The document discusses a study that investigated the impact of using contracted British Braille code on the spelling proficiency of visually impaired students in a bilingual education setting. The study used a quasi-experimental time series design and administered English spelling tests before and after using contracted Braille to 5 congenitally blind students, 6 with acquired blindness, and 4 with functional blindness. Analysis of spelling errors identified the most common as grapheme substitution and direct translation of first language syllables. The study aims to improve understanding of spelling challenges for visually impaired students using contracted Braille.

1. 1
The Impact of Contracted British Braille Code on
The Spelling Proficiency among Pupils with Visual
Impairments in Bilingual Setting
Alya Qasdina Ng Ai Lee, Dr. Kway Eng Hock
Faculty of Education and Human Development,
Sultan Idris University of Education – Malaysia
lily_priz@yahoo.com, M20121000552@siswa.upsi.edu.my
ehkway07@yahoo.com, kway.eh@fppm.upsi.edu.my
Abstract
This article investigated the implication of the usage of contracted or abbreviated British
Braille Code on the spelling proficiency among the pupils with visual impairments in a
bilingual setting. The time series quasi experimental research was initiated since 2013
among 5 congenital blind pupils, 6 acquired blindness, including teenage blind, and 4
functionally blind pupils. The English Language Spelling Proficiency Test (ESPT) was
administered verbally and in written form to obtain quantitative data on the typology of
spelling errors made by the respondents. The upshot of the research had successfully
identified the habitual errors offended by the respondents that eventually detracted the
operation of Second Language (L2) acquisition; in which are believed to bear an influence
on the mean scores obtained in the applied instrument. The result indicated that
"graphemes substitution" and "direct translation of syllables of the first language (L1)" to
be set up as the most frequent case of errors. It is recommended that teachers are
always vigilant to the cultural aspects of the language process. Meanwhile, braille literacy
activities should be enriched with phonetic practices to strengthen phonemic orthography
skills among the visually impaired (VI). Hence, improve the accuracy of spelling in their
writings.
Keywords: (Contractions-Braille-Spelling-Blind-Bilingual)
1. Introduction
Chronologically, before systematic production of the Basic Module for the Visually
Impaired (KAiMaL) in 2010, pupils with visual impairments were learning braille
codes according to the initiatives and flexibility of the subject teachers. Initially,
students were learning Alphabetic Braille (Barclay, Herlich, & Sacks, 2010)
followed with Contracted Braille based on formulae and procedures prescribed in
the Handbook of British Braille Prime (1992).
According to D'Andrea (2009), braille code has developed as a methodology that
represents the printed text for individuals with visual impairments. According to
Kway (2012), braille code is the medium for literacy activities specifically for
reading and writing. In addition, with the availability of braille literacy, the career
prospects for those who are competent in braille literacy are brighter than those

2. 2
who have not mastered the skills (Koenig & Holbrook, 2000; Ryles 1996, 2000;
Schroeder 1989.1996).
1.1. Bilingualism and Teaching English as the Second Language (ESL)
Bilingualism occurs among people who apply multiple languages in literacy
activities. Bilingualism is not a teaching and learning methodology. In depth, it
is an approach to enhance understanding of students in the context of learning
and teaching by implementing foreign language scaffold with native languages
(Ovando, Combs, & Collier, 2003). In Malaysia, the policy of "Upholding Malay
Language and Strengthening English" (MBMMBI, 2010), has gazetted learning
English Language as a core subject, besides strengthening its dominance as the
language of communication to access other disciplines of knowledge. The
Education Blue Print (PPPM, 2013-2025), has stated English to be a must-pass
subject in the Malaysia Education Certificate (SPM) from 2016. According to
Crawford (2004), English as a Second Language (ESL) is a scheme of educational
activity that enables students who are non-native-speakers of English Language
to master the language in literacy activities. In the context of English language
learning among students with visual impairments, they are required to master
two types of braille code in the process of learning languages (KaiMaL, 2010).
Highlights of previous studies found that phonetic awareness in braille literacy is
linked to the cognitive operation of second language acquisition and it is
correlated with the first language (L1) (Cummin, 1981). Therefore, the L1
influences the operation of second language (L2) acquisition (Lord, 2008).
1.2 Language Literacy
According to Argyropoulos and Martos (2006), basic literacy formed the
foundation for the education. Literacy development often receives serious
attention from all parties (Rex, Koenig, Wormsley & Baker, 1995). The term
‘literacy’ is often linked with a person's ability to understand and write for
everyday demands. According to Troughton (2009), basic literacy skills are a
continuous contour of a variety of other technical literacies. In the context of the
language acquisitions among pupils with visual impairment, Gillon & Young,
2002; McCall, McLinden, & Gouglas, 2011, stated that the evolution of literacy
for braille users and sighted users are the same. This statement was agreed by
Kway (2012), which alleged that the literacy skills of students with visual
impairment are as important as the typical peers.
1.3 Orthography Skill
Orthography skill is among the most important component of literacy as well as
oral language, phonological and phonemic awareness, word identification, text
comprehension, writing, vocabulary, reading fluency, and skill to remember and
reuse the words that have been taught (Harris, 1995). The researchers have
noted that spelling will be a wonderful indicator to determine the level of reading
and writing for an individual in the early stage of literacy development (Ehri,
2005; Ehri & Wilce, 1987; Lombardino, Bedford, Fortier, Carter, & Brandi, 1997).
(Ehri, 2005; Ehri & Wilce, 1987; Lombardino, Bedford, Fortier, Carter, & Brandi,

