use of their mother tongue for instructions, checking understanding, or discussing difficult texts. The influence of the native language depends on various factors and individual learning strategies.
159PROFILE Vol. 14, No. 1, April 2012. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá,.docxaulasnilda
159PROFILE Vol. 14, No. 1, April 2012. ISSN 1657-0790. Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 159-172
The English as a Foreign Language / Lingua Franca Debate:
Sensitising Teachers of English as a Foreign Language Towards
Teaching English as a Lingua Franca
El debate del inglés como lengua extranjera o como lengua franca:
sensibilización de docentes de inglés como lengua extranjera hacia la enseñanza
del inglés como lengua franca
Gillian Mansfield*
University of Parma, Italy
Franca Poppi**
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
The function of English as a lingua franca for communication needs rethinking in the teaching of
English as a foreign language classroom as a consequence of globalisation. The present contribution is
an empirical study carried out in an Italian university environment which aims to show how teachers
should take on board awareness raising activities in the recognition of other varieties of English which,
albeit not exploited as benchmarks for language testing and certification, must nevertheless boast a rel-
evant place in the global scenario. This can be achieved in practical terms by interrogating an expressly
made corpus of Chinese English news texts and carrying out simple concordance activities.
Key words: Awareness raising, concordances, English as a foreign language, English as a lingua franca,
globalisation.
Debido a los procesos de globalización, la función del inglés como herramienta internacional o
como lengua franca para la comunicación exige un replanteamiento de la enseñanza del inglés como
idioma extranjero. En este artículo se presenta un estudio empírico llevado a cabo en un contexto
universitario italiano que pretende mostrar cómo los docentes deberían desempeñar actividades para
facilitar el reconocimiento de otras variedades del inglés que, al no ser utilizadas como modelos de
evaluación y certificación lingüística, exigen en cambio una mayor atención en el escenario global.
En la práctica, esto puede realizarse analizando un corpus específico de textos periodísticos en inglés
chino y llevando a cabo actividades sencillas de concordancias.
Palabras clave: concordancias, inglés como lengua extranjera, inglés como lengua franca, facilitación
del reconocimiento, globalización.
* E-mail: [email protected]
** E-mail: [email protected]
This article was received on June 30, 2011, and accepted on November 2, 2011.
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras160
Mansfield & Poppi
Introduction
The worldwide spread of English is just one
of the many different developments subsumed
under the general phenomenon of globalisation. It
is furthermore associated with boundless mobili-
ties and, as such, is the language of globalisation
(Gnutzmann & Intemann, 2008, p. 9).
If, on the one hand it is true that language is
a vital commodity in the globalised world, it is on
the other also true that globalisation raises issues
for se ...
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Students attitude towards teachers code switching code mixingSamar Rukh
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terms of contextual and cultural factors. Data were collected using a discourse completion test (DCT) and a scaledresponse
questionnaire (SRQ) to elicit perception data from the participants. Data from the SRQ were analyzed based
on the speaker’s right to refuse the initiating act. Findings revealed that the right the speaker has to refuse the initiating
act was assigned high ratings by the three groups (i.e., M > 3.00) in all social categories. Individually, however, the
groups displayed the rating value differently where the AEL1 group’s perception of the speaker’s right was relatively
higher than that of the JEFL and JAL1 groups in all the social categories. The JEFL participants’ negative pragmatic
transfer criteria were met in the first and third social categories. The study concludes with a discussion of important
directions for future research.
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Analyzing Common Errors In English Composition At Postgraduate Level In Khybe...Deja Lewis
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This document discusses research on second language reading. It addresses several areas of interest in L2 reading, including its importance for academic learning and ability to learn independently. Key differences between L1 and L2 reading are identified, such as differing language proficiency levels and socio-cultural backgrounds. Several aspects of L2 reading are then examined in more detail, including word recognition, vocabulary knowledge, use of context, reading rate and fluency, and the role of metacognition. Research findings on each of these topics are presented and sometimes conflicting findings are noted. Throughout, the document emphasizes that results from L1 reading research may not directly apply to L2 reading due to important linguistic and individual differences between the two.
This document discusses key aspects of the new National Curriculum for English that support EAL and low-attaining pupils. It summarizes five aspects: 1) distinguishing between decoding and language comprehension using the Simple View of Reading framework; 2) teaching spelling in detail including phonics, morphology and etymology; 3) actively building vocabulary; 4) promoting reading for pleasure; and 5) teaching English grammar. It provides context and evidence for why these aspects are important for supporting EAL and low-attaining pupils.
The impact of the usage of contracted British Braille Code on the spelling pr...Ng lily
The document discusses a study that investigated the impact of using contracted British Braille code on the spelling proficiency of visually impaired students in a bilingual education setting. The study used a quasi-experimental time series design and administered English spelling tests before and after using contracted Braille to 5 congenitally blind students, 6 with acquired blindness, and 4 with functional blindness. Analysis of spelling errors identified the most common as grapheme substitution and direct translation of first language syllables. The study aims to improve understanding of spelling challenges for visually impaired students using contracted Braille.
R021 Kilborn, K., & Ito, T. (1989). Sentence processing strategies in adult b...Takehiko Ito
R021 Kilborn, K., & Ito, T. (1989). Sentence processing strategies in adult bilinguals. In B. MacWhinney & E. Bates. (Eds.), Cross-linguistic studies of language processing. New York : Cambridge University Press. pp.257-291.
Advantages Of Not Knowing Your Students Language A Case Study Of A Multilin...Lisa Brewer
This document summarizes a case study on the advantages and challenges of teaching English to a multilingual group of students where the teacher does not share a common language with the students. The study examined a group of 8 students from Turkey, Russia, and Georgia studying English at a university in Georgia. Key findings included:
1) Teachers found it difficult to explain new vocabulary and grammar points without being able to use students' native languages. They had to rely more on visual aids, simplifying language, and reducing explicit grammar instruction.
2) Students had lower English proficiency and self-confidence than other Georgian students. They also relied heavily on mobile dictionaries during class.
3) While challenging, not being able to
A Genre-Based Approach To Preparing For IELTS And TOEFL Essay Writing TasksMary Calkins
This document proposes adopting a genre-based approach to teaching essay writing for the IELTS and TOEFL tests. Recent test results show writing is the lowest scoring section, especially for Asian learners. A genre-based methodology is presented that involves building context, modeling exemplar texts, jointly constructing essays, and independent writing practice. This approach aims to not only help learners achieve satisfactory test scores, but develop abilities to communicate effectively using various genres in future contexts. The proposed genre teaching cycle scaffolds learning and empowers students through collaborative and independent practice.
