Slides of my PhD thesis defense presentation (16-12-2022, Barcelona, Spain). I obtained the obtained the grade of Excellent and I have been awarded with the Mention "Cum Laude".
The effect of music listening on work performance.PeacefulNature
We use music to set the tone of our environment and our mood, whether we’re unwinding after work or throwing a party. But in an age when many of us spend our time staring at a computer screen, music has also become a mode of escape from outside distractions or dull tasks.
youtube.com/@peacefulnature9037
Music Promotes Gross National Happiness Using Neutrosophic fuzzyCognitive Map...ijdmtaiir
This paper provides an investigation to promote
gross national happiness from music using fuzzy logic model.
Music influences rate of learning. It has been the subject of
study for many years. Researchers have confirmed that loud
background noise impedes learning, concentration, and
information acquisition. An interesting phenomenon that
occurs frequently in listening new music among the students
creates sense of anxiety even without having
properunderstandingofmusic.Happiness is the emotion that
expresses various degrees of positive and negativefeelings
ranging from satisfaction to extreme joy. The happiness is
thegoal most people strive to achieve. Happypeople are
satisfied with their lives. The goal of this work is to find the
particular component of music which will ultimately promote
the happiness of people because of indeterminacy situation in
components of music
Slides of my PhD thesis defense presentation (16-12-2022, Barcelona, Spain). I obtained the obtained the grade of Excellent and I have been awarded with the Mention "Cum Laude".
The effect of music listening on work performance.PeacefulNature
We use music to set the tone of our environment and our mood, whether we’re unwinding after work or throwing a party. But in an age when many of us spend our time staring at a computer screen, music has also become a mode of escape from outside distractions or dull tasks.
youtube.com/@peacefulnature9037
Music Promotes Gross National Happiness Using Neutrosophic fuzzyCognitive Map...ijdmtaiir
This paper provides an investigation to promote
gross national happiness from music using fuzzy logic model.
Music influences rate of learning. It has been the subject of
study for many years. Researchers have confirmed that loud
background noise impedes learning, concentration, and
information acquisition. An interesting phenomenon that
occurs frequently in listening new music among the students
creates sense of anxiety even without having
properunderstandingofmusic.Happiness is the emotion that
expresses various degrees of positive and negativefeelings
ranging from satisfaction to extreme joy. The happiness is
thegoal most people strive to achieve. Happypeople are
satisfied with their lives. The goal of this work is to find the
particular component of music which will ultimately promote
the happiness of people because of indeterminacy situation in
components of music
Assignment 3 The Mozart EffectIn this assignment, you.docxtidwellerin392
Assignment 3: The Mozart Effect
In this assignment, you will read an article about the Mozart effect and identify various parts of the research process. This exercise will help you learn how to read a research article and to understand the research process.
Read the following article:
•Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1993). Music and spatial task performance. Nature, 365. 6447: 611. (October 14, 1993). (ProQuest Document ID 76004658).
In your article summary, respond to the following questions:
•State the research hypothesis in your own words. Identify the independent and dependent variables.
•What were some variables the researchers controlled in their study? Why was this necessary?
•What evidence do the researchers offer as a test of their hypothesis? Is this evidence empirical (observable)? Is it valid?
•What explanation do the researchers offer for their findings? Does the evidence justify this explanation?
Read the following article:
Jenkins, J.S. (2001). The Mozart effect. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 94, 170-172.
Based on your readings, respond to the following:
•Do you think there is any merit in the study (Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993)? Give three reasons for your position.
•Does the study take individual differences in spatial ability into account? Explain your answer.
•What are two ways in which the experiment could be modified to make the results more generalizable?
Write a 5–6-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M1_A3.doc.
By Wednesday, April 15, 2015, deliver your assignment to the M1: Assignment 3 Dropbox.
Assignment 3 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Accurately identified and described the research hypothesis and variables studied in the research article. Identified any control variables, and explained the necessity of controlling them.
12
Evaluated validity of the evidence presented as a test of the hypothesis in the research article.
12
Evaluated interpretation of results in the research article.
12
Critically assessed the merit of the research study providing at least three reasons.
12
Evaluated whether the test took into account individual differences in spatial ability giving reasons.
12
Suggested at least two ways to modify the experiment to make the results more generalizable.
20
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
Go to the Doc Sharing area for a document explaining the important parts of a journal article. This document will help you complete your paper more successfully.
The Mozart Effect
Abstract
The Mozart Effect is a phenomenon that occurs when individuals listen to the two piano sonata.
The stated resul.
Performance Comparison of Musical Instrument Family Classification Using Soft...Waqas Tariq
Nowadays, it appears essential to design automatic and efficacious classification algorithm for the musical instruments. Automatic classification of musical instruments is made by extracting relevant features from the audio samples, afterward classification algorithm is used (using these extracted features) to identify into which of a set of classes, the sound sample is possible to fit. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the viability of soft set for audio signal classification. A dataset of 104 (single monophonic notes) pieces of Traditional Pakistani musical instruments were designed. Feature extraction is done using two feature sets namely perception based and mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs). In a while, two different classification techniques are applied for classification task, which are soft set (comparison table) and fuzzy soft set (similarity measurement). Experimental results show that both classifiers can perform well on numerical data. However, soft set achieved accuracy up to 94.26% with best generated dataset. Consequently, these promising results provide new possibilities for soft set in classifying musical instrument sounds. Based on the analysis of the results, this study offers a new view on automatic instrument classification
Music versus non music soundscapes in retailFran Board
Previous research into the effects of sound on shoppers has focused exclusively on music, usually isolating one variable at a time. This study sets out to explore the effects on shoppers’ valence, cognition and stress of alternative soundscapes, and
finds that the music typically chosen in retail settings is probably not the best choice of background sound. When a generative soundscape, café noise and a music playlist
are compared, music performs least well of the tested sounds. Three important new avenues for future research into retail soundscapes are opened up as a result.
Neural Substrates of Music Learning and EmotionsPsyche Loui
Neural Substrates of Music Learning and Emotions | Slides from my talk at The Origins of Music and Human Society, a Conference by Institute of Advanced Study in Toulouse and Royaumont Foundation at Royaumont Abbey, France | December 16, 2017
the symbolic messages of two pairs of advertisements (perfumes and cigarettes) are decoded using semiotic analysis in order to compare the different strategies that are utilized to target different customer groups according to demographic variables such as gender and age. The findings of the semiotic analysis are discussed from the point of view of effective advertising campaigns.
This assignment explores music as a means of therapy for people living with dementia. Looking at the neurophysiological side of the disease, music therapy could be utilised as a way of changing behaviour that could be labelled as disruptive or unacceptable to the rest of society. Considering the important role that music plays in the lives of many people, cultures and societies and the need of people living with dementia to connect, engage, grow and flourish, music can and should play a much larger role in creating a life worth living for people with dementia. Music should be made part of the person-centred approach to care and not be simply used to entertain, distract or to blur out background sounds. The difficulty of capturing the true emotional spectrum of what music can do for and to the human soul is clear in the research. The practical implementation of music in the care setting should be carefully considered to take into consideration the individuality of each person living with dementia, as well as those who care for them.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Variables in a Research Study and Data CollectionIn this assignmen.docxdaniahendric
Variables in a Research Study and Data Collection
In this assignment, you will explore the variables involved in a research study.
Complete the following tasks:
Read the following articles from the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) Database in the South University Online Library.
Lee, A., Craft-Rosenberg, M. (2010). Ineffective family participation in
professional care: A concept analysis of a proposed nursing
diagnosis.
Nurs Diagn
. 2002 Jan-Mar;
13
(1), 5–14.
Witt, C. M., Lüdtke, R., Willich, S. N. (2010). Homeopathic treatment
of patients with migraine: A prospective observational study with
a 2-year follow-up period.
J Altern Complement Med
. 2010 Apr;
16
(4), 347–55. doi: 10.1089/acm.2009.0376.
Read the process for data collection employed in both these studies. Compare the method used in each of them.
Provide a bulleted list of the five tasks performed as part of data collection in each of them. Click
here
to enter your responses in the organizer.
.
Variation exists in virtually all parts of our lives. We often see v.docxdaniahendric
Variation exists in virtually all parts of our lives. We often see variation in results in what we spend (utility costs each month, food costs, business supplies, etc.). Consider the measures and data you use (in either your personal or job activities). When are differences (between one time period and another, between different production lines, etc.) between average or actual results important? How can you or your department decide whether or not the observed differences over time are important? How could using a mean difference test help?
.
Assignment 3 The Mozart EffectIn this assignment, you.docxtidwellerin392
Assignment 3: The Mozart Effect
In this assignment, you will read an article about the Mozart effect and identify various parts of the research process. This exercise will help you learn how to read a research article and to understand the research process.
Read the following article:
•Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1993). Music and spatial task performance. Nature, 365. 6447: 611. (October 14, 1993). (ProQuest Document ID 76004658).
In your article summary, respond to the following questions:
•State the research hypothesis in your own words. Identify the independent and dependent variables.
•What were some variables the researchers controlled in their study? Why was this necessary?
•What evidence do the researchers offer as a test of their hypothesis? Is this evidence empirical (observable)? Is it valid?
•What explanation do the researchers offer for their findings? Does the evidence justify this explanation?
Read the following article:
Jenkins, J.S. (2001). The Mozart effect. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 94, 170-172.
Based on your readings, respond to the following:
•Do you think there is any merit in the study (Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993)? Give three reasons for your position.
•Does the study take individual differences in spatial ability into account? Explain your answer.
•What are two ways in which the experiment could be modified to make the results more generalizable?
Write a 5–6-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M1_A3.doc.