3. 3
1997). Furthermore, the spelling was also employed as the measurement for
classifying an individual's level of academic achievement. According to Larsen,
Hammill, & moats (1999), spelling is a procedure that is uncomplicated but really
significant for setting the level of education of a person. From a linguistic
perspective, Argyropoulos & Martos (2006) and Beers (2003) commented
spelling is a blending process to check pupils’ ability to understand the script and
gauge pupils' awareness of the missives of the alphabet and letter sounds.
In fact, spelling is rather difficult for visually impaired students because they
require to be competent in braille literacy. The braille users need more time in
determining the full spelling of the dictated words, and using the words in
literacy activities. Various studies have been conducted to identify the spelling
proficiency among students with visual impairments after the usage of
Contracted Braille. As the result, VI was keen to be "the ultimate speller" as the
abbreviated braille codes had represented the encoded words perfectly (Maxfield,
1928; Hayes, 1922). The hypothesis obtained in previous studies in relation to
spelling proficiency among V. I yielded no significant differences after the use of
Contracted Braille (Argyropoulos & Martos, 2006; Gillon & Young, 2002; Dodd &
Conn, 2000). A study piloted by Clark-Bischke & Stoner (2009) in relation to the
spelling proficiency of braille users in essay writing activity also found that
spelling errors committed by students is due to a technical default that is
“omission of letters” or “transposition” of the Braille code. Thus, the practice of
abbreviations in Braille code is not a factor that threatens the spelling proficiency
of students with visual impairments.
Nevertheless, the finding of Vorgelegtvon & Lauenstein (2007) was contradicted
from previous findings in relation to the issue discussed. Vorgelegtvon &
Lauenstein review the problem based on the aspect of linguistics. The results
found that the design and structure of the British Braille code which were less
ordered and unstable had led to confusion in the aspects of grapheme structures
or the full spelling of the root words / lexemes. Simultaneously, the elements of
language such as morphology and phonological aspects were also exaggerated.
Consequently, the study conducted by McCall, McLinden, & Gouglas, (2011)
added that blind children are more difficult in mastering orthography skills. This
problem is due to the quotidian practice of contracted braille code and less
exposure to the full spelling of dictated words.
1.4 Typology of Spelling Errors
Literature review of previous studies in relation to the typology of spelling errors
produced by braille users has been apprehended. Koenig and Ashcroft (1993)
presented that the typology of spelling errors by comparing the performance of
the blind students and low vision students in the United States. The
classifications of spelling errors were listed as follows:
1. “Homophone error related with braille contraction”
2. “Unsuccessful attempt at full spelling of contraction”
3. “Other braille related misspelling”
4. “True misspelling”
5. “Illegible word”