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Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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Academic English Reading Proficiency At The University Level A Norwegian Case Study
1. http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl
Reading in a Foreign Language October 2009, Volume 21, No. 2
ISSN 1539-0578 pp. 198–222
Academic English reading proficiency at the university level: A Norwegian
case study
Glenn Ole Hellekjær
University of Oslo
Norway
Abstract
In this paper the academic English reading proficiency of 578 Norwegian university
students was quantitatively examined. Self-assessment items were used to measure
reading proficiency in Norwegian and English and validated using an International
English Language Testing System Academic Reading Module. The study found that
about 30% of the respondents had serious difficulties reading English, while an additional
44% found it more difficult than reading in their first language. The main problems
encountered were unfamiliar vocabulary and slow reading, while extracurricular readers
and respondents who were able to guess word meanings from context had higher reading
scores. Poor language proficiency was a problem for many, to the extent that they fell
below the linguistic threshold level. The study showed that, contrary to expectations,
Norwegian EFL instruction at upper-secondary schools fails to develop the academic
English reading proficiency needed for higher education.
Keywords: reading, foreign language, English for academic purposes, linguistic threshold level
The inhabitants of the Nordic countries are known for their fluency in English, as reflected by
the Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish scores in a 2004 eight-country comparative European
survey of 16-year-olds’ English proficiency (Bonnet, 2004). In Norway, English is even
considered on the verge of becoming a second language (Graddol & Meinhof, 1999).
Several studies, however, have challenged the current Norwegian complacency about its
citizens’ English proficiency (Hellekjær, 2005, 2007a, 2007c, 2008; Lehmann, 1999). All of the
studies point out that while most Norwegians may seem orally proficient in everyday situations,
in the sense of possessing basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS; Cummins, 2000), this
does not mean that they have developed the cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP)
English needed for higher education or for occupational purposes. Hellekjær (2005), for instance,
tested the academic English reading proficiency of 217 senior-level students attending the
college preparatory branches of seven upper-secondary schools. Two thirds of the students did
not achieve the Band 6 level on the International English Language Testing System (IELTS)
Academic Reading Module. Band 6, on a scale from 1 to 9, is the minimum level for most
universities who use the test for admission purposes. To make matters worse, some validation
2. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 199
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
studies question whether the Band 6 level is high enough (Feast, 2002; Lee & Greene, 2007).
Furthermore, a large-scale survey of language use and needs in Norwegian export firms has
shown that these firms lack staff with the advanced English proficiency needed for sales,
negotiations, and networking (Hellekjær, 2007a).
This situation is unfortunate for a small language community with about 4.6 million inhabitants
and an export-dependent economy. It causes difficulties in higher education, where the lack of
textbooks in Norwegian means that students have to read English texts (Dahl, 1998; Hatlevik &
Norgård, 2001), and where an increasing number of university and college courses are being
taught in English (Hellekjær, 2007c). At the same time, Norwegian institutions of higher
education take for granted that English as a foreign language (EFL) instruction in upper-
secondary schools effectively prepares students for the use of English in higher education. This
assumption is challenged in the present study.
The present study uses survey data from Hellekjær (2005) to investigate whether and to what
extent Norwegian undergraduate and graduate students from three different faculties at the
University of Oslo, Norway’s largest and most prestigious university, are able to read and
understand the English texts on their reading lists. The main goal is to find out to what extent the
poor academic English reading scores found at the upper-secondary level (Hellekjær, 2005, 2008)
persist in higher education. The study also examines the nature of student reading difficulties and
variables that covary, positively or negatively, with reading proficiency.
Norwegians are reputed to be proficient in English. Not only is the English closely related to
Norwegian, but Norwegians are also extensively exposed to the language through the media, and
English has been a compulsory subject from the elementary to upper-secondary schools since
1959. It will therefore be argued that to the extent that academic English reading comprehension
problems are found in Norway, these findings should be of interest to and relevant for other
countries where English has a comparable or weaker position.
Defining Reading in a Second Language
In the present article, reading is understood as a more complex process than simply decoding the
written words in a text. It is the active creation of meaning in an interactive process between
information in a text and the knowledge of the reader (Bråten, 1997). Moreover, the focus is on
reading in a second language (L2), and thus, it is useful to look very briefly at reading in an L2
as opposed to in an L1. Alderson (1984) summed up the issue as follows: “We do not, and
indeed find it difficult to, draw a clear distinction between first and foreign language reading—in
fact, it is not clear to what extent reading in a foreign language is different from reading in a first
language” (p. xv). Indeed, much indicates that the reading process in an L2 is largely the same as
in an L1, which is returned to in the construct definition below.
Subsequent research considered reading in an L2 as a process largely similar to that of reading in
an L1 but one that is subject to “a number of additional constraints on reading and its
development” (Grabe, 1999, p. 11). The current view, however, is that readers approach L2
reading with a dual-language system (Koda, 2005, 2007). For many, the resulting dual
processing might even be an advantage in the L2. After all, an L2 reader will as often as not have
3. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 200
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
the advantage of having developed reading proficiency and a large sight vocabulary in the L1. In
the interdependence hypothesis, Cummins (2000) argued that “academic proficiency transfers
across languages such that students who have developed literacy in their first language will tend
to make stronger progress in acquiring literacy in their second language” (p. 173). Bernhardt
(2005) made a somewhat similar claim: “The question is not if language and literacy skills
transfer. The question is how much transfers, under what conditions, and in which contexts” (p.
138). She went on to present a compensatory model of L2 reading that attempts to quantify the
importance of L1 literacy, L2 language knowledge, and what she termed “unexplained variance.”
The last category comprises content, comprehension strategies, interest and motivation, and so
on for L2 reading. Bernhardt argued that these interact and that a weakness in one area might be
compensated for by knowledge from another (see also Stanovich, 1980). Koda (2007) developed
this further, looking at the conditions under which this transfer might occur. A number of other
issues in L2 reading could be mentioned here, as well as areas of further research, but this would
be outside the scope of the present study, where the focus is on academic English reading
comprehension in Norway.
Defining Academic Reading in an L2
The present study focuses on student respondents at the University of Oslo. It is often taken for
granted that students at this level have developed the skills and strategies needed for academic
reading in their L1 and that they should be able to transfer them to their reading of English as an
L2 (Koda, 2005, 2007). However, the ability to do so depends on their L2 proficiency, also
known as the linguistic threshold level. This means that if a reader’s L2 proficiency falls below a
certain level, the transfer of these skills and strategies to the L2 is prevented even though the
student is a fluent reader in the L1 (Alderson, 2000; Bernhardt & Kamil, 1995; Carrell, 1991;
Laufer, 1997). With particular relevance for academic reading, Alderson pointed out that “this
linguistic threshold is not absolute but must vary from task to task: The more demanding the task,
the higher the linguistic threshold” (p. 39). The following paragraphs will focus on the
importance of language proficiency for fluent reading in further detail.
For the most part, current models of reading describe it as an interactive, but first and foremost
lower-level (bottom-up) process that also draws upon higher-level (top-down) processes (e.g.,
Alderson, 2000; Bråten, 2007; Grabe, 1999, 2009; Koda, 2005). The core, bottom-up process
involves recognizing the written words in the text along with relevant grammatical information.
This hinges upon automatic word recognition, which in turn provides the basis for higher-level
processing, that is, the creation of meaning in an interactive process between the information in
the text being read, the reader’s knowledge of the language and content, and his or her
processing skills and strategies.