By Wednesday, April 15, 2015, deliver your assignment to the M1: Assignment 3 Dropbox.
Assignment 3 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Accurately identified and described the research hypothesis and variables studied in the research article. Identified any control variables, and explained the necessity of controlling them.
12
Evaluated validity of the evidence presented as a test of the hypothesis in the research article.
12
Evaluated interpretation of results in the research article.
12
Critically assessed the merit of the research study providing at least three reasons.
12
Evaluated whether the test took into account individual differences in spatial ability giving reasons.
12
Suggested at least two ways to modify the experiment to make the results more generalizable.
20
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
Go to the Doc Sharing area for a document explaining the important parts of a journal article. This document will help you complete your paper more successfully.
The Mozart Effect
Abstract
The Mozart Effect is a phenomenon that occurs when individuals listen to the two piano sonata.
The stated resul.
Performance Comparison of Musical Instrument Family Classification Using Soft...Waqas Tariq
Nowadays, it appears essential to design automatic and efficacious classification algorithm for the musical instruments. Automatic classification of musical instruments is made by extracting relevant features from the audio samples, afterward classification algorithm is used (using these extracted features) to identify into which of a set of classes, the sound sample is possible to fit. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the viability of soft set for audio signal classification. A dataset of 104 (single monophonic notes) pieces of Traditional Pakistani musical instruments were designed. Feature extraction is done using two feature sets namely perception based and mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs). In a while, two different classification techniques are applied for classification task, which are soft set (comparison table) and fuzzy soft set (similarity measurement). Experimental results show that both classifiers can perform well on numerical data. However, soft set achieved accuracy up to 94.26% with best generated dataset. Consequently, these promising results provide new possibilities for soft set in classifying musical instrument sounds. Based on the analysis of the results, this study offers a new view on automatic instrument classification
Music versus non music soundscapes in retailFran Board
Previous research into the effects of sound on shoppers has focused exclusively on music, usually isolating one variable at a time. This study sets out to explore the effects on shoppers’ valence, cognition and stress of alternative soundscapes, and
finds that the music typically chosen in retail settings is probably not the best choice of background sound. When a generative soundscape, café noise and a music playlist
are compared, music performs least well of the tested sounds. Three important new avenues for future research into retail soundscapes are opened up as a result.
Neural Substrates of Music Learning and EmotionsPsyche Loui
Neural Substrates of Music Learning and Emotions | Slides from my talk at The Origins of Music and Human Society, a Conference by Institute of Advanced Study in Toulouse and Royaumont Foundation at Royaumont Abbey, France | December 16, 2017
the symbolic messages of two pairs of advertisements (perfumes and cigarettes) are decoded using semiotic analysis in order to compare the different strategies that are utilized to target different customer groups according to demographic variables such as gender and age. The findings of the semiotic analysis are discussed from the point of view of effective advertising campaigns.
This assignment explores music as a means of therapy for people living with dementia. Looking at the neurophysiological side of the disease, music therapy could be utilised as a way of changing behaviour that could be labelled as disruptive or unacceptable to the rest of society. Considering the important role that music plays in the lives of many people, cultures and societies and the need of people living with dementia to connect, engage, grow and flourish, music can and should play a much larger role in creating a life worth living for people with dementia. Music should be made part of the person-centred approach to care and not be simply used to entertain, distract or to blur out background sounds. The difficulty of capturing the true emotional spectrum of what music can do for and to the human soul is clear in the research. The practical implementation of music in the care setting should be carefully considered to take into consideration the individuality of each person living with dementia, as well as those who care for them.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Variables in a Research Study and Data CollectionIn this assignmen.docxdaniahendric
Variables in a Research Study and Data Collection
In this assignment, you will explore the variables involved in a research study.
Complete the following tasks:
Read the following articles from the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) Database in the South University Online Library.
Lee, A., Craft-Rosenberg, M. (2010). Ineffective family participation in
professional care: A concept analysis of a proposed nursing
diagnosis.
Nurs Diagn
. 2002 Jan-Mar;
13
(1), 5–14.
Witt, C. M., Lüdtke, R., Willich, S. N. (2010). Homeopathic treatment
of patients with migraine: A prospective observational study with
a 2-year follow-up period.
J Altern Complement Med
. 2010 Apr;
16
(4), 347–55. doi: 10.1089/acm.2009.0376.
Read the process for data collection employed in both these studies. Compare the method used in each of them.
Provide a bulleted list of the five tasks performed as part of data collection in each of them. Click
here
to enter your responses in the organizer.
.
Variation exists in virtually all parts of our lives. We often see v.docxdaniahendric
Variation exists in virtually all parts of our lives. We often see variation in results in what we spend (utility costs each month, food costs, business supplies, etc.). Consider the measures and data you use (in either your personal or job activities). When are differences (between one time period and another, between different production lines, etc.) between average or actual results important? How can you or your department decide whether or not the observed differences over time are important? How could using a mean difference test help?
.
Valerie Matsumoto's "Desperately Seeking "Deirde": Gender Roles, Multicultural Relations, and Nisei Women Writers of the 1930s," focuses on the writings of Deirde, a second generation Japanese American advice columnist. But as the abstract of this piece suggests, Matsumoto was not so much interested in the advice Deirde was giving her readers as much as she was interested in the questions her readers were asking the "Dear Abby"of their community in the mid-1930s to early 1940s. What were they asking about? From Deidre's columns, what were some of the concerns of the Japanese-American community during 1935-1941? While it is of extreme importance to study the experience of the Japanese-Americans during World War II , Matsumoto argues that it is also of importance to study the pre-war lives of Japanese-Americans. Why? What did these concerns reveal about the Japanese-American experience in the United States during this time period?
.
valerie is a 15 year old girl who has recently had signs of a high f.docxdaniahendric
valerie is a 15 year old girl who has recently had signs of a high fever, her parents took her to the ER and the test results say she has a bacterial infection and her white blood cells are trapping bacteria it is not binding with the vacuole and releasing necessarg enzymes to break the cell wall. What disease does valerie have?
.
Utilizing the Statement of Financial Position on page 196 of the Acc.docxdaniahendric
Utilizing the Statement of Financial Position on page 196 of the Accounting Fundamentals for Health Care Management text book (see attachement), compare the figures for 2013 and 2012. Compose a narrative of possible explanations for the documented charges in the year-end figures for the organization. Your response should be a minimum of 200 words in length and submitted in a Word document, utilizing APA format.
See attachment referencing Statement of Financial Position
.
Utech Company has income before irregular items of $307,500 for the .docxdaniahendric
Utech Company has income before irregular items of $307,500 for the year ended December 31, 2014. It also has the following items (before considering income taxes): (1) an extraordinary fire loss of $53,000 and (2) a gain of $27,100 from the disposal of a division. Assume all items are subject to income taxes at a 39% tax rate.
Prepare Utech Company’s income statement for 2014, beginning with “Income before irregular items.”
.
Using your work experience in the public and nonprofit sector, and t.docxdaniahendric
Using your work experience in the public and nonprofit sector, and the knowledge you have gained in this MPA program as a guide, address the following question in a detailed fashion:
What methods, specifically, have citizens utilized to influence and become involved in the budgeting and financial management arenas in the public sphere? Which movements or strategies have been most successful from a citizen perspective? To what degree do budgeting professionals and public administrators seek and consider this citizen involvement? What will be the trend for the future with regard to citizen participation in the process?
.
Using your textbook, provide a detailed and specific definition to.docxdaniahendric
Using your textbook, provide a detailed and specific definition to the following terms:
Transformation Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Laissez-Faire Leadership
Idealized Influence
Inspirational Motivation
Intellectual Stimulation
Idealized Consideration
Contingent Reward
Management by Exception
Kouzes and Posner wrote a book entitled the
Leadership Challenge
in which they identified five practices of exemplary leaders. Using your textbook and Internet sources, discuss the five practices and give examples of leadership behaviors that would illustrate the practice. (1 page minimum)
.
Using your text and at least one scholarly source, prepare a two to .docxdaniahendric
Using your text and at least one scholarly source, prepare a two to three page paper (excluding title and reference page), in APA format, on the following:
Explain the difference between Charity Care and Bad Debt in a healthcare environment.
Explain how the patient financial services personnel assist in determining which category the uncollectible account should be placed.
Discuss the financial implications of gross uncollectibles on the bottom line of the healthcare institution, and explain how these are recorded on the financial statements.
This is the textbook that we are on:
Epstein, L. & Schneider, A. (2014).
Accounting for Health Care Professionals
. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
.
Using Walgreen Company as the target organization complete the.docxdaniahendric
Using
Walgreen Company
as the target organization complete the following three-step process:
First, conduct an external assessment and complete either an EFE or CPM. Use the following five websites in conducting your assessment:
http://marketwatch.com
www.hoovers.com
http://moneycentral.msn.com
http://us.etrade.com/e/t/invest/markets
http://globaledge.msu.edu/industries
Second, conduct an internal assessment and complete an IFE. Use the following documents, which may be found in the target organization’s corporate website:
Most current Form10K document
Most current Annual Report
Then develop a well-written paper describing the findings that you discovered by
analyzing the data
from the external assessment and from the internal assessment.
Present facts.
Consider putting some of the data into a graphical display (chart, figure, table) to present information in a clear way. Use citations to substantiate your ideas. Insert the completed matrixes as appendixes and reference them within the body of the paper according to APA standards.
Your paper should meet the following requirements:
Be 2-3 pages in length
Be formatted according to
APA GUIDELINES
Cite a minimum of three outside sources.
Include all required elements, including a reference page and required appendixes.
.
Using the text book and power point on Interest Groups, please ans.docxdaniahendric
Using the text book and power point on Interest Groups, please answer 3 of the 4 following questions.