4. 4
Vorgelegtvon and Lauenstein (2007) elicited the types and proportions of ‘major’
spelling errors are based on the problem statement, whether the contracted
British Braille Code contains elements which might interfere with spelling
performances of students with visual impairment. In this aspect, Vorgelegtvon
and Lauenstein had classified the spelling errors by citing to a study conducted
by the Educational Research - National Foundation for Educational Research
(NFER) in the United Kingdom while developing a generalisation and stating that
spelling mistakes are divided into two categories based on the following
conditions:
1. The errors triggered from the structure of the words: the insertion of
graphemes, graphemes omission, graphemes transposition, grapheme
substitution and other anonymous errors.
2. Errors caused by pronunciation and intonation when reading: multiplication of
consonants, indistinct sound, the syllable pronunciation mistake or errors in
grapheme selection.
In a study taken by the National Corporation for Educational Research - National
Foundation for Educational Research (NFER) in the United Kingdom. The types of
spelling errors described in the study became a major source of inspiration for
this study. In this study, the typology of spelling mistakes had added another
common type of errors that committed by students with visual impairment in a
bilingual setting of Malaysia. Eventually, this type of spelling errors is risen from
the direct translation of syllables from L1- Malay Language. The types of spelling
errors described in this study may include:
1. “Insertion”
2. “Omission”
3. “Substitution”
4. “Transposition”
5. “Grapheme Substitutions
6. “Direct Translations of syllables from L1”
1.5 Research Questions and Hypotheses
This study was an attempt to answer the following two questions: (See Table 1)
Table 1: Research Questions and Null Hyptheses
No. Research Questions Null Hypotheses (Hₒ)
1 Is there any significant difference
between mean scores obtained in
the pre and post-test after the usage
of Contracted Braille in the ESPT
dictation test?
There is no significant difference
between pre-test and post-test after
the usage of contracted braille in the
ESPT dictation test.
2 Is there any significant relationship
between the usage of Contracted
Braille Code and spelling proficiency
of the VI in the administered pre and
post test?
There is no significant relationship
between the use of contracted
braille and the spelling proficiency of
students with visual impairments in
the administered pre and post test

5. 5
1.6 Purpose of the Study
Thus, the purpose of the study is to analyze the typology of spelling mistakes
typically committed by students with visual impairments in ESL as the impact of
the usage of Contracted Braille in literacy activities.
1.7 The objectives of the study
The independent variable of this study is the usage of contracted British Braille
Code that consists of fully contracted or partially contracted words (Vorgelegtvon
& Lauenstein, 2007). Meanwhile the dependent variable discussed is the spelling
proficiency of the VI. This study aimed to: -
1. ascertain the frequency of mean scores for the types of spelling errors
committed by the pupils with visual impairment in the pre-test and post-test
of ESPT.
2. identify a significant difference between mean scores obtained in the pre and
post-examination after the utilization of contracted braille.
3. identify the significant relationship between the usage of contracted Braille
and the spelling performance of the VI in the ESPT dictation Test.
1.8 Scope and Limitations of Study
Typology of spelling errors committed by pupils with visual impairments is the
main focus of this study. However, there is no suitable instrument established to
measure the competency of braille literacy among the VI. Therefore, the
instrument applied is confined to the level of spelling proficiency among the
respondents who participated in this study. The findings do not represent the
entire population of students with visual impairments. Samples were chosen
based on purposive sampling approach that only those who meet the principles
specified by the researcher will be taken as the samples in this study. In
addition, the researchers also determined that the selected samples do not have
other disabilities that might defect to the validity and reliability of the
experiment.
2. Research Methodology
The research methodology in this study is based on quasi-experimental - time-series
design to distinguish the impact or changes arising from the insertion of
treatment for a long period of time (Handler, 2009). The rationale for the
selection of time-series design as it does not require control group; Contracted
Braille Code is the writing system practiced since 1902 in the Commonwealth
countries that practice British Braille Primer (English Braille, 2014).
Consequently, all users are required to read and master contracted braille to
have better interpretations in braille literacy. According to Campbell & Stanley
(1963), the time series design is virtuous, probably the best since the repetitive
assessments fit well with the characteristics of the research carried out in
schools. In this study, the researcher did not intend to compare whether an
assumed intervention will get the desired change (Handler, 2009) as the subject

6. 6
field is focused on impact on the utilization of contracted braille in a bilingual
context.
This study was conducted in three phases: Phase 1: the Pilot Study. Phase 2:
Pre-test of ESPT. Phase 3: Post Test of ESPT. Each phase steered in three
cohorts of protecting instructional time (MMI) in the school. A total of 127 words
cited from the Integrated Secondary School Curriculum (KBSM)’s textbook and
words found in the handbook of British Braille Prime. The cited words were
dictated progressively in verbal form. The overall mean score was then analyzed
to detect the types of spelling errors found in their answer scripts. (See Table 2)
Table 2: ESPT Dictation Words According to Cohort: 2013-2014
Pre and Post
Test
The words cited from KBSM’s
Texbooks
The words cited from British
Braille Prime
Phase 1: Pilot
Study
April 2013
1. cheap
2. boil
3. dear
4. scrap
5. pharmacy
6. disaster
7. kind
8. ambitious
9. development
10.excited
11.neglect
12.threat
13.improve
14.landslide
15.rise
1. immediate
2. first
3. friend
4. would
5. father
6. because
7. ourselves
Phase 2: Pre-
Test
Cohort 1
May 2013
16.against
17.another
18.avoid
19.enough
20.because
21.ceremony
22.courage
23.duty
24.education
25.idea
26.material
27.separate
8. knowledge
9. quite
10.will
11.rather
12.but
13.people
Phase 2: Pre-
Test
Cohort 2
July 2013
28.accomodation
29.background
30.compliment
31.deforestation
32.disposal
33.fatigue
34.performance
35.victim
36.awarded
14.Just
15.it
16.as
17.us
18.and
19.the