With a fluent reader, the process of word recognition proceeds effortlessly and rapidly in the
working memory. When the reader encounters a problem, an unfamiliar word, for instance, the
process may slow down or even stop entirely while the reader attempts to use “other knowledge
sources, regardless of their level in the processing hierarchy” to deduce meaning (Stanovich,
1980, p. 3; see also Bernhardt, 2005). However, due to the limited processing capacity of the
working memory, this will reduce reading speed and fluency (Bernhardt, 2005; Rayner &
Pollatsek, 1989; Stanovich, 1980). This slowdown highlights the importance of a large sight
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vocabulary for fluent reading, an area where one finds the main differences between reading in
an L1 and in a foreign language. Grabe (1988) argued that the lack of “a massive receptive
vocabulary that is rapidly, accurately and automatically processed . . . may be the greatest single
impediment to the fluent reading by ESL students” (p. 63). Grabe (2009) repeated that for
reading in a foreign language the “importance of word recognition is hard to overestimate” (p.
23). Alderson (2000) put this as follows: “Measures of a reader's vocabulary knowledge
routinely correlate highly with measures of reading comprehension, and are often, indeed, the
single best predictor of text comprehension” (p. 35). The importance of vocabulary knowledge
notwithstanding, fluent reading in an academic context also requires the ability “to integrate text
and background information appropriately and efficiently” (Grabe & Stoller, 2002, p. 28). This
involves using background knowledge, that is, content knowledge and knowledge of the
language and text types. It also involves other cognitive processes. The following focuses on the
processes of metacognitive monitoring and reading strategies.
To start with background knowledge, research has shown that this not only influences what a
reader remembers from a text, but also his or her understanding of the content (Alderson, 2000).
Indeed, knowledge of the world in general and knowledge of the topic in question can, to a
limited extent, support understanding when needed to compensate for language difficulties
(Bernhardt, 2005; Stanovich, 1980). Nevertheless, in a study of students’ academic English
reading proficiency, Clapham (1996) found that “language proficiency appeared to have a much
stronger effect on students’ scores than did background knowledge. However, the comparative
importance of the variables seemed to depend on the specificity of the tests” (p. 197). In other
words, she found that poor language proficiency prevented her respondents from compensating
for their lack of understanding by using a top-down strategy such as drawing on subject matter
knowledge to guess the meaning of unknown words and phrases, or, if the specific topic was
unfamiliar, to build up understanding from the text using a bottom-up strategy. By contrast, the
linguistically proficient readers in her sample could “compensate for a certain lack of
background knowledge by making full use of their language resources” (Clapham, p. 196).
Next, when faced with an apparent inconsistency in a text or in their understanding of the content,
proficient readers can use metacognitive monitoring. This denotes the ability to monitor
understanding across the text and use linguistic and/or content knowledge to repair
comprehension (Alderson, 2000, p. 43). In fact, this is one of the main factors distinguishing
good readers from poor readers (Alderson, 2000; Bråten, 2007; Bråten & Olaussen, 1997).
Alderson argued that good readers are
more sensitive to inconsistencies in the texts . . . and tend to use meaning-based cues to
evaluate whether they have understood what they read whereas poor readers tend to use
or over-rely on word-level cues, and to focus on intrasentential rather than intersentential
consistency. (p. 41)
This focus on word-level cues and on intrasentential relations may explain the tendency of many
poor readers of foreign languages to focus on and be hindered by unfamiliar vocabulary. More
proficient readers, on the other hand, seem better able to decide when to ignore unfamiliar words
and avoid unduly disrupting the reading process.
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The last point in this brief overview concerns skills and strategy use. A strategy can be described
as a set of abilities that is under the conscious control of the reader, while the use of skills is
automatic. Depending upon the reader’s proficiency, some of decisions will be made consciously,
others automatically (e.g., Urquhart & Weir, 1998). Examples of either, depending on whether
their use is based on a conscious decision or automatic, are rereading to sort out a discrepancy in
meaning, guessing to sort out the meaning of unknown words, and ignoring unclear meanings if
possible. Others are adjusting how one reads to the purpose of reading, such as skimming to get
the main points of a text, searching to find particular information, and scanning to find a
particular name or phrase. Further examples are engaging in careful reading at the local level to
understand the syntactic structure of a sentence or clause and careful reading at the global level
to comprehend the main ideas of a text.
Developing skills and using strategies are considered weak areas in L1 reading instruction in
Norway. Bråten (1997) cited several studies claiming that too little emphasis is put on teaching
Nordic students how to read to learn, which would entail instruction in reading as well as in
learning strategies (Bråten, 2007; Bråten & Olaussen, 1997; Roe, 2006). Instead, reading
instruction has an almost exclusive emphasis on what Urquhart and Weir (1998) called “careful
reading at the global level for comprehension of the main ideas of a text” (p. 103). They
attributed this to careful reading being “favoured by many educationalists . . . to the exclusion of
all other types” (p. 103). They also argued that this focus on one type of reading is problematic
because it prevents students from learning to adjust how they read to their purposes. Arguably,
this is equally relevant for EFL instruction, given its strong, even excessive reliance on textbook
reading.
To sum up, reading proficiency can be described as more than simply the ability to decode the
written words in the text; it is also the active creation of meaning in an interactive process
between information in a text and the reader’s knowledge. For fluent reading in the L2, this to a
large extent hinges upon language proficiency in general and vocabulary knowledge in particular.
In the following, the design of self-assessment items of academic English is related to this brief
construct definition of reading in a foreign language (see Alderson, 2000, p. 119). Given the
importance of language proficiency for reading, or as Alderson put it, that “second-language
knowledge is more important than first-language abilities” (p. 39), the focus is on items that tap
into language proficiency as a possible constraining factor in L2 reading.
Method
Research Design
The present quantitative study uses a quasi-experimental, one-group, posttest research design
(see Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002, pp. 106–107). This design does not allow hypotheses
about causal relations because it does not allow for the satisfactory “identification and study of
plausible threats to internal validity” needed to identify causal relations (Shadish, Cook, &
Campbell, p. 105). The statistical analysis therefore concentrates on presenting mean scores,
score and respondent distributions, and covariations between dependent and independent
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variables. Nevertheless, in a few cases, the limitations of the research design are traversed to
suggest possible causal relations.
Operationalization
The questionnaire used in this survey was in Norwegian, but an English version has been
included in Appendix A. It comprises 74 items, of which the first 33 are about background
factors, ranging from the courses the respondents are attending to their educational backgrounds
and knowledge of English. These are followed by items tapping into academic reading
comprehension in the L1 (Items 34–39) and in English (Items 40–45). The next items are
indicators of independent variables expected to covary with reading comprehension, such as how
they read (Items 46–50), how they handle unfamiliar vocabulary (Items 51–57), and about how
much they read or to what extent they are exposed to English (Items 58–62). The last are items
about the content of the respondents’ upper-secondary level EFL instruction (Items 63–74). The
data was analyzed using the Statistical Program for the Social Sciences. Not all of the items have
been included in the analysis.