1. Define and explain the relationship in power between interest groups and political parties.
2. Identify the different types of interest groups. Which interest groups are most powerful in Oregon? 3. What are the roles of interest groups and different tactics used by interest groups.
4. What is a lobbyist? What do they do?
I attached the powerPoint.
.
Using the template provided in attachment create your own layout.R.docxdaniahendric
Using the template provided in attachment create your own layout.
Review the Goals
Who is the Persona you are trying to reach?
Use the "How to Change Consumer Behavior" file
Integrate social media
A Twitter feed needs to be on the Home Page
Use a Site Architecture Excel File to let the IT Developer know sub menus
Simplify wherever you can. What is the 1 message you want the viewer to remember?
.
Using the simplified OOD methodologyWrite down a detailed descrip.docxdaniahendric
Using the simplified OOD methodology:
Write down a detailed description of the problem.
Identify all the (relevant) nouns and verbs.
From the list of nouns, select the objects. Identify the data components of each object.
From the list of verbs, select the operations.
Write a short paper in response to the following prompt:
Your local police department wants to design new software to keep track of people, property, and criminal activity. List at least three classes you think should be in the design. For each class, identify some data members and methods.
.
Using the text, Cognitive Psychology 5 edition (Galotti, 2014), .docxdaniahendric
Using the text,
Cognitive Psychology 5 edition
(Galotti, 2014), the University Library, the Internet, and/or other resources, answer the following questions. Your response to each question should be at least 150 words in length.
1.
What is primary memory? What are the characteristics of primary memory?
2.
What is the process of memory from perception to retrieval? What happens when the process is compromised?
3.Is it possible for memory retrieval to be unreliable? Why or why not? What factors may affect the reliability of one’s memory?
.
Using the Tana Basin in Kenya,1.Discuss the water sources and .docxdaniahendric
Using the Tana Basin in Kenya,
1.
Discuss the water sources and their quality - ( 5 marks)
2.
Outline the factors that influence their potential uses - (5 marks)
3.
Identify and map the current users of water in the catchment - (15 marks)
4.
Map the potential source of pollution in the catchment - (5 marks)
Need three pages APA format.
.
Using the template provided in a separate file, create your own la.docxdaniahendric
Using the template provided in a separate file, create your own layout.
Review the Goals
Who is the Persona you are trying to reach?
Use the "How to Change Consumer Behavior" file
Integrate social media
A Twitter feed needs to be on the Home Page
Use a Site Architecture Excel File to let the IT Developer know sub menus
Simplify wherever you can. What is the 1 message you want the viewer to remember?
.
Using the template provided in attachment create your own layo.docxdaniahendric
Using the template provided in attachment create your own layout.
Review the Goals
Who is the Persona you are trying to reach?
Use the "How to Change Consumer Behavior" file
Integrate social media
A Twitter feed needs to be on the Home Page
Use a Site Architecture Excel File to let the IT Developer know sub menus
Simplify wherever you can. What is the 1 message you want the viewer to remember?
.
Using the Sex(abled) video, the sexuality section in the Falvo text.docxdaniahendric
Using the "Sex(abled) video, the sexuality section in the Falvo text (Chapter 12), and your own thoughts and experiences as context, describe prominent issues related to forming intimate relationships by people with intellectual disabilities. You may consider the viewpoints from caregivers and family members, educators, societal attitudes, counselors or support personnel, and viewpoints from people with disabilities. You may include disabilities outside of intellectual disabilities if you wish.
Watch Video: Sexuality and Relationships
.
Using the required and recommended resources from this week and last.docxdaniahendric
Using the required and recommended resources from this week and last, as well as ‘found’ resources, identify at least one specific example of groups or individuals in your community, state, or at the national level that exemplify the following themes and include a brief description of why you feel this example meets the concept. Add a link for any ‘found’ resources.
Works “with” young people rather than conducting activities “for” them.
Creates an atmosphere that sparks young people’s aspirations.
Digs deep and incorporates key elements of authentic youth involvement by making sure that:
Youth are valued and heard
Youth shape the action agenda
Youth build assets for and with each other
Why is it important for programs and or organizations to work “with” young people rather than “for” them?
.
Using the Internet, textbook or related resources, research the crea.docxdaniahendric
Using the Internet, textbook or related resources, research the creation and role of the Federal Reserve. Then in a 1-2 page paper, address the following:
When was the Federal Reserve created and for what purpose?
How does the Federal Reserve manipulate our economy to foster economic growth?
Research at
least three
specific policies instituted by the Federal Reserve.
Finally give an analysis as to why or why not you feel these policies were successful. Remember to support your position with cited sources
Due Sunday 11/30/14 at 11am CST, in APA format with APA bibliography
.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Delivering Micro-Credentials in Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingAG2 Design
Explore how micro-credentials are transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) with this comprehensive slide deck. Discover what micro-credentials are, their importance in TVET, the advantages they offer, and the insights from industry experts. Additionally, learn about the top software applications available for creating and managing micro-credentials. This presentation also includes valuable resources and a discussion on the future of these specialised certifications.
For more detailed information on delivering micro-credentials in TVET, visit this https://tvettrainer.com/delivering-micro-credentials-in-tvet/
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2. 0
Journal of Retailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95
Music Congruity Effects on Product Memory, Perception, and
Choice
Adrian C. North a,1, Lorraine P. Sheridan a,2, Charles S. Areni
b,∗
a School of Psychology and Speech Pathology, Curtin
University, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia
b Macquarie Graduate School of Management, 99 Talavera
Road, North Ryde, New South Wales 2113, Australia
Available online 26 June 2015
bstract
Music congruity effects on consumer behavior are
conceptualized in terms of cognitive priming of semantic
networks in memory, and oper-
tionalized as congruent with a product’s country of origin
(Experiment 1), or congruent with the utilitarian (Experiment 2)
or social identity
Experiments 2 and 3) connotations of a product. Hearing a
specific genre of music (e.g., classical) activates related
concepts in memory (e.g.,
xpensive, sophisticated, formal, educated), which influences the
memory for, perception of, and choice of products. Consistent
with this account
f music congruity effects, three laboratory experiments show
that playing music of a specific genre during initial product
exposure improved
ubsequent recall of conceptually related (i.e., congruent)
products compared to unrelated products (Experiment 1),
affected product choice in
5. ctual shopping time, actual waiting time, actual dining time,
erceived shopping time, perceived waiting time, specific store
erceptions, overall store evaluations, customer–employee inter-
ctions, and salesperson effectiveness (Garlin and Owens 2006;
akes 2000; Turley and Milliman 2000).
But perhaps the most influential aspect of music, in terms
f its effect on retail sales, is what has been variously referred
o as the ‘genre’, ‘format’, or ‘style’ of the music (i.e., classi-
al vs. hip hop vs. country, etc.). A common finding has been
hat congruity between the connotations of the musical genre,
ormat or style and certain products can influence sales and per-
eption of the latter. One particular musical genre – classical
has received a considerable amount of attention in the litera-
ure. For instance, Baker, Levy, and Grewal (1992) and Grewal
t al. (2003) found that playing classical music resulted in per-
eptions of higher quality service and merchandize. Likewise,
orth and Hargreaves (1998) found that classical music cre-
ted a greater willingness to pay for each of fourteen items
n sale at a cafe, compared to pop music, easy listening, and
no music control condition; the mean total amounts were
K£17.23, UK£16.61, UK£14.51, and UK£14.30 respectively.
affiliation: New York University. All rights reserved.
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.
06.001&domain=pdf
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2015.06.001
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
9. D
h
o
i
4 A.C. North et al. / Journal
orth, Shilcock, and Hargreaves (2003) similarly found that
lassical music in a restaurant was associated with higher spend-
ng per head (UK£32.52) than either pop music (UK£29.46) or
o music (UK£29.73). Areni and Kim (1993) reported effects
f even greater magnitude; classical music led to wine cellar
ustomers spending a mean of US$7.43, whereas pop music led
o a mean of only US$2.18. Collectively, these studies show that
lassical music induces consumers to spend more money, and to
urchase more expensive items, than other genres of music (c.f.,
ilson 2003). However, because these experiments took place
n actual retail settings, they cannot fully specify the cognitive
rocesses by which classical music induces greater spending rel-
tive to other musical genres. This research presents a theoretical
ccount of the cognitive processes involved in musical congruity
ffects, and reports the results of three laboratory experiments
emonstrating the effects of musical congruity on recall, product
erceptions, and choice.
Music Congruity, Cognitive Priming and Spreading
Activation
Although it is typically thought of as an objective aspect of
usic, like tempo or texture, the genre or format of a musi-
al composition is actually a subjective judgment (Aucouturier
nd Pachet 2003). Consumers essentially amalgamate a range
f objective musical features into a categorization of a song as
light classical’ versus ‘instrumental jazz’ (Rose and Wagner
995). Moreover, two consumers listening to the same com-
10. osition might classify it into different genres depending on
heir idiosyncratic conceptions of what makes a piece ‘classi-
al’ versus ‘jazz’. However, when a composition is perceived
s belonging to a specific genre, the cultural meanings associ-
ted with that category become associated with the piece (Fiske
993; White 1997).
Scott (1990) was perhaps the first to identify this potential
ffect of music in a marketing context, describing music as
eing “meaningful, language-like” and called for research that
draws on notions of culture, rhetoric, and symbolic action”
o understand persuasive effects of music (p. 233). Subsequent
esearchers elaborated on this aspect of music. MacInnis
nd Park (1991) referred to the “fit” of music as reflecting
consumers’ subjective perceptions of the music’s relevance or
ppropriateness to the central ad message” (p. 162). Likewise,
ellaris, Cox, and Cox (1993) proposed that music “enhances
essage reception when the music evokes message-congruent
vs. incongruent) thoughts” (p. 114). Zhu and Meyers-Levy
2005) identified multiple aspects of music, one of which was
abeled “referential meaning, which is context dependent and
eflects networks of semantic-laden, external world concepts”
p. 333).