7. 7
37.dignity
38.inspire
Phase 2: Pre-
Test
Cohort 3
September
2013
39.kindness
40.exchange
41.therapist
42.acne
43.something
44.marine
45.alert
46.characteristic
47.demand
48.experience
49.information
20.them
21.cannot
22.father
23.here
24.Lord
25.question
26.right
27.spirit
Phase 3:
Post-Test
cohort 1:
9 January
2014
50.sacrifice
51.ought to
52.determine
53.frequent
54.remedies
55.concern
56.advance
57.arrest
28.time
29.under
30.upon
31.work
32.world
33.young
34.shall
35.whose
36.through
37.to
Phase 3:
Post-Test
cohort 2:
23 January
2014
58.besides
59.comfort
60.distinguish
38.were
39.about
40.necessary
41.neither
42.according
43.afternoon
44.paid
45.perhaps
46.perceive
47.already
48.altogether
49.believe
Phase 3:
Post-Test
cohort 3:
27 January
2014
61.nation
62.harvest
63.surround
64.suggest
65.poor
66.opinion
50.brave
51.children
52.rejoice
53.deceive
54.such
55.themselves
56.friend
57.great
58.declare
59.immediate
60.letter
61.much
Source: (Lee, Arokiasamy, Ganehsan, & Veerasamy, 2010; Braille Authority,
1992; Abdullah, Wee, & Bien, 2002; Shanta, Kurup, & Lorenz, 2003).

8. 8
15 respondents were conditionally selected from a Special Education Secondary
School for the Visually Impaired located in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The rationale
for the selection of the school as it is the only school in Malaysia that offers
special education services, especially for individuals with visual impairments.
Table 3 shows the frequency distribution of the sample by types of disability and
level of education.
Table 3: Frequency Distribution of Samples
Types of Vision
Loss/ Academic
Level
Congenitally
Blind
Childhood
Blind
Teenage Blind
Functionally
Blind
Form 4 0 2 1 2
Form 5 5 2 1 2
Total 5 4 2 4
3. Findings
When the respondents applied Contracted Braille in the dictation test, only
29.89% of the dictated words were spelt incorrectly. “Grapheme substitution”
was recorded as the most frequent error which committed by the respondents.
In a bilingual background, the process of second language acquisition is also
determined by L1. As anticipated by the researcher, ‘direct translation of
syllables from L1’ is apparent among the respondents when they were uncertain
about the full spelling of the dictated words. Table 4 presents the average mean
score achieved in the Time Series Pre Test.
Table 4: Average Mean Score in Time Series ESPT Pre Test
No. Types of Spelling Error
Pre Test
1 May
2013
Pre Test
2
July 2013
Pre Test 3
October
2013
Average
Mean Score
1. Insertion 0.667 0.176 0.100 0.934
2 Omission 0.167 0.529 0.526 1.222
3 Substitution of letter 0.556 0.647 0.421 1.624
4 Transposition 0.056 0.235 0.053 0.344
5 Grapheme substitution 0.056 3.353 1.789 5.198
6
Direct translation of syllables
from L1
1.611 1.353 1.263 4.227
During the execution of the time series post-test, what can be observed is the
percentage of spelling errors increased hastily as soon as the respondents did
not apply Contracted Braille in their answer scripts. The number of misspelled
words increased to 56.33%. The tendency of the spelling errors had shown the
same pattern as the time series pre-test. “Grapheme substitution” and “direct
translation of syllables from L1” still prominent as the highest mean score rather
than other spelling errors. (See Table 5).
.