An important consideration when surveying university students is assuring a reasonably high
reply rate. The questionnaire was therefore designed so that it could be filled out in about 10
minutes, during or after lectures. This meant using closed, multiple-choice items, and for reading
proficiency, using self-assessment items instead of more time-consuming reading tests. However,
it is important for validity that these “self-assessments are . . . based upon task content tied to
students’ situations as potential users of the language in question” (Bachman, 1990, p. 148). For
the present study, this meant ensuring that the respondents had English texts on their reading lists
and ensuring that the Items 34 to 45 clearly referred to their academic reading experiences.
With regard to operationalization—the development of the self-assessment items on reading
proficiency—six items were created using seven-point Likert scales in which 1 indicates the
maximum level of difficulty and 7, no difficulty at all. Comparable items addressed reading in
the L1, Norwegian (Items 34 to 39). These items were intended to tap different levels of the
reading process/construct described above. For English, Items 41 and 42 query respondents
about difficulties with word recognition and syntactic understanding, areas crucial to lower-level
processing. Next, Item 40 asks about reading speed as an indication of fluency. A high score
would indicate quick and easy reading, and a low score, slow and laborious reading reflecting
difficulties with word recognition and/or syntactic parsing and the need to use compensatory
strategies. Difficulties finding coherence in a given text when reading (Item 43) or with dense
presentation of information (Item 44) tap possible difficulties with text model formation. Finally,
Item 45 focuses on content understanding.
Factorial analysis (principal axis factoring) confirmed that the six items for both languages
loaded on the same latent variable. For Norwegian, the items explained 50% of the variance; for
English, 73%. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the six items in the self-assessment indices
were high, α = .84 for Norwegian and α = .94 for English (N = 578). These items could therefore
be combined into additive indices and used as dependent variables in the statistical analysis. In
the following, these are referred to as Noindex and Enindex.
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Sample
When selecting the sample, the respondents’ reading lists needed to include English texts, which
precluded a random sample. Therefore, a number of courses at three faculties were selected that
included respondents at the graduate and undergraduate levels. After checking their reading lists
for English texts, the questionnaires were handed out during lectures. The respondents (578 in
total) included 159 (28%) from the Faculty of Education, 266 (46%) from the Faculty of
Mathematics and Natural Sciences, and 153 (26%) from the Faculty of Social Sciences. Of these,
363 (63%) were undergraduate students, and 215 (36%) were graduate students.
The reply rate (in this case, the proportion of students in the selected courses who completed the
questionnaire in relation to the number of students attending the courses) is somewhat difficult to
determine. First, no counts were made of the students present to allow for a comparison with the
number of completed questionnaires. Second, only a few of the courses had compulsory
attendance. This leaves two options. One is using the number of students who registered for
examinations for the courses in question, which gives a reply rate of 51%. The other is using the
number of students who completed examinations in these courses, which gives 65%.
Validity
One important issue is the external validity of the findings (i.e., whether the findings are valid for
Norwegian students in general). Another is the construct validity of the self-assessment items
used to measure reading proficiency (i.e., whether the scores based on these items give an
accurate picture of the respondents’ academic English reading proficiency).
With regard to external validity, the sample is from three faculties at a single university.
Furthermore, it is not a representative sample because the respondents needed to have English
texts on their reading lists, which precluded the random selection of courses or respondents.
Moreover, the respondents surveyed were probably among the more active students because they
were present at the lectures and because they composed about 65% of those who sat for
examinations, but only 51% of those registered. Although firmer conclusions would require a
representative sample, the respondents in this study arguably still provide a useful picture of the
academic English reading proficiency of Norwegian university students.
Another issue is the construct validity of the self-assessment items used in the additive indices
and whether the scores reflect reading proficiency in English and Norwegian. A number of
studies show that self-assessment can provide reliable and valid pictures of skills and/or levels of
proficiency in low-stakes contexts (Bachman & Palmer, 1989; Oscarson, 1997). Self-assessment
has also been confirmed as a predicator of reading proficiency in a number of validation studies
(Brantmeier & Vanderplank, 2008; Marian, Blumenfeld, & Kaushanskaya, 2007; Ross, 1998).
Furthermore, the validity of the self-assessment items for reading in English was checked in a
separate validation study (see Hellekjær, 2005, pp. 163–182). In this study, 53 university
students filled in a questionnaire comprising the above mentioned questionnaire and self-
assessment items in addition to a reading test: an IELTS Academic Reading Module. The
correlation between the additive index scores for English and an index based on the IELTS
scores was reasonably high, r = .72, p < .01, N = 53, which reflects Oscarson’s findings on self-
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assessment. Therefore, without entering into further discussion of the construct validity of the
IELTS tests (e.g., Feast, 2002; Fulcher, 1999; Lee & Greene, 2007) or other aspects of construct
validity (Messick, 1995, 1996), on the basis of this validation study in particular, the scores from
the self-assessment items in the present study arguably provide a useful and valid picture of the
respondents’ academic English reading proficiency.
Results
Reading Difficulty
Comparing the mean scores for the additive indices Enindex and Noindex is one way of
examining whether the respondents experienced the reading of texts and textbooks in English as
more difficult than reading similar texts and textbooks in Norwegian. The six items composing
the indices use 7-point Likert scales, where 1 indicates a high level of difficulty when reading
and 7, no difficulty. The mean score for Enindex is 4.6 (N = 576, SD = 1.1) and for Noindex, 5.7
(N = 572, SD = 0.7). Not only are the scores for Enindex clearly lower, the standard deviation
also indicates a greater variation between the readers with regard to proficiency.
Norwegian students having greater difficulties reading English than Norwegian textbooks is only
to be expected. The key questions are, at which score level are their problems serious, and how
many students experience these problems. One way of examining this is by looking at the
difference between the scores in the two languages for the individual respondents.
Table 1. Distribution of differences in scores for reading in Norwegian (Noindex) and in
English (Enindex)
Difference in scores for reading
in Norwegian and English
Number of respondents Percentage
-3 2 0.4
-2 3 0.5
-1 12 2
0 113 20
1 250 44
2 130 23
3 49 9
4 6 1
5 3 0.5
Total 568 100
Note. Values below 0 indicate that the respondents found reading English easier than
reading Norwegian, and those above 0 indicate that they found reading English more
difficult than reading Norwegian. The results have been recoded for display purposes;
values from the lowest to -2.49 are counted as -3, from -2.5 to -1.49 as -2, etc.
As can be seen in Table 1, only 130 respondents (23%) have scores that indicate that they found
reading in English easier than or as easy as in Norwegian. About a third, 188 (33%), found
English more difficult, with a gap between the languages of two points or more.