These descriptions of music can be embedded into a broader
heoretical framework which conceptualizes music congruity
ffects in terms of cognitive priming of concepts and spreading
ctivation along related semantic networks in memory. Collins
nd Loftus (1975) argue that concepts can be represented as
emantic nodes within a network in memory, and the proper-
ies of those concepts can be represented as relational links
s
11. i
t
ailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95
onnecting one node to another. Each of the nodes that are linked
o a given node will have links to other concept nodes, and so
on,
hich creates a vast semantic, interconnected network of con-
ept nodes. When one node in memory is initially activated via
xternal stimulation, the spread of activation expands outwards,
rst to all the nodes linked to the initially activated node, then
o all the nodes linked to each of those, and so forth. Anderson
1983) believed that the key process of memory performance
s the retrieval function, which is performed through spreading
ctivation in the interconnected semantic network contained in
he long-term memory. He developed a general theory of cogni-
ion, which focused on the processes of memory, known as the
daptive Control of Thought (ACT) theory.
The ACT theory represents knowledge in a semantic network,
nd focuses on how memory processes are defined within this
etwork. Anderson also developed the concept of cognitive units
hich consist of units of memory involving a unit node and a
et of elements within this node. Concepts, images and tempo-
al strings of words can all be thought of as cognitive units. The
inks between nodes are not of the same strength, however. All
emory traces or links between cognitive units/nodes have a
ype of signal strength associated with them. The first success-
ul trial or stimulation will establish the memory trace with the
trength of one unit, and each subsequent trace will increase the
trength by one additional unit. The strength of a memory trace
12. s important in determining its probability and speed of retrieval.
nce traces are formed between units they are not lost, but they
an decay if they are not regularly activated. If traces are acti-
ated regularly, they will strengthen, and spreading activation
ay occur more rapidly. This effect of this process is that we
an more readily retrieve cognitive information about regularly
ssociated concepts. In summary, our experiences throughout
ife establish a vast interconnected network of semantic nodes,
hich are connected by links of varying strength. Each node
an be thought of as a cognitive unit, which can be activated by
xternal stimuli. Levels of activation of subsequent nodes are
ependent on the degree of association to the initially activated
ode. The present research will address some of the implications
f musical congruity in the context of these well-established
oncepts.
Berkowitz’s ‘priming effects’ perspective (Berkowitz and
ogers 1986) represents a bridge between ACT and processes
nvolving music in commercial contexts. It holds that present-
ng mass media stimuli with a particular meaning (e.g., a movie
eaturing a violent battle) primes concepts that are semantically
elated (e.g., aggressive thoughts), thereby increasing the likeli-
ood that the related concepts are activated and employed (see
o and Berkowitz 1994). The activated mental constructs influ-
nce how a person perceives and evaluates other constructs (see
omke, Shah, and Wackman 1998). Cognitive structures that
ave recently been activated are said to be advanced to the top
f a mental set of files, making them easily accessible for a lim-
ted time period (see Wyer and Srull 1989). If applicable, these
chemata will be employed in evaluations taking place in the
mmediate future.
13. Schubert, Hargreaves, and North (2014, p. 1) applied
his framework to musical likes and dislikes, arguing that,
of Ret
“
p
p
a
t
e
i
f
M
a
t
t
t
p
(
i
i
w
A
u
p
i
f
t
m
t
16. s
1
t
c
a
c
e
D
A.C. North et al. / Journal
Spreading activation through previously associated networks is
roposed as a pleasurable outcome of musical engagement”. Of
articular relevance to the present research, Schubert et al. also
rgue that this process of spreading activation includes responses
o music, “stemming from the characteristics of the individual
ngaging in the musical activity (whether listener, composer,
mproviser, or performer), the situation and contexts (e.g., social
actors), and the music (e.g., genre, structural features)” (p. 1).
ore practically, the model provides a framework in which all
spects of the musical milieu interact in creating meaning, so
hat although Schubert et al. address overtly esthetic responses,
he same mechanism applies with equal relevance to responses
o products and services experienced in the context of music.
Although prior research has accumulated evidence that music
rimes semantically related concepts in an advertising setting
Oakes 2007), there is an important difference between music
n advertising and atmospheric music in a retail setting. Music
n advertising is part of the focal stimulus. It is interspersed
ith product information and it is likely to capture attention.
tmospheric music, on the other hand, is a background stim-
lus. It is external to the product information consumers are
rocessing visually and aurally, and recalling from memory,
17. n evaluating products and making choices. It is not yet clear
rom previous research that music influences product evalua-
ion and choice by priming conceptually relevant concepts in
emory, when it is a background stimulus external to the focal
ask.
This omission is at least partly explained because previous
esearch on music congruity effects has taken place in actual
etail settings, where measures of the internal processes of shop-
ers are difficult to obtain. If direct evidence that music affects
roduct evaluation and choice by priming music-congruent con-
epts in memory could be collated, however, it would have two
enefits. First, it would place this growing body of evidence into
theoretical context that would guide future research. Second,
here would be clear commercial implications; by understanding
he theoretical basis of the effect, retailers would be able to use
usic to improve financial performance by deliberately select-
ng atmospheric music that activates concepts relevant to
specific
nancial objectives (i.e., playing classical music to increase sales
f premium brands in a store).
The three experiments described here address three gaps
n the literature on musical congruity. First, there is no direct
vidence substantiating the claim that music primes activa-
ion of product-related nodes, which could be demonstrated
ia enhanced recall of products related to a musical prime
Experiment 1). Second, if the processes outlined here under-
ie musical congruity, the effect should vary depending on the
trength of the relationship between the music and products in
uestion, so that use of music to activate the concepts ‘edu-
ated’, ‘prestigious’, and ‘sophisticated’ should have greater
nfluence on purchase decisions for ‘social identity’ products
18. ather than ‘utilitarian’ products (Experiment 2). Third, given
hat cognitive load has repeatedly been shown to increase biased
nformation processing (Ford and Kruglanski 1995; Gilbert and
ixon 1991; Newman 1996), greater cognitive load should also
ead to musical congruity having a stronger effect on consumer
t
c
l
ailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95 85
ecision-making than when those decisions are taken under
omparatively light cognitive load (Experiment 3).
Experiment 1: Product Memory and Choice
Research indicates that certain styles of music are associ-
ted with specific nations, such that music can be identified as
French”, “Chinese”, “Indian”, etc. even by listeners with oth-
rwise limited knowledge of the corresponding culture (Boer
t al. 2013; Folkestad 2002). Moreover, national music styles can
voke concepts and images congruent with cultural stereotypes
f that country, so playing German music might make consumers
hink of beer and bratwurst, whereas French music might evoke
mages of wine and the Eiffel Tower (North, Hargreaves, and
cKendrick 1997, 1999; Tekman and Hortacsu, 2002). Experi-
ent 1 capitalizes on these possible congruities between musical
tyles and nations to examine the effect of musical primes on
roduct choice and recall.
If specific songs and musical genres prime semantically
19. elated concepts in memory, then these concepts should remain
ctive even when the music stops playing. Moreover, the acti-
ated concepts should facilitate the encoding and retrieval of
elated information in memory. Although prior research has
hown that music influences the subsequent recall of concur-
ently presented, congruent information (Kellaris and Rice 1993;
ellaris, Cox, and Cox 1993), this memory effect has not been
irectly linked to product choice. Specifically, in addition to
esting whether national music can enhance recall of related
oncepts, Experiment 1 focuses on whether it can also influence
hoice, as specified in the following hypotheses.
1. Participants are more likely to choose a product of a given
ational origin if the music playing concurrently is of the same
ational origin compared to instances in which the music is of
different national origin.
2. Participants are more likely to recall a product of a given
ational origin if the music playing is of the same national ori-
in compared to instances in which the music is of a different
ational origin.
aterials and Methods
articipants
Participants were 120 Scottish undergraduate psychology
tudents, 60 males and 60 females, mean age 20.52 years (range
7–25 years, SD = 1.98 years). All received course credit for
aking part in the study and were told that the study concerned
hoices made in restaurants. Each successive participant was
llocated to each condition in turn (i.e., participant 1 was allo-
ated to condition 1, participant 2 was allocated to condition 2,
tc.).
20. esign and Procedure
Employing a between-subjects design, participants were
aken to one of four research rooms. Each room contained four
hairs and had a table in a corner on which sat an mp3 player and
oudspeaker, which played the appropriate music at 70 decibels.
8 of Retailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95
E
(
w
s
1
N
u
i
p
c
w
a
i
t
3
d
o
m
p
b
t
w
22. Music Frequency Menu choice
American food Chinese food Indian food
American Observed 27 2 1
Expected 18.5 5.8 5.8
Chinese Observed 12 15 3
Expected 18.5 5.8 5.8
Indian Observed 12 3 15
Expected 18.5 5.8 5.8
No music Observed 22 3 5
Expected 18.5 5.8 5.8
i
t
r
A
h
(
i
(
fi
s
o
t
o
e
s
s
s
o
23. a
w
i
o
ing, likeable, and familiar than others), Experiment 2 involves
a very different manipulation of music genre, and a different
Table 2
Mean scores for recall of food items by type of background
music played.a
Music Cuisine Menu items recalled
American American food 4.63
Chinese food 3.10
Indian food 3.70
Chinese American food 3.76
Chinese food 5.02
Indian food 3.17
Indian American food 3.63
Chinese food 3.23
Indian food 5.23
No music American food 3.46
6 A.C. North et al. / Journal
ach of the four rooms featured one of three types of music
American, Chinese, Indian) or no music (see Appendix 1),
hich played on a continuous loop. This mirrors music pre-
entation techniques used in numerous studies (Areni and Kim
993; North 2012; North, Hargreaves, and McKendrick 1997;
orth, Shilcock, and Hargreaves 2003). A pilot study asked ten
24. ndergraduate students to sort the nine candidate musical pieces
nto three groups, but provided no further guidance: each of the
ilot participants grouped the musical pieces according to the
ountry each represented as per Appendix 1, indicating that this
as their most salient characteristic when contrasted with one
nother directly.