9. 9
Table 5: Average Mean Score in Time Series ESPT Post-Test
No. Types of Spelling Error
Post Test 1
9 January
2014
Post Test 2
23 January
2014
Post Test 3
27 January
2014
Average
Mean Score
1. Insertion 0.947 1.375 0.842 3.164
2 Omission 1.158 2.5 2 5.658
3 Substitution of letter 1.368 0.625 0.526 2.519
4 Transposition 0.211 0.875 0.842 1.928
5 Grapheme substitution 8.316 8.625 7.684 24.625
6
Direct Translation of
syllables from L1
3.579 3.375 3.263 10.217
“Grapheme Substitution” is a circumstance when the respondents replaced the
trigger words with syllables that have a similar letter sound with the dictated
ones. While “Direct Translation of syllables from L1” is the condition when the
respondents apply L1’s lexemes or syllables to form the full spelling of the words.
Based on the typology of spelling errors, we can paradigm a generalization by
stating that the phonetic awareness in ESL among VI is still below the average
level. When examining the answer scripts written by the respondents, the
researcher found that the respondents have superficial knowledge in the
recognition of phonemes and phonetics on the English Language vocabularies.
(See Table 6)
Table 6: Sampels of Grapheme Subtitution and Direct Translation of Syllables
from L1
No. Details Grapheme substitution Direct Translation of Syllables
from L1
1. separate sirprate seperet
2. accomodation accomodasion akomodasyen
3. background beckground begraun
4. compliment complemen komplimen
5. deforestation deforestasion diforestasyen
6. disposal disposer dispose
7. fatigue fatick fetik
8. because becourse/becoz bikos
9. victim vickteam viktim
10. mother mather mader
11. dignity dicknity dikniti
12. inspire in spyer inpail
13. exchange ekschange ekscheng
14. therapist terapist terapis
15. acne acknee ekni
16. something sumthing samting
17. marine merin marin
19. alert alet alet
20. character carractor karakter
To explore the research question, "Is there any significant difference between
the mean scores obtained in pre and post-test after the usage of Contracted
Braille in ESPT Dictation Test?” The result had shown α = 0.000 meaning that

10. 10
there is a significant conflict between pre and post-test after the usage of
Contracted Braille. Grounded along the outcomes of the Null hypothesis that
states there is no significant difference after using Contracted Braille is rejected.
As the consequence of the research, the result also rejects the hypothesis
mentioned by Clark & Stoner (2008) which indicated that there is no significant
difference of test scores from the use of Contracted Braille. The researcher
comprehended that in the context of ESL, the respondents have inadequate
phonetic awareness compared with those who are the native speakers of the
English Language. (See Table 7.)
Table 7: Comparison of Mean Scores Obtained in Pre and Post Test of ESPT
Test Mean Standard Deviation t df Sig
Pre 38.73 6.158 7.859 14 .000
Post 21.80 11.44
To answer the research question “Is there any significant relationship between
the usage of Contracted Braille and spelling proficiency among VI in pre-test and
post-test? The study found the correlation coefficient value of the observed
variables is equal to +1. This suggests a perfect relationship between the usage
of contracted braille and the spelling proficiency among the respondents.
Nevertheless, the ESPT post test result had indicated M = 21.80, SD = 11:44,
Pearson correlation coefficient r = 0.704 with significance level α = 0.003 (p <.
05). This implies meaning, strong (Yahaya Hashim Ramli, Boon, & Hamdan,
2010) and positive relationship between the observed variables. Thus, the null
hypothesis stating no significant relationship between the usage of Contract
Braille and spelling proficiency among V. I in the administered ESPT Pre-Post
Tests is rejected. (See Table 8)
Table 8: Mean Score, Standard Deviation, Correlation, Signifinicance of Time
Series Pre-Post Test
Test Mean Standard
Deviation
n Correlation
(r)
df Sig.
Pre 38.73 6.158 15 1 14 .000
Post 21.80 11.44 15 .704 14 .003
4. Discussions
The results attained in this study revealed that Contracted Braille has significant
influence on the spelling proficiency of students with visual impairments,
particularly in a bilingual setting, whereas ESL applied as one of the instructional
mediums in the curriculum. The practice of Contracted Braille allows students to
dominate dictated words accurately. Nevertheless, the usage of Contracted
Braille that is not equipped with phonetic session will cause VI preoccupied with
the execution of the abbreviated braille codes and ignored the full spelling of
certain words. In turn, it affects the level of proficiency of English Language.
This experiment was carried out in phases based on a time series design to
investigate whether the use of Contracted Braille affects spelling proficiency of
students with visual impairments in Malaysia. The study found that the mean
scores between pre-test and post-test was significantly different (p<. 05). The
independent variable had significantly affected the dependent variable. With a