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The next question is whether a cut-off point can be determined on the 7-point scale where
reading proficiency scores fall to a level that indicates serious reading difficulties. This requires
comparison with actual reading test scores, which was done in a separate validation survey
where, as mentioned above, the self-assessment scores were compared with those from an IELTS
Academic Reading Module (Hellekjær, 2005, pp. 163–182). The comparison showed that a self-
assessment score of 4 or below corresponded with IELTS test scores below the Band 6 level. For
the Noindex scores, this means that 20 respondents (3%) fall below this level, while for Enindex,
the number is 185 respondents (32%). In other words, at least 32% of the 578 respondents in this
study may have considerable difficulties reading academic English texts. A further 44%
indicated that they find reading in English more difficult than in Norwegian, but to a lesser
extent.
The next issue is the nature of the difficulties experienced. In Table 2, the mean scores for items
in the additive indices are displayed. Norwegian was not an L1 for 45 students, and they have
been excluded from the calculations.
Table 2. Comparison of reading difficulties between English and Norwegian for items in the Noindex and
Enindex indices
Noindex (Items 34–39) Enindex (Items 40–45)
Item M SD M SD
y Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 how quickly
you read the texts on your reading lists
5.4 1.2 4.3 1.4
y Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 how many
words you do not understand in the texts on your
reading lists.
5.9 0.8 4.5 1.1
y Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent
you find the sentences in the texts difficult to
understand.
5.8 1.0 4.6 1.2
y Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent
you find the texts coherent when reading.
5.8 0.9 4.7 1.3
y Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what
degree the information in the texts is so densely
presented that it hinders your understanding of
the content.
5.4 1.0 4.6 1.3
y Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent
you find the content of the texts understandable.
5.8 0.8 4.9 1.2
Interpreting the differences in the mean scores for equivalent items in Norwegian and English
requires some caution. Nevertheless, the low mean scores for reading speed indicate that this is a
problem in both languages. In addition, the gap between the mean values with regard to
vocabulary indicates that unfamiliar vocabulary is a key source of difficulty.
Another way of examining the extent to which language or reading skills and strategies impact
scores is to examine the covariance between the scores for Enindex and Noindex. If reading
skills and strategies are paramount, that is, if a respondent reads well in Norwegian, he or she
should also read well in English, giving a high correlation. A low correlation, on the other hand,
would indicate interference from language difficulties. That the latter is the case is indicated by a
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moderate bivariate correlation between reading in Norwegian and in English (as measured by
Noindex and Enindex) of r = .43, p < .01, N = 528. The 45 respondents for whom Norwegian
was not an L1 were excluded from the calculations.
The next issue concerns whether any of the respondents fall below the linguistic threshold level,
that is, have a large gap between their scores, with high scores for the L1 but low ones for
English. This can imply that their level of English proficiency is so poor that it prevents them
from transferring their L1 reading processing skills and strategies to English. These respondents
manifest high scores for reading in Norwegian compared to low scores for English.
Crosstabulating the Noindex and Engindex scores (see Table 3) shows that that 217 (41%) of
respondents have high scores in Norwegian (5 or better), but low scores in English (4 or less),
which is indicative of their falling below the linguistic threshold level. The numbers of these
respondents are highlighted, in the upper right-hand section of the table. In other words, while
these respondents are quite proficient readers of Norwegian, they fall below the linguistic
threshold level when reading in English. The situation is one in which a fluent reader in the L1
has an L2 proficiency that is so poor that the transfer of skills and strategies from the L1 to the
L2 is hindered (Alderson, 2000; Bernhardt & Kamil, 1995; Carrell, 1991; Laufer, 1997).
Table 3. Crosstabulated Noindex and Engindex scores
Noindex score
Engindex score 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of
respondents
2 0 2 3 8 6 1 20
3 1 2 6 37 27 1 74
4 0 1 9 62 70 5 147
5 0 1 5 58 123 11 198
6 1 0 0 5 54 22 82
7 0 0 0 0 1 6 7
Number of
respondents
2 6 23 170 281 46 528
Note. The numbers of respondents with high Noindex scores (5 or better) and low Engindex scores
(4 or less), which is indicative of falling below the linguistic threshold level, are highlighted at the
upper right of the table. N = 528.
Unfamiliar Vocabulary
Unfamiliar words are considered a key challenge when reading in a foreign language. This
makes their frequency, as well as the strategies respondents use in dealing with them, important
issues. A number of items asking how often the respondents use various strategies to handle
unfamiliar words on a scale from 1 (never) to 7 (frequently) were therefore included. One item
was on the use of dictionaries. Others asked whether the respondents guessed the meaning of a
word on the basis of their knowledge of the subject or on the basis of context and whether they
ask the lecturer or fellow students, ignore the word or words and keep on reading, or give up
reading entirely.
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As shown in Table 4, several word-handling strategies either correlate negatively with Enindex
or are not significant. Such strategies are dictionary use or asking the lecturer or fellow students,
which are all strategies that seriously disrupt the reading process. The highest negative
correlation is for the item where students indicate how often they actually give up reading due to
unknown words with r = -.5 (p < .01). This can be contrasted to the positive correlations for the
compensatory strategies of guessing meanings on the basis of subject matter knowledge, r = .17
(p < .01), and in particular for guessing from context, r = .27 (p < .01). However, Grabe (2009)
mentioned that “information provided by the context is usually not very accurate and further
confirmation is needed” (p. 28). Furthermore, he said that “strong context use . . . is typically an
indicator of a weak reader, not a strong reader” (Grabe, 2009, p. 29). This provides two
interpretations of the data. With regard to guessing on the basis of context or subject knowledge,
the respondents who indicated that they do so frequently might have higher levels of English
proficiency. This means that they have less trouble with unfamiliar words and might at times
even be able to deduce word meanings from context. Alternatively, the correlations might
indicate that they are proficient enough to have less need to disrupt the reading process to find
the meanings of words, such as consulting a dictionary or asking other students for help. It might
well be that the items on the handling of unfamiliar words are indicators of language proficiency
more than they are indicators of word-handling strategies. Whatever the case, vocabulary
knowledge is important for fluent reading, as indicated by the multiple regression analysis for
these variables with Enindex giving an explained variance of R2
= .32. (See the regression
analysis table in Appendix B). This means that these variables together account for 32% of the
variation in Enindex.
Table 4. Bivariate correlations between Enindex and ways of handling unfamiliar
words when reading (N = 527)
Independent variable r
Dictionary use -.17*
Guess meaning of word using subject knowledge .17*
Guess meaning of word using context .27*
Ask lecturer -.01
Ask other students -.11*
Keep on reading .04
Give up reading -.50*
Note. *p < .01.
Study Experience
When discussing student reading of English textbooks, it is reasonable to expect reading
difficulty to decrease with study experience, either because of improved content knowledge or
because students’ English proficiency improves over time due to their reading of English texts on
their reading lists. The survey therefore included an item asking how many European Credit
Transfer System (ECTS) study credits respondents had completed at the time of the survey.