Participants were given a menu showing 30 main course food
tems (10 USA, 10 Chinese, 10 Indian). The menu was simple:
he word ‘menu’ was printed at the top and it then listed the
0 items along with clear color photographs of each item. No
escriptions were added and four random orderings of the items
n the menus were created to avoid serial position effects. The
ain course dishes included hamburger, hot dog, Chicago-style
izza, dim sum, noodle soup, chicken chow mein, vegetable
iryani, chicken tikka masala, and rogan josh. For each of the
hree experimental conditions, a number of travel and culinary
ebsites were examined and the ten most commonly mentioned
ishes were included on the menus employed. Equal numbers
f nonmeat dishes were included in each condition.
Participants perused the menu for 5 min and were then given
distractor task that involved solving anagrams of the names of
arine creatures. They were then asked to recall as many of the
enu items as they could and write them as a list. Participants
ere then asked to state which single dish from the menu they
ould choose to order. In debriefing sessions, participants were
sked to state which country was represented by the music, and
ll identified this correctly. Participants were also asked why
they
hought that music was playing. Any participant suggesting that
he music was intended to influence their choice from the menu
as eliminated from the data analysis.
25. esults and Discussion
A Chi-square test was carried out to determine whether the
ountry of origin of the single dish selected was associated
ith the country of origin of the music played whilst the menu
as examined. The relationship was significant χ2 (6, N = 120),
5.62, p < .001). The observed and expected frequencies shown
n Table 1 indicate that, consistent with Hypothesis 1, partic-
pants were more likely to select menu items associated with
given country when the music playing was from the same
ountry compared to when it was from a different country.
A mixed ANOVA was carried out to determine whether type
f music (American, Chinese, Indian, no music) was related to
he country of origin of the products recalled. The results
showed
hat recall for the menu items was influenced by the country of
rigin of the music played F(6, 232) = 6.71, p < .001, such that
he recall results seem related to those concerning food choice.
s shown in Table 2, consistent with Hypothesis 2 the number
f dishes from each country recalled was higher when the music
laying was associated with the same country compared to when
a Congruent conditions are in bold font.
t was associated with a different country. Tukey tests showed
hat there was no difference between the music conditions in
ecall of American items, although the greatest recall was in the
merican music condition; that recall of Chinese food items was
igher in the Chinese music than the American music condition
p < .01) or the Indian music condition (p < .05), and also
higher
26. n the no music condition than in the American music condition
p < .01) or the Indian music condition (p < .05). As such, the
ndings concerning the no music conditions appear to indicate
pecifically that lack of musical congruity inhibits recall.
These results suggest that the type of cuisine being recalled
r selected was contingent upon the music genre. It is only when
he national connotations of the music are congruent with those
f the cuisine being considered that music congruity effects
merge. However, music genre was manipulated by including
everal pieces of music from a catalog of appropriately labeled
elections. Although this is standard experimental practice in
tudies manipulating genre (reference), this approach does leave
pen the possibility that the observed effects are due to other
spects of the music (i.e., liking, arousal, familiarity) correlated
ith the genre manipulation.
Although this seems unlikely given that manipulating genre
n this way would introduce a large amount of error variance
n other music dimensions (i.e., some songs are more arous-
Chinese food 5.10
Indian food 5.87
a Congruent conditions are in bold font.
of Ret
t
I
o
c
w
a
29. c
m
l
p
t
p
t
M
i
p
b
u
b
o
p
(
c
t
i
1
2
t
c
t
A.C. North et al. / Journal
ype of product connotation to examine music congruity effects.
t is based on the ‘sophisticated social identity’ connotations
f classical music in contrast with the ‘pragmatic, utilitarian’
onnotations of country music.
Experiment 2: Cognitive Priming Using Multiple Music
Genres
30. As the literature review indicates, the effects of congruity
ould be expected to be wide-ranging, and so Experiments 2
nd 3 tested other implications of the phenomenon suggested by
his literature. Several studies have indicated that the upmarket
tereotype of classical music is associated with customers being
repared to pay more for the same products than when other
usical styles or no music are played. According to the cog-
itive priming/spreading activation explanation, these premium
ricing congruity effects would appear to be based on the acti-
ation of semantically related concepts like ‘wealthy’, ‘better
ducated’, and ‘sophisticated’. Given this, we would expect that
i) operationalizations of musical congruity employing classical
usic would have a stronger effect if an upmarket stereotype,
onsistent with the music, is primed; and that (ii) the upmarket
tereotype of classical music would have a stronger effect on
roducts that share the upmarket connotations of the music.
If priming of related beliefs is the cause of musical congruity
ffects leading to customers being prepared to pay more, how-
ver, then we would not necessarily expect the effect to be
limited
o classical music. For instance, country music is well-known for
focus on everyday life and a self-sufficient worldview (see
Ellis
010). Moreover, research on the sociology of music has estab-
ished that country music fosters a utilitarian mindset, prompting
focus on pragmatic aspects of domestic life indicative of lower
ather than higher socio-economic status (Blair and Hyatt 1992;
ewis 1999).
So playing country music might lead to customers being
31. repared to pay more for utilitarian products, as it might be
xpected to lead to greater activation of information concerning
he practicality of those products and so make the latter appear
ore valuable. Moreover, we would expect such effects to be
xacerbated when these practical, self-sufficient connotations
f country music are primed; and similarly we would expect
he premium pricing effect of classical music to be exacerbated
hen the upmarket connotations of the music are primed, as
tated in the following research hypotheses.
3a. Participants are prepared to pay more for utilitarian
roducts when country rather than classical music is playing
oncurrently.
3b. The effect of music genre on willingness to pay for util-
tarian products is greater when the utilitarian connotations of
usic have been primed compared to when they have not been
rimed.
4a. Participants are prepared to pay more for social identity
roducts when classical rather than country music is playing
oncurrently.
c
u
a
l
ailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95 87
4b. The effect of music genre on willingness to pay for social
dentity products is greater when the utilitarian connotations of
usic have been primed compared to when they have not been
rimed.
32. aterials and Methods
articipants
Participants were 180 Scottish undergraduate university stu-
ents, comprising 90 females and 90 males. The number of males
nd females was counterbalanced throughout. Age ranged from
8 to 25 years, with a mean age of 21.18 years (SD 2.21 years).
esign
A three-way, mixed factor design was employed. Participants
iewed slides of ten social identity products and also ten utili-
arian products, and stated the maximum monetary amount they
ould be prepared to pay for each product. While doing so, inde-
endent groups heard either classical music, which has upmarket
onnotations, country music, which has utilitarian connotations,
r no music. Of those exposed to each of the two types of music,
alf were first exposed to a prime which highlighted either the
pmarket connotations of classical music or the utilitarian con-
otations of country. It was expected that the results would show
n interaction between type of music and type of product, so that
lassical music should lead to participants being prepared to pay
ore for social identity products, whereas country music should
ead to participants being prepared to pay more for utilitarian
roducts. A three-way interaction was also anticipated, in that
hese effects should be magnified by the use of the relevant
prime
rior to presentation of the products. No priming took place in
he no music condition.
aterials and Procedure
The ten utilitarian products were a bottle of aspirin tablets,
33. ce, cough syrup, handheld fan, orange juice, toothbrush, dis-
osable ball point pen, washing up liquid, white towel, and light
ulb; and the ten social identity products were a greetings card,
nisex friendship bracelet, a graduation portrait photograph, pin
adge, unisex spray cologne, gold stud earring, university logo
rnament, hair styling product, name stickers, and a pack of tem-
orary tattoos. Products were partly taken from work by Shavitt
1989,1990) and Shavitt, Lowrey, and Han (1992), and were
hosen so that they had just one attitudinal function. (A mobile
elephone or a handbag, for instance, would have both social
dentity and utilitarian functions – see Shavitt, Lowrey, and Han
992.) A pilot study asked a panel of three persons to sort the
0 products into utilitarian and social identity categories, and
hese categorizations matched those of the experimenters in all
ases. A second pilot study asked 20 participants (drawn from
he same population as the final sample) to state whether first
lassical music and then country music were associated with an
pmarket or a utilitarian stereotype, and all participants associ-
ted classical music with the former and country music with the
atter.
8 of Retailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95
s
2
c
t
a
p
P
w
s
35. p
w
a
w
o
e
t
i
d
Table 3
Means (United Kingdom pounds sterling) for primed versus
nonprimed utilitar-
ian and social identity products, split according to background
music condition.a
Product type
Utilitarian Social identity
Condition M SD M SD
Classical music
Primed 2.90 (−.17) 1.70 5.09 (.15) 2.23
Not primed 3.43 (−.17) 1.38 4.50 (.15) 1.43
Country music
Primed 4.76 (.45) 2.05 3.83 (−.03) 1.42
Not primed 3.09 (.45) 1.15 3.91 (−.03) 1.35
No music
No prime 4.22 1.73 4.21 1.57
v
p
c
37. ical music or one of five pieces of country music (see Appendix
), with the specific piece heard by each participant selected by
ycling through the possible alternatives in sequential order. Par-
icipants were seated at a table and the music was played through
pair of headphones attached to a laptop that also presented the
ictures of the products. Each product was presented on a single
owerPoint slide, and each picture was of at least 100 KB and
as downloaded from the internet. Beneath each picture was a
imple statement of the product shown (e.g., “A white towel”).