11. 11
strong correlation value that reaching 1 (r=0. 704), thus this had illustrated a
positive relationship between the usage of Contracted Braille and spelling
proficiency of VI. In other words, if a braille user holds a good competency in
applying contracted braille, it also facilitates him/her to have better spelling
proficiency in literacy activities.
The concern of the researcher is spelling proficiency of students with visual
impairment as the result of using Contracted Braille. Equally, we can observe
that, the post-test end result is less encouraging compared with pre-test. This
reflects the disadvantages of using Contracted Braille in literacy activities.
According to Vorgelegtvon & Lauenstein (2007), inconsistencies of British Braille
code affected the spelling proficiency of VI from the perspective of linguistic. In
this study, spelling errors were evident when students were asked to dictate the
full spelling of the words. Doubtlessly, if this matter is not addressed by
proactive solutions, it will unquestionably affect the career expectations of
students with visual impairments. It is recommended that teachers are always
vigilant to the cultural aspects of the language process. By way of, it is becoming
a must for individuals with visual impairments to dominate the standard
vocabulary and thus become as competitive as the typical peers.
5. Recommendations for Further Research
Recommendations for further work are grounded on the limitations faced by the
researcher during the inquiry procedure. With the hope that this work will
encourage other researchers to extend the scope of subjects referred to the use
of Contracted Braille, and its implications in the context of language learning and
teaching literacy in bilingual setting. Hereby, we propose some recommendations
for future study:
1. Time and cost constraints limit the involvement of larger samples to
participate in this study. Thus, it is recommended that further research
focused on a fuller population of Special Education for VI For instance:
inclusive program, the integration and mainstreaming programs, home
schooling etc. to provide heterogeneity in the characteristic of the sampling.
2. The significances of the use of Contracted Braille can also be run to study the
elements that determine the level of spelling proficiency of students with
visual handicaps.
3. It is strongly urged that further improvement of the research scope will be
expanded into reading and writing skills after the usage of Contracted Braille.
4. The researcher also hopes that a more comprehensive appraisal system can
be developed to assess the grade of competency in the utilisation of
contracted braille among pupils with VI. Doubtless, the output of the
measuring instrument harness educators and offer more information to
educators in relation to square up the grade of braille literacy among the
pupils.
5. Established along the types of spelling errors made by students with visual
handicaps, it is desired that these problems can spark new ideas among
educators to arrange modules that can improve spelling proficiency level of
students with visual impairments.

12. 12
6. References
(KPM), K. P. (2010). Memperkasa Bahasa Melayu, Memperkukuh Bahasa
Inggeris. Putrajaya: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
Kemahiran Asas Individu Bermasalah Penglihatan. (2010). Kurikulum Standard
Sekolah Rendah Pendidikan Khas , hlm. 1-15.
Interpreting ACER Test Result. (2011). Australian Council for Educational
Research Ltd, 1-4.
Kemahiran Asas Individu Masalah Penglihatan Tahun Dua. (2011). Kurikulum
Standard Sekolah Rendah Pendidikan Khas, hlm. 1-20.
Kemahiran Asas Individu Masalah Penglihatan Tahun 4. (2013). Kurikulum
Standard Sekolah Rendah Pendidikan Khas (Masalah Penglihatan), hlm. 1-24.
English Braille. (2014, 03 28). Didapatkan 04 03, 2014, daripada Wikipedia:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Braille
Abdullah, K. i., Wee, D., & Bien, T. H. (2002). Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah
Menengah: English Form 1. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Alhas (M) Sdn. Bhd.
Abdullah, R. (2001). Perkembangan Kanak-Kanak: Penilaian secara Portfolio.
Serdang: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Ahmad, D. J. (2012, Februari 29). Kajian Eksperimen. Didapatkan 04 10, 2014,
daripada www.scribd.com: http://www.scribd.com/doc/83150025/M6-2010-
KAJIAN-EKSPERIMEN
Alice, K., Chong, Y. F., liaw, C. C., Bia, V., Wong, L. I., & yusoff, N. (2008). Teori
Kognitif dan Implikasi dalam Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran. Dalam M. Y.
Abdullah, & et.al, Pengetahuan Pedagogi Guru (hlm. 101-113). Sabah: Universiti
Malaysia Sabah.
Argyropoulos, V. S., & Martos, A. C. (2006). Braille lietracy Skills: Anaysis of the
Concept of Spelling. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 676-684.
Argyropoulus, V. (2002). Tactual Shape Perception in relation to the
understanding of geometrical concepts by blind students. British Journal of Visual
Impairment, 7-16.
Arter, C. &. (1994). Spelling for the visually impaired child. Britsh Journal of
Visual Impairment, 18-21.
Arter, C. (1997). The primary school child. . Dalam H. Mason, & S.McCall, Visual
Impairment: Access to education for children and young people (hlm. 97-109).
London: David Fulton.
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C., & Walker, D. A. (2013). Introduction to
Research in Education, Ninth Edition. USA: Wadsworth.
Aziz, S. B., Yusof, M. F., & Ismail, M. J. (2012). Kemahiran Asas Individu
Bermasalah Penglihatan Tahun 3. Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah
Pendidikan Khas (Bermasalah Penglihatan), hlm. 1-9.
Baca, L. M., & Cervantes, H. T. (1998). Theories of Language Acquisition. Dalam
The Bilingual Special Education Interface (hlm. 126-140). New Jersey: Prentice
Hall Inc.
Bailey, D., Bruer, J., Symons, F., & Lichtman, J. (2001). Critical Thinking about
Critical Periods. Baltimore: PH Brookes.
Bakar, B. H. (2007). Kaedah Analisis Data Penyelidikan Ilmiah: Ujian T, ANOVA,
Khi Kuasa Dua, Korelasi, dan Regresi. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications &
Distributors Sdn Bhd.
Baker, C. (2001). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism, 3rd
edition. England: Multilingual Matters.
Banks, J., & Banks, C. (2009). Multicultural education: Issues and Perspectives
(4th ed.). Boston: Ally and Bacon.