Numbers varied from 131 (23%) with no Norwegian credits, 58 (10%) with 2 to 10 credits, and
260 (45%) with 40 or more. When this was correlated with the additive indices Enindex and
Noindex, no significant or meaningful correlations could be found for the group as a whole. This
means that the data in this survey does not indicate that student reading proficiency improves
with study experience. Closer analysis, however, showed that for respondents at the Faculty of
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Mathematics and Natural Sciences, there was a low, positive correlation indicating improvement
in reading proficiency in English with study experience, r = .11, p = .05, n = 349, but not in
Norwegian. By contrast, at the faculties of Education and Social Sciences, no significant
correlation was found for English but was found for reading in Norwegian, r = .20, p = .05, n =
222.
For English, one interpretation of these low or nonexistent correlations is that although the
students’ reading proficiency does improve over time, they notice little improvement due to the
increasing difficulty of the subjects that they are studying. Another is that they find reading the
texts and textbooks in question so difficult that they do not manage to acquire new terms and
expressions from context. A third is that the number of English texts on the reading lists
determines improvement, that is, only respondents who read a large number of English texts
experience improvement. Finally, it might be that students use inefficient reading and learning
strategies. Bråten and Olaussen (1997), for instance, found that many Norwegian students use
inefficient reading and learning strategies and at times only succeed through sheer effort.
Furthermore, Fjeldbraaten (1999) found that changing how students read and study is extremely
difficult. Although these findings concern reading in Norwegian, the same may reasonably be
assumed for the reading of English textbooks.
Exposure to English
Norwegians receive extensive exposure to English through the media, and media exposure and
reading habits were expected to covary positively with reading proficiency. Items about student
reading habits and media use were therefore included in the survey (Items 58–62). With regard to
media exposure (Item 62), how frequently students watched TV programs, films, and videos
without subtitling correlated positively with Enindex, r = .3, p < .01, N = 574.
For reading (Item 58), respondents were asked to indicate how many English novels they had
read on a seven-point Likert scale from 1 (none) to 7 (51 or more). Likewise, students were
asked how often they read English magazines (Item 60) on a scale from 1 (never) to 7 (several
times daily) and were posed a similar question on reading English on the Internet (Item 61). The
answers show that a large number of students read extensively. About half had read 16 novels or
more, and of these, 108 (18%) had read 51 or more. Not unexpectedly, bivariate correlation
analysis showed that this variable has fairly high and positive correlation with Enindex, r = .47, p
< .01, N = 573. Furthermore, multiple regression analysis of the variables for reading novels,
magazines, and periodicals and reading on the Internet with Enindex as a dependent variable
showed that these three together (Items 58, 60, 61) have an explained variance of R2
= .29; that is,
they account for almost 30% of the variation in the scores.
Unsurprisingly, the students who read English extensively mastered the reading of English
textbooks better than those who did not. One explanation is that these respondents have, through
extensive reading, acquired a vocabulary adequate to the task of mastering the language in their
textbooks; in short, they have better language skills. They may also have developed efficient
processing skills and strategies through practice and/or are better able to transfer them from their
L1 due to their English proficiency. The respondents who read extensively may also be select in
that they come from backgrounds where reading and literacy are highly valued. In any case,
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extracurricular reading is the most important predicator of academic English reading proficiency
found in this study, while media exposure is less important.
EFL Instruction
It is taken for granted that Norwegian upper-secondary EFL instruction develops the reading
proficiency required to master the reading of English texts and textbooks in higher education.
This survey shows that a large number of respondents have difficulties reading English texts and
textbooks, which indicates that this assumption is unfounded. Before drawing any further
conclusions about the quality of EFL instruction, however, is it the students who have the fewest
hours of English instruction who have the most serious reading difficulties? If not, this indicates
that the difficulties are due to an insufficient number of lessons, rather than to the content and
quality of the instruction itself.
The Norwegian respondents in this sample had EFL instruction from the third to ninth grade in
elementary and lower-secondary school. At the upper-secondary level, the students in the
branches that qualify for higher education have to follow a compulsory EFL course of five
lessons per week in their 1st
year. Students can then opt for an elective course of three or five
lessons per week in the 2nd
year, or a 2-year course of five lessons per week known as the
advanced English course. Because the students indicated which English courses they had
completed (Item 23), it is possible to see whether additional hours of teaching in upper-
secondary school covary positively with higher reading scores.
To examine this, an independent variable t test was used to compare the mean Enindex scores of
the students with only 1 year of upper-secondary EFL instruction with those who had completed
the advanced English course. A large difference in the reading scores in favor of the advanced
English course would indicate that the number of teaching hours is important, whereas little or
no difference would indicate that the content and quality of teaching is important. The t test
showed that the mean Enindex score for the foundation course respondents on a 7-point scale
was 4.4 (N = 195) and 4.8 (N = 167) for the advanced English course, a difference that is
statistically significant (p < .01). However, this low difference indicates that it is not the number
of teaching hours, but most probably the content and quality of EFL teaching in general and the
lack of reading practice in particular that explains the reading difficulties that were found
(Hellekjær, 2005, 2008). This outcome obviously paints a highly unflattering picture of the
efficacy of the advanced English course as preparation for higher education. Similar results were
found in a separate study where senior upper-secondary students were tested with the IELTS
Academic Reading Module (Hellekjær, 2005, 2008). This lack of improvement is particularly
serious given the considerable input of five lessons per week for 2 school years on top of a
compulsory, 1st
-year English course.
Discussion
One of the goals of the present study was to see whether and to what extent the academic English
reading difficulties found at the upper-secondary level persisted in higher education. Whereas
66% of the upper-secondary students did not achieve the Band 6 level on the IELTS Academic
14. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 211
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
Reading Module (Hellekjær, 2005, 2008), the present study has found that about 33% of the
university-level respondents have comparable reading difficulties (see Table 1). An additional
44% percent of the 578 respondents experienced less severe difficulties.
With regard to the nature of these difficulties, slow reading and unfamiliar vocabulary were the
most noteworthy problems (Table 2). The respondents’ word handling strategies were also
particularly important. Items reflecting that the respondents avoided disrupting the reading
process, whether this was due to higher language proficiency or due to their being able guess or
deduce word meanings from context, had positive correlations with reading scores (Table 4). By
contrast, items indicating that the respondents frequently disrupted the reading process to use
dictionaries or ask others, sometimes even giving up reading altogether, had negative
correlations. Again, this might reflect poor language proficiency or a tendency to dwell on the
meanings of unfamiliar words. Language problems contributed to the reported difficulties, to the
extent that many fluent L1 readers fell below the linguistic threshold level when reading English.
Rather unexpectedly, study experience did not correlate positively with reading scores, meaning
that reading proficiency does not necessarily improve over time. However, the respondents’ total
exposure to English through reading and the media did correlate positively, extracurricular
reading in particular. By contrast, respondents who had completed the advanced elective English
course in upper-secondary school did not read significantly better than other respondents, which
is a sign of deficiencies in the content and quality of EFL instruction in Norway. This finding, in
addition to the number of respondents with reading difficulties, indicates that the current
assumption that Norwegian EFL instruction develops the academic reading proficiency needed
for higher education is highly questionable. Furthermore, considering that that Norwegian and
English are closely related, that Norway has had compulsory EFL instruction for all in schools
since 1959, that media exposure to English is extensive, and that all parties consider proficiency
in English highly important (e.g., Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2008), the reasons are ample for
arguing the need for a critical examination of Norwegian reading instruction, in English as well
as in the L1.