Immediately before data collection began, half of the partici-
ants who listened to classical music were primed, as were half
he participants who listened to country music. Primed partic-
pants in the classical music condition were played 5 × 1-min
xcerpts of classical music (see Appendix 2) while they were
hown a sequence of images (selected via a pilot study) that are
tereotypically upmarket (e.g., sports cars, royal palaces, luxu-
ious holiday destinations). Primed participants in the country
usic condition were played five x one-minute excerpts of coun-
ry music (see Appendix 2) while they were shown a sequence
f images (also selected via a pilot study) concerning utilitar-
an stereotypes (e.g., men chopping wood, cars being cleaned,
eople using hygiene products).
Each participant was tested on an individual basis between
0.00 am and 9.30 pm over a two week period. Testing took
lace in a quiet study room in a University library. As the music
layed, participants viewed the 20 pictures of the products. The
usic was played at a constant volume which was considered
o be sufficient to be heard clearly. Immediately after viewing
ach product, participants wrote down (using pen and paper) the
aximum monetary amount they would be prepared to pay for
38. t. In debriefing sessions, participants were asked whether they
ere aware of the music playing, and if so, why they thought that
usic was playing. Any participant suggesting that the music
as intended to influence how much they would be willing to
ay was eliminated from the data analysis.
esults and Discussion
A 3 (classical music, country music, no music) × 2 (prime
s. no prime) × 2 (social identity product vs. utilitarian prod-
ct) mixed ANOVA was performed on the maximum amount
hat participants would be prepared to pay for each of the 20
roducts. A significant three-way interaction effect was found
etween type of music, type of product and presence versus
bsence of the prime (F(1, 175) = 12.75, p < .001). The means
hown in Table 3 indicate that, as predicted by Hypothesis 3
articipants were prepared to pay more for utilitarian products
hen country as opposed to classical music was played, and
s predicted by Hypothesis 4, more for social identity products
hen classical as opposed to country music was played. More-
ver, consistent with Hypotheses 3b and 4b, these effects were
xacerbated by the use of the relevant prime prior to presenta-
ion of the products. Note also that, for both utilitarian and
social
dentity products, no music led to higher maximum prices than
id incongruent music, suggesting that music incongruent with
l
n
i
S
a The bracketed values are estimates of effect size r for
39. comparisons of primed
ersus nonprimed responses. Effect size estimates are duplicated
to aid clarity.
roduct image can lead to a reduction in the maximum prices
onsumers are prepared to pay.
Tukey tests confirmed this pattern. Specifically, they showed
hat in the case of utilitarian products, when the utilitarian and
pmarket connotations of country and classical music, respec-
ively, were not primed, music had little or no difference in the
mount that participants were willing to pay, whereas when the
onnotations of country and classical music were primed coun-
ry music led to higher willingness to pay for utilitarian products
han did classical music (p < .001). In the case of social iden-
ity products, when the utilitarian and upmarket connotations
f country and classical music, respectively, were not primed,
usic had little or no effect on the amount that customer were
illing to pay, whereas when the connotations of country and
lassical music were primed classical music lead to higher will-
ngness to pay than did country music (p < .05).
The pattern of results supports both experimental hypotheses.
irst, the classical music premium pricing effect was obtained for
ocial identity products (but not utilitarian products), and was
xacerbated by the inclusion of priming; and second, country
usic appeared to have a premium pricing effect on utili-
arian products, which was exacerbated by priming. Priming
nd spreading activation offer a good explanation of music-
ongruent consumer behavior. It is not simply the case that
laying classical (or country) music in a retail environment pos-
tively impacts on the prices that consumers are prepared to pay.
ather the key factor is the correspondence between the type
f product (in this case, social identity or utilitarian) and the
40. usic in question (which, in this case, expressed social identity
r utilitarian values).
This observed music genre x product type interaction effect
lso makes experimenter demand a less likely account of the
ndings. Although demand effects might account for why classi-
al music prompted participants to pay more for products related
o social identity, there are three reasons why the effect of coun-
ry music on willingness to pay for utilitarian products is not
ikely to be due to experimenter demand. First, as noted above,
o participants indicated a possible link between the music play-
ng and their willing to pay judgments in debriefing sessions.
econd, it is unlikely that the distinction between ‘social image’
of Ret
a
g
d
i
s
b
m
h
I
e
t
m
c
p
43. t
P
w
s
P
E
9
a
p
m
t
p
m
i
R
c
A.C. North et al. / Journal
nd ‘utilitarian’ products would have occurred to participants
iven that the products presented to them varied on so many
imensions. Finally, it is unlikely that the observed pattern of
nteraction would occur to participants (i.e., that country music
hould induce them to pay more for half the products presented,
ut less for the other half). The connection between country
usic and pragmatism is not as obviously related to indicating
ow much one should be willing to pay for certain products.
ndeed, a naïve participant trying to guess the research hypoth-
sis might have presumed that the country music was intended
o influence them to pay less for all the products presented.
Experiment 3: Music Congruity and Cognitive Load
44. The final experiment tested two hypotheses. As per Experi-
ent 2, if priming offers an explanation of the impact of music on
onsumer evaluations, then Hypothesis 4b predicts that partici-
ants who have received a ‘classical music is upmarket’ prime
ill be willing to pay more for social identity products than
onprimed participants. Moreover, we might further expect that
usic should be particularly influential in cases where consumer
ecisions are made under high cognitive load (i.e., when con-
umers can devote very little thought to the decision). Several
tudies indicate that decisions made under high cognitive load
re more susceptible to influence from cognitive biases (Ford and
ruglanski 1995; Gilbert and Hixon 1991; Newman 1996). Ford
nd Kruglanski, employing a priming paradigm that involved
resenting either the word ‘reckless’ or ‘adventurous’, had their
articipants make judgments about an ambiguous situation. The
rotagonist was described by participants in a manner consis-
ent with the presented adjectives when cognitive load was high.
imilarly evidence in a musical context is provided by Hansen
nd Krygowski (1994) who found that creating a high degree
f physiological arousal narrowed attentional focus and caused
chema-consistent, sexist interpretations of rock music videos.
his suggests the following hypothesis.
5. The effect of music genre on willingness to pay for social
dentity products is greater when cognitive load is high
compared
o when it is low.
aterials and Methods
articipants
Participants were 360 university undergraduate students in
45. he United Kingdom who were asked to take part in a study on
onsumer products. There was an even gender split and mean
ge was 18.8 years (SD = 1.10).
esign
A three-way, between-subjects design was employed in
hich 360 university students were shown Powerpoint slides of
0 social identity products and asked to state the maximum they
ould be prepared to pay for each product. The first factor was
he music played, which was classical music or easy listening
usic or no music. The second factor was whether the ‘clas-
ical music as upmarket’ stereotype was primed. Accordingly,
A
p
r
e
ailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95 89
efore the experiment began, half of the participants were played
ve x one-minute excerpts of classical music (see Appendix 3)
hile they were shown a sequence of images (selected via a
ilot study) that are stereotypically upmarket (e.g., royal palaces,
uxurious holiday destinations, race horses) or mundane (e.g.,
erraced houses, British holiday destinations, cows). The third
actor was the cognitive load imposed upon participants, which
as operationalized as how much time participants had to assess
ow much they would pay for each product, namely five sec-
nds in the high load condition versus one minute in the low
oad condition (see Yeoh and North 2009).
46. ilot Study
To ensure that the music was suited to the needs of the exper-
ment, a pilot study was undertaken within the same population
rom which the main sample derived. All 20 participants in the
ilot study labeled the pieces as ‘classical’ or ‘easy listening’ as
xpected. The time gap between the presentation of each slide
as also tested via the pilot study, and it was concluded that a
ve second time frame was the minimum that would nonetheless
llow participants to decide how much they would be prepared
o spend on each of the 20 products.
aterials
Each participant was played no music or one of five pieces of
lassical music or one or five pieces of easy listening music (see
ppendix 3), with the specific piece heard by each participant
elected by cycling through the possible alternatives in sequen-
ial order. Participants sat at a table and the music was played
hrough a pair of headphones attached to a laptop that also pre-
ented the pictures of the products. The products represented the
ame ten social identity products as in Experiment 2, but utilized
wo exemplars of each. Each product was presented on a single
owerPoint slide, and each picture was of at least 100 KB and
as downloaded from the internet. Beneath each picture was a
imple statement of the product shown (e.g., “A white towel”).
rocedure
A quiet study room was reserved in a University library.
ach participant was tested individually between 10.00 am and
.30 pm over a two week period. Participants put on headphones
nd a Powerpoint file was opened on a laptop. Whilst the music
47. layed, participants viewed the 20 pictures of the products. The
usic was played at a constant volume which was considered
o be sufficient to be heard clearly. After viewing each product,
articipants immediately wrote down (using pen and paper) the
aximum monetary amount they would be prepared to pay for
t.