13. 13
Barclay, L., Herlich, S. A., & Sacks, S. Z. (2010). Effective Teaching Strategies:
Case Studies from the Alphabetic Braille and Contracted Braille study. Journal of
Visual Impairment & Blindness, December 2010, 13.
Barclay, L., Herlich, S. A., & Sacks, S. Z. (2010). Effective Teaching Strategies:
Case Studies from the Alphabetic Braille and Contracted Braille Study. Journal of
Visual Impairment & Blindness , 753-764.
Bardin, J. A., & Lewis., S. (2008). A Survey of the Academic Engagement of
Students with Visual Impairments in General Education Classes. Journal of Visual
Impairment & Blindnes, 472-483.
Birch, B. (1996). Louis Braille. Jakarta: Pt Gramedia, Pustaka Utama.
Bliss, J., & H.D. (1969). Tactile Perception. American Foundation For The Blind
Research Bulletin, 19, 269-274.
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2003). Qualitative Research for Education: An
introduction to Theories and Methods (4th ed). New York: Pearson Education
Group.
Borgart, D., & Koenig, A. J. (2005). Research Report: Selected findings from the
First International Evaluation of the Proposed Unified English Braille Code.
JOURNAL OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT & BLINDNESS, 233-238.
Braille Authority. (1992). Braille Primer. UK: Royal National Institute for the Blind
(RNIB).
Brambring, M., & Asbrock, D. (2010). Validity of False Belief tasks in blind
children. Journal of Austism and Developmental Disorders, 1471-1484.
Bråten, I., Ferguson, L. E., Anmarkrud, Ø., & Strømsø, H. I. ( 2012). Prediction
of learning and comprehension when adolescents read multiple text: the roles of
word level processing, strategic approach, and reading motivation. Springer
Science, Business Media B.V., 321-348.
Brecke, R. (2007). Cooperative Learning, Responsibility, Ambiguity, Controversy
and support in motivating students. Insight: A Collection of Faculty Scholarship,
57-63.
Brodin, J. (2007). Diversity of aspects on play in children with profound multiple
disabilities. Early Child Development and Care, 37-41.
Burns, M. S., Johnson, R. T., & Assaf, M. M. (2012). Preschool Education in
Today's World: Teaching Chidren with Diverse Backgrounds and Abilities.
Virginia: Paul.H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). "Experimental and quasi-experimental
designs for research on teaching. Dalam N. L. Gage(Ed.), Handbook of Research
on Teaching. (hlm. Chapter 5). Chicago: Rand McNally.
Carrol, J. (1981). Twenty-five years of research on foreigh language aptitude. .
Dalam K. Diller, individual differences in langauge ability and language behavior
(hlm. 83-118). Rowley: Newbury House.
Cazden, C., & Snow, C. (1990). English Plus: Issues in bilingual education.
Dalam C. Cazden, & C. Snow, The Annuals of the American Academy of Political
and Social Science Vol.508. London: Sage.
Chua, Y. P. (2006). Kaedah dan Statistik Penyelidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Mc Graw
Hill (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd.
Clark, C., & Stoner, J. (2008). An Investigation of the Spelling Skills of Braille
Readers. . Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 553-563.
Clark-Bischke, & Stoner J., B. (2009). An investigation of Spelling in the Written
Compositions of Students Who Read Brailles. Journal of Visual Impairment and
Blindness, 668-679.
Cook, V. (2004). The English Writing System. London: Arnold.