To start with the latter, reading instruction in the L1 has been criticized for being overly focused
on teaching decoding skills and for neglecting the teaching of reading to learn (Bråten, 1997;
Bråten & Olaussen, 1998). This has been confirmed by recent surveys of the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)
that have repeatedly shown that Norwegian 15-year-olds do not score well on L1 reading
proficiency (Kjærnsli, 2007; Kjærnsli, Lie, Olsen, Roe, & Turmoe, 2004; Lie, Kjærnsli, Roe, &
Turmoe, 2001). Other studies have shown that these problems persist in higher education, where
students tend to use inefficient ways of reading to learn, are unable to adjust how they read to the
reading purpose, and are difficult to “retrain” with regard to reading for information
(Fjeldbraaten, 1999). In other words, ample research has shown the need to improve reading
instruction in Norwegian, above all, when it comes to reading to learn. To what extent these
deficiencies transfer to reading in English is an issue that requires a separate study.
Returning to the teaching of reading in Norwegian EFL instruction, a closer examination of EFL
syllabi showed that the number of pages of required reading was quite small, even for the
elective advanced English course in upper-secondary school (Hellekjær, 2005). This and other
studies confirmed that students at this level read very little in general. In fact, data from two
15. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 212
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
ongoing, qualitative Master’s studies indicate that the majority of EFL teachers at the lower- and
upper-secondary levels are largely unaware of the need to teach different ways of reading, such
as skimming and scanning, in addition to reading for detail (Bakke, in progress; Faye-Schøll,
2009).
As indicated by the data in Table 4, vocabulary and word-handling strategies are another
problem. Items indicating that respondents avoid disrupting the reading process, due to language
proficiency, the ability to guess word meaning from context, or the ability to ignore these words
and continue reading, correlate positively with reading scores. By comparison, there are negative
or non-significant correlations for items indicating that readers interrupt the reading process
when faced with an unfamiliar word. Although this is probably due to poor language proficiency,
the problems may be exacerbated by textbook reading in the EFL classroom due to its strong
focus on reading for detail (Faye-Schøll, 2009; Urquhart & Weir, 1998), to the extent that
students develop counterproductive reading strategies (Hellekjær, 1996). This was also reflected
in other surveys in Hellekjær (2005), which showed that many upper-secondary and university-
level respondents, when answering an IELTS Academic Reading Module, tended to read slowly
and carefully and for detail. Therefore, a large number did not manage to answer more than half
of the test items, even though most of the answers actually given were correct. In other words,
this and other studies have not only shown the assumption that Norwegian EFL instruction
prepares students for higher education to be unfounded, but they also highlight serious quality
issues in the content and teaching of the subject. As Grabe (2009) put it, Norwegian EFL
instruction needs to recognize that “there are no simple shortcuts to becoming a good L2 reader”
(p. 58). Grabe added the following:
The need to integrate many processing skills, along with considerable linguistic
knowledge, indicates that reading an extensive amount of material over a long period of
time is the only way to build mastery of the required skills for reading comprehension.
Sadly, many reading curricula lack this very component—lots of reading time on task.
The major implication for curriculum development from a well thought out theory of
reading comprehension is that the development of L2 reading abilities is a long and
complex process. (p. 57)
Conclusion
Norway has recently introduced a new curriculum with a revised EFL syllabus, and the syllabus
has introduced a number of much needed changes. One is an increased focus on reading and
teaching reading strategies from elementary school up and the need to be able to adjust how one
reads to the reading purpose. Next is an increased focus on vocabulary learning. And finally, the
role of EFL instruction in preparing for higher education is more clearly recognized. However,
two Master’s studies show that the new syllabus will not, by itself, be enough to bring about a
change in current practices (Bakke, in progress; Faye-Schøll, 2009). Their main finding, based
on interview data, is that while most EFL teachers consider reading important, the majority do
little to teach reading or reading strategies. Indeed, many teachers have no idea what reading
skills and strategies are or what is meant by being able to adjust how one reads to the reading
purpose (Faye-Schøll, 2009). Nor do they do much reading themselves beyond the EFL
16. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 213
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
textbooks, with the exception of reading on the Internet.
Therefore, the main implication of the present and previous studies and the ongoing Master’s
studies is that little will happen to improve the teaching of academic English reading proficiency
in Norwegian schools unless the educational authorities actively pursue this goal. One course of
action would be providing in-service courses on the teaching of reading and vocabulary, with
emphasis on the need for extensive reading from the elementary level onwards. Because current
practices for teaching reading are strongly established, national reading tests in English must be
introduced at the lower- and upper-secondary schools to provide sufficient impetus for change.
This is because there is little reason to expect that teachers will teach reading strategies, that
schools will invest in reading material, or that students will be willing to read more unless they
are “encouraged” to do so.
Last but not least, to what extent are the findings presented in this article relevant for other non-
English-speaking countries? Arguably, in countries where EFL instruction is heavily textbook
dependent, with little emphasis on extensive reading, where vocabulary development is not
emphasized, and where systematic instruction in reading and learning strategies is neglected, the
findings of this study should be highly relevant. Note that Norwegian 16-year-olds did well in a
comparative study of English proficiency in eight European countries (Bonnet, 2004). This could,
in fact, imply that the inadequate level of academic English reading proficiency displayed by the
Norwegian respondents in the present study is better than the levels that are found in most other
non-English-speaking countries.
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Appendix A
Questionnaire
This is the English translation of the questionnaire used in the survey. The survey version was in
Norwegian.
1. [No. ______ ]
2. Which subject(s) are you studying at present?
3. In which department and faculty are you studying?
4. At which university/college are you studying?
SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR BACKGROUND
5. Male Female
6. Is Norwegian your first language? Yes No
7. If no to 6, please state your first language ______________
8. In which Norwegian county (fylke) did you graduate from upper-secondary school (or obtain a
comparable education)?
9. If you graduated from upper-secondary school or obtained a comparable education abroad, where was
it?
10. What year did you graduate from upper-secondary school or obtain a comparable education?
11. Which of these advanced subjects did you finish in your final year at upper-secondary school, in
Norway or abroad? (You may choose several answers.)
12. Mathematics 16 Social studies 20. French
13. Physics 17. Economics 21. German
14. Chemistry 18. Business economics 22. Other:
15. Biology 19. English
If none of these categories are relevant, please describe your course of study:
SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR BACKGROUND IN ENGLISH
23. Indicate your most advanced upper-secondary English course. (Give only one answer.)
First-year foundation course
5-0-0 Foundation (also 2+2+1—i.e., vocational English with the supplementary course)
Second year
20. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 217
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
5-3-0 or 5-5-0 General English or the first year of the advanced English course
Third year
5-5-5 VK2 (the advanced English course)
If none of these categories are relevant, please indicate the course:
24. In what grade did you complete your most advanced upper-secondary course?
1 2 3 4 5 6
25. How interested were you in English as a school subject?
Not interested Very
at all interested
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Did you receive any other form of instruction in English at upper-secondary school? (You may give
several answers.)