esults and Discussion
A 3 (no music, easy listening music, classical music) × 2 (low
ognitive load, high cognitive load) × 2 (primed, nonprimed)
NOVA was performed on the maximum monetary amounts
articipants indicated they would pay for the 20 products. This
evealed a significant interaction effect and two significant main
ffects. As regards the two main effects, the music played (or
90 A.C. North et al. / Journal of Ret
Table 4
Means (United Kingdom pounds sterling) for primed versus
nonprimed, and
high versus low cognitive load, according to background music
condition.a
Presentation time
1 min 5 s
Condition M SD M SD
48. Classical music
Mundane images 3.78 1.17 4.01 1.37
(.37) (.36)
(*.43) (*.43)
Upmarket images 4.25 1.72 4.45 1.83
(.37) (.36)
(*.35) (*.35)
Easy listening music
Mundane images 2.99 1.13 3.23 1.25
(.45) (.37)
(*.36) (*.36)
Upmarket images 3.78 1.49 3.31 1.36
(.45) (.37)
(*.41) (*.41)
No music
Mundane images 4.20 1.46 3.13 .90
(.47) (.36)
(*.36) (*.36)
Upmarket images 3.38 1.21 3.84 1.27
(.47) (.36)
(*.35) (*.35)
a The bracketed values are estimates of effect size r for
comparisons of primed
versus nonprimed responses. The bracketed values with an
asterisk are estimates
o
e
51. a
Although prior studies have demonstrated music congruity
f effect size r for comparisons of high versus low cognitive load
responses. All
ffect sizes are duplicated to aid clarity.
ot played) had a significant impact on how much money par-
icipants stated they were willing to pay for the 20 products
F(2) = 10.4, p < .001). Table 4 (and subsequent Tukey tests)
hows that, consistent with Hypothesis 4a, participants who lis-
ened to classical music were willing to pay more than those who
istened to easy listening music (p < .001) or no music (p <
.05).
owever, counter to Hypothesis 4b, the music × cognitive prime
nteraction effect was not significant (F(2, 348) = 1.36, p =
.258).
he other significant main effect related to priming, such that
hose participants who had been primed with stereotypically
pmarket images were prepared to pay more for the 20 prod-
cts than the nonprimed participants who had viewed mundane
mages (F(1) = 3.6, p < .001). There was no significant main
ffect of cognitive load on maximum price judgments. A sig-
ificant three-way interaction effect (F(1, 119) = 3.7, p < .001),
owever, indicated that music, priming and cognitive load were
ointly related to participant responses (F(1) = 5.3, p < .001,
2 = .05). Means and effect sizes concerning this are shown in
able 4. All estimates of effect size were of medium strength.
n the case of the one minute presentation times and mundane
riming images, Tukey tests showed that easy listening lead to
ower willingness to pay than either classical (<.05) or no music
p = .001); whereas the upmarket priming image led to no differ-
nces between the conditions in willingness to pay. In the case of
52. he 5 s presentation times and mundane priming image, classical
usic lead to higher willingness to pay than either easy listening
p < .05) or no music (p < .05); and the upmarket priming image
e
a
a
ailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95
ead to classical music being associated with higher willingness
o pay than easy listening music (p < .05).
The results indicate that listening to classical music in the
ackground led to the student participants being prepared to pay
ore for the 20 social identity products, that this effect was
nhanced when the ‘classical music is upmarket’ schema was
rimed, and when the product information was presented in a
anner that led to higher cognitive load. As such, both hypothe-
es were supported, suggesting that (i) persons who are primed
ccordingly are willing to pay more for consumer products, and
ii) high cognitive load exacerbates this effect.
The effects of the prime and the higher level of cognitive
oad demonstrate that the semantic associations of music can
e activated, and also that these effects are magnified under
onditions in which participants experience constraints on their
nformation processing as a consequence of the environment. We
ight therefore expect to see these effects under a variety of real
ife in-store conditions in which consumers experience greater
emands on their information processing (e.g., when crowded,
hen short of time, when they have a long list of items to pur-
53. hase). Given that schemas become stronger and more readily
ccessible the more they are primed (Bargh 1984; Higgins and
ing 1981), we would expect that brand identity effects and will-
ngness to pay more would be increased if similar music were
layed each time customers entered the store.
It should also be noted that the moderating effect of cogni-
ive load casts further doubt on experimenter demand as a rival
xplanation for the findings. Demand effects are the result of
articipants’ cognitive construal of an experimental setting. As
xplained by Zizzo (2010):
“. . .there is a decision or set of decisions that is in the hands
of subjects and which is not fully defined by the experimenter
or by peers. Subjects then try to make sense of the unfamiliar
and incompletely defined experimental environment based
on the instructions, cues and feedback they receive: that is,
they have a job of task construal. . .” (p. 77)
Hence, any manipulation that restricts the ability of partici-
ants to mentally construe an experimental task should inhibit
emand effects. The results reported here are also consistent with
esearch finding that high cognitive load limits various forms of
eceptive behavior by research participants (Duffy and Smith
014; Schulz et al. 2012; van ’t Veer, Stel, and van Beest 2014).
ince experimenter demand is essentially a form of deception
i.e., making the researcher think the experiment “worked”),
he less time participants have to think about what is happening
round them, the less their behavior should be driven by demand
ffects. Yet, in Experiment 3 the effects of music on willingness
o pay actually increased when participants had less time to
think
bout their decisions.
54. Conclusions
ffects on product choice, and have identified aspects of music
ssociated with its cultural meaning, the research reported
bove is the first to show that atmospheric or background
of Ret
m
c
p
a
e
e
K
i
I
s
a
e
t
i
a
m
i
c
u
p
T
o
w
t
r
57. o
c
c
o
l
i
T
d
l
o
t
a
A.C. North et al. / Journal
usic influences product choice via its ability to prime related
oncepts in memory. Once primed, these concepts influence
roduct perception and guide choice to be congruent with the
ctivated semantic network.
Experiment 1 showed that atmospheric music influenced the
ncoding of menu items such that congruent items were more
asily recalled at a later point in time. This result is similar to
ellaris and Rice (1993) and Kellaris, Cox, and Cox 1993 find-
ng in an advertising setting, but with an important distinction.
n their study, music was clearly a component of the advertising
timulus that participants were paying attention to rather than
n irrelevant background feature of the information processing
nvironment. The results reported here suggest that music facili-
ates the encoding of semantically congruent material even when
t is not directly associated with the stimulus to which
consumers
re paying attention. Experiments 2 and 3 extend the effects of
usic congruity to judgments of a product’s value, measured
n terms of consumers’ willingness to pay. Music that primes
58. oncepts associated with an upmarket positioning of a prod-
ct increases the amount consumers are willing to pay for that
roduct, relative to music that connotes an economy positioning.
his theoretical account of music congruity effects has numer-
us practical implications concerning the circumstances under
hich musical congruity might operate, and there is a clear need
o test and understand these further. Some directions for future
esearch in these areas are discussed below.
In all three experiments, music genre was manipulated by
ncluding several pieces of music from a catalog of appropriately
abeled selections. Although this method is often employed in
xperimental studies manipulating genre, it does leave open the
ossibility that the observed effects are due to other aspects of
he music (i.e., liking, arousal, familiarity) correlated with the
enre manipulation. However, this seems unlikely for at least two
easons. First, manipulating genre in this way would introduce
large amount of error variance on other music dimensions,
nd so work against finding significant results. In short, some
ountry songs, for instance, are more arousing, likeable, and
amiliar than others. Choosing several songs to represent each
enre makes it unlikely that the resulting effects are due to these
spects of music.
Second, the moderating effects observed in Experiments 2
nd 3 are inconsistent with the effects of variables like arousal,
amiliarity and liking. Specifically, in Experiment 2 the mod-
rating variable of utilitarian versus social identity products is
nlikely to be due to these variables (participants might find one
enre of music to be more familiar, likeable, or arousing than
nother, but why would these effects reverse for social identity
ersus utilitarian products? Likewise, in Experiment 3 the effects
f the priming manipulation and the cognitive load manipulation
urther rule out the effects of these variables (i.e., why would the
59. riming manipulation magnify the results if arousal, pleasure,
nd liking were the underlying mechanisms?). Even in Experi-
ent 1, the effects of genre depended on what kind of cuisine
articipants were choosing or trying to recall.
These same interaction effects rule out experimenter demand
s an alternate explanation for the findings. In particular, in
xperiment 2 the relationship between the country music and
a
t
p
ailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95 91
he judgment task would more easily be interpreted by partic-
pants as demanding that they decrease their willingness the
ay. It is unlikely that the distinction between ‘social image’
nd ‘utilitarian’ products would even occur to them given that
o many products, differing on so many dimensions, were pre-
ented to them. It is even less likely that the observed pattern of
nteractions would occur to participants (i.e., that country music
hould induce them to pay more for half the products presented,
ut less for the other half). Likewise, in Experiment 3 the effects
f music genre were stronger when cognitive load was high,
ven in the absence of the cognitive priming manipulation. Why
ould giving participants less time to identify possible demand
ffects (i.e., 5 s) increase the effects of music?
More generally, while a certain rival hypothesis like famil-
arity might be a plausible account of some of the findings,
he introduction of different manipulations of genre and multi-
le moderating variables over three experiments systematically
ules out these rival hypotheses. Only cognitive priming can
lausibly account for all of the findings across the three stud-
60. es. In this sense, we have adopted the comparative approach of
ternthal, Tybout, and Calder (1987) and the Bayesian approach
f Brinberg, Lynch, and Sawyer (1992) for testing a theory by
onducting multiple studies to rule out alternative explanations
or the findings.
A limitation of the cognitive priming explanation is that it
oes not obviously suggest a preference for products or retailers
hat are consistent with what has already been primed. The influ-
nce of music is essentially a context-effect on product choice.
onsumers may develop a preference for selected options after
xperiencing it, but the congruity effect does not necessarily
ead to a long-term effect on product choice. Hence, if the delay
etween exposure to the music and product choice is long, or the
onsumer is exposed to stimuli priming very different concepts
n memory in the interim period, music congruity effects will
iminish.