14. 14
Corder, S. (1974). Error analysis,. Dalam J. Allen, & S. P. Corder., Techniques in
Applied Linguistics (The Edinburgh Course in Allied Linguistics (hlm. 122-154).
London: Oxford University Press (Language ane Language Learning.
Curry, S., & Hatlen, P. (1988). Meeting the unique educational needs of visually
impaired pupils through appropriate placement . Journal of Visual Impairment &
Blindness Vol.82, 417-424.
D'Andrea, F. M. (2009). A history of instrurctional Methods in Uncontracted and
Contracted Braille. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness , 585-594.
Day, J. N., McDonnell, A. P., & O'Neill, R. (2008). Teaching Beginning Braille
Reading Using an Alphabet or Uncontracted Braille Approach. Springer Science+
Business Media, LLC, 253-277.
Diane P. Wormsley. (2008, November 8). Braille is not a language. A Position
Statement of the Braille Authority of North America. North America: Foundation
of Braille Literacy.
Different types of visual impairment . (t.t). Didapatkan 02 20, 2014, daripada
RNIB: www.rnib.org.uk/eyeinfo
Dodd, B., & Conn, L. (2000). The effect of braille orthography on blind children's
phonological awareness. Journal of Research in Reading 23(1), 1-11.
Edmonds, & Pring. (2006). Generating inferences from written and spoken
language: A comparison of Children with visual impairment and children with
sight. British Journal of Development and Psychology, 337-351.
Ehri, L. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, Findings, and issues. . Scientific
Studies of Reading.Vol 9, 167-188.
Ehri, L., & Wilce, L. (1987). Does learning to spell help beginners learn to read
words? Reading research quarterly Vpl. 22, 47-56.
Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Emerson, R. H., & D'Andrea, F. (2009). Acquisition of Literacy Skills by Young
Children Who Are Blind: Results from the ABC Braille Study. . Journal of Visual
Impairment & Blindness, 610-624.
Farnworth, C. (2007, Winter). Uncontracted or Contrated Braille for Emergent
Readers: A Pilot Study. Volume 39, number 4, hlm. 147-156.
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of
cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, Vol 34(10), 906-911.
Glenn, P., & Hurley, S. (1993). Preventing spelling disabilities. Child Language
Teaching and Therapy, 1-12.
Grenier, D., & Giroux, N. (1997). A comparative study of spelling performance of
Sighted and blind students in senior high school. Journal of Visual Impairment
and Blindness Vol. 91, 393-401.
Hamsphire, B. (1975). Tactile and visual reading. The New Outlook for the Blind,
145-154.
Harris, T. L. (1995). The Literacy Dictionary. International Reading Association.
Hatton, D., Erickson, K., & Lee, D. (2010). Phonological Awareness of Young
Children with Visual Impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness,
743-752.
Hayes, S. (1922). Can blind children spell? Outlook for the blind.
Kessler, C. (1984). Language Acquisition in Bilingual Children. Dalam N. (Ed).,
Bilingualism and Language Disability (hlm. 26-54). San Diego: College-Hill Press.
Kinash, S., & Paszuk, A. (2007). Accessible Education for Blind Learners:
Kindergarten through Postsecondary. USA: Information Age Publishing.
Kirk, S. A., & anastasiow, N. (2000). Educating Exceptional Children. New York:
Mifflin Company.

15. 15
Koenig, A., & Holbrook, M. C. (2000). Literacy Skills. Dalam A. J. (Eds.),
Foundatons of education. Vol 11: Instructional strategies for teaching children
and youth s with visual impairments (hlm. 265-329). new york: AFB.Press.
Konting, M. M. (2009). Kaedah Penyelidikan Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: DBP.
Kusajima, T. (1974). Visual reading and braille reading: An experimental
investigation of the physiology and sychology of visual and tactual reading. New
York: AFB.
Lord, G. (2008). Second Language Acquisition and First Language Phonological
Modification. The 10th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium (hlm. 184-194).
Somerville: Selected Proceedings of The 10th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium.
Lowenfeld, B. Abel, GL.,; hattlen, P.H. (1969). Blind Children learn to read. IL:
Charles C. Thomas.
Maxfield, K. (1928). The blind child and his reading: A handbook for teachers of
primary braille reading. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
Morrow, L. M. (2012). Literacy Development in The Early Years. Helping Children
read and write. United States: Pearson.
Ovando, C. J., Combs, M. C., & Collier, V. P. (2003). Bilingual & ESL Classroom:
Teaching in multicultural contexts Fourth Edition. United States: McGraw Hill.
Rex, E. J., Koenig, A. J., P.Wormsley, D., & Baker, R. L. (1995). Foundations of
Braille Literacy. USA: AFB Press.
Vorgelegtvon, & Lauenstein, C. (2007). On The Compatibility of the Braille Code
and Universal Grammar. University of Stuttgart: Institute of English Linguistics.
Yahaya, A., Hashim, S., Ramli, J., Boon, Y., & Hamdan, A. R. (2010). Menguasai
Penyelidikan dalam Pendidikan: Teori, Analisis, dan Interpretasi DAta. Selangor :
PTS Professional Publishing Sdn. Bhd.