26. Instruction in a non-language subject, for example, history or religion in English.
27. Schooling in an English-speaking country (6 months or more)
28. Attended an English-language upper-secondary school, such as International Baccalaureate.
QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR STUDIES
29. Except for Ex. Phil. or other preparatory courses, please indicate how many credits you are taking (1
Norwegian = 3 ECTS). (A foundation course equals 20 Norwegian credits = 60 ECTS.)
None 11–20 31–40
2–10 21–30 40 or more
30. Were any of these credits in the subject English? Yes No
31. If you answered yes to 30, please indicate the number of credits.
2–10 21–30 40 or more
11–20 31–40
32. How much of the Norwegian course material on your reading list have you read so far?
None Very little (<10%) Some (10–39%)
About half (40–59%) Most (60–99%) All (100%)
33. How much of the English course material on your reading list have you read so far?
None Very little (<10%) Some (10–39%)
About half (40–59%) Most (60–99%) All (100%)
QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR READING OF NORWEGIAN COURSE MATERIAL
(Even if you have no Norwegian texts on your reading list this year, please base your answers to the
questions about reading on your experience from other courses and subjects.)
21. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 218
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
34. How quickly do you read Norwegian texts on your reading lists? (Give only one answer.)
Very slowly Quickly and easily
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
35. Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 how many words you do not understand in the Norwegian texts
on your reading lists.
All of the words are unfamiliar All of the words are familiar
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
36. Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent you find the sentences in the Norwegian texts
difficult to understand.
All of the sentences are impossible to understand All of the sentences are understandable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
37. Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent you find the Norwegian texts coherent when reading.
No coherence at all All of the texts are coherent
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
38. Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent information in the Norwegian texts is so densely
presented that it hinders your understanding of the content.
Impossible to understand Everything is understandable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
39. Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent you find the content of the Norwegian texts
understandable.
Impossible to understand Everything is understandable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR READING OF ENGLISH COURSE MATERIAL
40. How quickly do you read English texts on your reading lists? (Give only one answer.)
Very slowly Quickly and easily
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
41. Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 how many words you do not understand in the English texts on
your reading lists.
All of the words are unfamiliar All of the words are familiar
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
42. Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent you find the sentences in the English texts difficult
to understand.
All of the sentences are impossible to understand All of the sentences are understandable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
43. Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent you find the English texts coherent when reading.
No coherence at all All of the texts are coherent
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
44. Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent information in the English texts is so densely
presented that it hinders your understanding of the content.
Impossible to understand Everything is understandable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 219
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
45. Indicate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent you find the content of the English texts
understandable.
Impossible to understand Everything is understandable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
QUESTIONS ABOUT HOW YOU READ
Indicate on the scale to what extent you use the ways of reading described in the questions below when
reading your English course material. (Give only one answer per question)
46. I read straight through the text.
Little used Much used
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
47. I read through it first before reading carefully.
Little used Much used
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
48. I underline or note down key words or important points.
Little used Much used
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
49. I sum up what I have read, in my mind or in writing.
Little used Much used
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
50. I pause frequently when reading to think about what I have read.
Little used Much used
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
If you feel that none of these categories are relevant or are only partly relevant, please explain in your
own words how you experience the reading of English course material. (Feel free to use the other side of
the page.)
SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT HOW YOU HANDLE UNFAMILIAR ENGLISH WORDS
What do you usually do when you encounter unfamiliar words when reading? Indicate on the scale how
often you use the proposed solution. (Give only one answer per question.)
51. Consult a dictionary
Never Very often
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
52. Guess the meaning of the word using my knowledge of the subject.
Never Very often
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
53. Guess the meaning of the word from the reading context.
Never Very often
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
23. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 220
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
54. Ask the lecturer.
Never Very often
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
55. Ask other students.
Never Very often
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
56. Continue reading.
Never Very often
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
57. Give up reading.
Never Very often
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
If no category is suitable, describe in your own words what you do to find the meanings of unfamiliar
words. (Feel free to use the other side of the page.)
QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR READING HABITS
58. How many English novels have you read, at school or on your own?
None 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-50 51 or more
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
59. How often do you read English books? (Give only one answer)
Several times Several hours
Never Sometimes Monthly Weekly weekly Daily daily
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
60. How often do you read English periodicals, magazines, or newspapers? (Give only one answer.)
Several times Several hours
Never Sometimes Monthly Weekly weekly Daily daily
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
61. How often do you read English on the Internet? (Give only one answer.)
Several times Several hours
Never Sometimes Monthly Weekly weekly Daily daily
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
62. How often do you watch English movies, videos, or TV programs without Norwegian subtitling?
Several times Several hours
Never Sometimes Monthly Weekly weekly Daily daily
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR ENGLISH CLASSES AT UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL
What were the main activities in your upper-secondary English classes? Answer each question by ticking
on the scale from 1 (never) to 7 (every lesson). (Give only one answer per question.)
63. Working with translation.
Never Every lesson
24. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 221
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
64. Working with vocabulary and vocabulary tasks.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
65. Working with grammar.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
66. Working with oral activities.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
67. Working with writing tasks/writing texts.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
68. Working with literature and background topics.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
69. Reading and searching for information on the Internet.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
70. Writing e-mail or chatting on the Internet.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
71. Reading the textbook.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
72. Reading novels in class sets.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
73. Reading self-selected novels.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
74. Reading English periodicals, magazines and newspapers.
Never Every lesson
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
If activities from your English class have not been mentioned, please describe them in your own words
below. (Feel free to use the other side of the page.)
75. Other comments: If you have any comments on the questionnaire or want to add something in
connection with this survey, please write it below. (Feel free to use the other side of the page.)
25. Hellekjær: Academic English reading proficiency at the university level 222
Reading in a Foreign Language 21(2)
Appendix B
Multiple Regression Table
Variable B SEB ß
Engindex (dependent variable) 5.16 0.26
Dictionary use -0.06 0.02 -.10*
Guess from subject knowledge -0.02 0.03 -.03
Guess from context 0.17 0.04 .22*
Ask lecturer 0.03 0.04 .03
Ask students -0.06 0.02 -.10*
Continue reading -0.06 0.02 -.10*
Give up reading -0.38 0.03 -.45*
About the Author
Glenn Ole Hellekjær, PhD, is an associate professor of teaching English as a foreign language at
the University of Oslo, Norway. His research interests are reading, language needs analyses, and
content- and language-integrated learning at the secondary and university levels. Address for
correspondence: Department of Education and School Development, University of Oslo, PO Box
1099 Blindern, N-0317, Norway. E-mail: g.o.hellekjar@ils.uio.no