Another limitation of this theoretical account is that it does
ot specify whether the cognitive priming and spreading acti-
ation requires conscious awareness of the music. To illustrate,
aran, Dalton, and Andrade (2011) found that, whilst brands
roduce priming effects, brand slogans do not. In fact, they found
hat slogans produced reverse priming effects (i.e., inducing the
pposite behavior implied by the slogans). The authors con-
luded that slogans are perceived as a persuasion tactic, and that
onsumers do not necessarily accept them, but perception of the
verall brand is not influenced by this. Does background music,
ike a brand, operate outside immediate conscious awareness, or
s it more like a slogan, operating within conscious awareness?
he spreading activation approach discussed earlier implies that
eliberate processing of the music, product, or context should
ead to a stronger pattern of activation that increases the salience
f concepts and objects stored in memory at some distance from
he node originally activated. In contrast, a lack of conscious
wareness should lead to weak activation of related nodes, and
61. relatively narrow spread of subsequent activation.
Another direction for future research would be to iden-
ify the specific aspects of music most salient in determining
articipants’ responses (e.g., instrumentation, lyrics, etc.). For
9 of Ret
e
p
i
o
w
w
m
l
g
c
t
s
g
o
a
J
G
b
c
1
R
r
e
i
64. v
m
t
v
b
c
i
s
i
o
u
c
2 A.C. North et al. / Journal
xample, it is likely that the lyrical content of country music
lays a major role in activating pragmatic, utilitarian concepts
n memory (Ellis 2010), whereas classical music involves little
r no lyrical content in the listeners’ native language, so lyrics
ould play a less obvious role in activating concepts associated
ith prestige or social identity. Subsequent investigations into
usic congruity could adopt a ‘molecular’ perspective in iso-
ating the contributions of various components of each music
enre.
In terms of retail management, the importance of selecting
ongruent in-store music is suggested a number of ways. First,
he formats or channels offered by suppliers of in-store music
uggest connections between music genres and product cate-
ories implicitly, if not explicitly. For example, one supplier
ffers a music format labeled ‘Japanese Traditional’, described
s ‘perfect’ for ‘Japanese steak house restaurants and similar
apanese-themed settings’. Another genre, labeled ‘Southwest
rill’, offers a blend of ‘the old Southwest’ and ‘south-of-the-
order Spanish flair’ that is described in terms of Tex-Mex
65. uisine, suggesting music congruity as examined in Experiment
. The same supplier offers a genre labeled ‘Luxury Upscale
etail’ described as ‘elegant and sophisticated, ideal for luxury
etail stores’ (Anonymous 2015), suggesting music congruity as
xamined in Experiments 2 and 3.
So companies that supply in-store music to retail chains and
ndependent stores describe their offerings in terms of the
seman-
ic associations of each music format. The research reported
bove identifies the specific process by which these intuitive
deas actually influence retail sales. By evoking semantic asso-
iations relevant to a specific country, music enhances recall and
ncreases the likelihood of choosing items from that country.
y activating concepts associated with a desired social identity,
usic increases how much consumers are willing to pay for
roducts relevant to that social identity.
Unlike many other aspects of music (i.e., tempo, volume,
ey), music congruity can influence the products shoppers buy.
etailers have multiple motives for promoting the sale of spe-
ific products, including mannaging inventory levels (Achabal,
cIntyre, and Smith 1990), taking advantage of trade promo-
ions (Haans and Gijsbrechts 2011), and countering competitor
ctivity (Bolton and Shankar 2003), and they can use a variety of
romotional tools (i.e., price discounts, in-store signage, special
isplays, in-store coupons, etc.) to achieve this end (Ailawadi
t al. 2009; Bolton and Shankar 2003; Kamakura and Kang
007). But unlike these promotion tools, congruent music is less
ntrusive, so it can be used to influence purchases of wine from
specific region (North, Hargreaves, and McKendrick 1997) or
t a specific price point (Areni and Kim 1993) in much the same
66. ay that special displays (Areni, Duhan, and Kiecker 1999) or
rice discounts (Adams and Beenstock 2012) do, without a cor-
esponding intrusion into merchandizing display space or a loss
f margin, respectively.
Moreover, the dimensions on which musical genres differ
re remarkably similar to ‘generic’ brand positioning strategies
Blankson and Kalafatis 2004), suggesting that specific musi-
al genres could be used to trigger purchases (a) at different
rice points, (b) for different usage occasions, (c) of products
r
p
e
ailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95
rom different countries/regions of origin, (d) by consumers with
iffering levels of expertise, and (e) of brands with specific posi-
ions in the minds of shoppers (i.e., friendly vs. serious, urban
s. rural, liberal vs. conservative, etc.), which is perhaps one of
he reasons why commercial providers of in-store music have
o many parameters in the search engines used to sort through
arge electronic music collections to generate play lists for
clients
Areni 2010).
In addition to relying on sophisticated search engines, these
uppliers provide music consultants who advise large retail
hains as to the search engine dimensions most relevant for
heir stores. This level of sophistication suggests that identify-
ng congruent music is beyond the expertise of even large retail
hains, or conversely, that retailers who do not rely on such
xpertise may inadvertently play incongruent music. Indeed,
67. esearch indicates that retailers sometimes play inappropriate
usic in their stores. Experimental research in actual retail set-
ings often involves introducing a ‘test’ condition in the form of
different genre of music, which improves sales relative to that
reviously played in stores (Areni and Kim 1993). So, confirm-
ng that music congruity drives retail sales performance holds
mportant implications for managerial decisions regarding the
ppropriate store environment.
To illustrate how different types of retailers might apply
usic congruity effects, it might be useful to consider selling
ine in various types of retailer formats. A retailer with a nar-
ow mix of wines from France might play stereotypically French
usic (North, Hargreaves, and McKendrick 1997), which would
licit congruent concepts in the minds of shoppers and, poten-
ially generate incremental sales relative to playing irrelevant
r incongruent music. Even in the absence of a sales effect,
ctivating congruent associations would enhance authenticity
f the retailer (Areni 2010). However, if the retailer featured
ines from multiple countries the music could be varied (i.e.,
erman, Spanish, Italian, etc.) depending on which wines the
etailer wanted to promote in-store in a given period (see North,
argreaves, and McKendrick 1997). If the merchandize also
aried by price point, then classical (i.e., expensive) versus con-
emporary pop (i.e., inexpensive) selections could be played
Areni and Kim 1993); and of course, if the wine assortment
aried by region and price point, it would be possible to pro-
ote more specific ranges of merchandize by combining these
wo dimensions of music congruity (i.e., classical German music
ersus contemporary French music).
68. In limited line mass merchants like ABC Liquor, with a much
roader mix of alcoholic beverages, additional aspects of music
ongruity might be considered. For example, bourbon whisky
s associated with southern states like Kentucky and Tennessee,
o playing blue grass or country music might trigger purchases
n that product category (Sweet 1996). For supermarkets, which
ften sell alcoholic beverages among an even wider mix of prod-
ct categories, the number of dimensions for considering music
ongruity would increase dramatically, which may be another
eason for the number of search dimensions used by commercial
roviders of in-store music.
But by verifying the process by which music congruity influ-
nces sales, the present research provides additional direction for
of Ret
f
o
t
i
e
e
l
f
t
u
c
s
r
e
70. A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
A.C. North et al. / Journal
uture studies with relevance to retail managers. For example,
ne interesting avenue for further research would be to explore
he relationship between music congruity and product familiar-
ty. On one hand, the cognitive priming and spreading activation
xplanation implies that music congruity would have weaker
ffects for unfamiliar products for which semantic networks are
ess well-developed and inter-connected compared to those for
amiliar products. On the other hand, consumers are more likely
o have knowledge and attitudes toward more familiar prod-
cts. If music congruity affects choice simply by suggesting a
71. ontext-specific basis for comparing products, this may not off-
et a more established product preference in memory. Future
esearch would do well to compare these rival hypotheses.
Retailers may be able to exacerbate congruity effects by
mploying a prime similar to that presented to participants in the
resent study. For instance, businesses wishing to prime the pre-
ium pricing effect of classical music on social identity products
ould use upmarket in-store pictures similar to those employed
ere. Interestingly, no music led to higher values being assigned
o the products than did incongruent music which indicates that,
ust as the ‘right’ music has a premium pricing effect, so the
wrong’ music has an effect that is worse than playing no music
t all.
Likewise, the current findings regarding cognitive load imply
hat the effects of music congruity on sales should be more
rominent for retail categories where shoppers (1) are under
ime pressure, (2) spend little or no time making in-store deci-
ions, or (3) make a large number of purchase decisions in a
short
eriod of time. Presumably, music congruity effects would be
ess pronounced in retail categories where shoppers spend time
eliberating a relatively small number of purchase decisions.
hese ideas can be tested in field experiments involving multiple
etail categories.
In the meantime, the present research has outlined a the-
retical basis for musical congruity effects by demonstrating
hat appropriate music can improve consumers’ ability to recall
nd recognize products; can be applied more readily to some
roducts (e.g., social identity products and situations where
lternate choices are equally familiar) rather than others (e.g.,
tilitarian products and situations where one of the competing
72. lternatives is better-known). Such findings have clear impli-
ations for retail/leisure premises, allowing more precise use,
ith obvious implications for profitability. These effects appear
onsistent with well-developed theoretical models concerning
riming, spreading activation, and memory; and the challenge
or future research will be to develop this theoretical framework
urther in a manner that addresses both theoretical and practical
uestions.
Appendix 1. Music Employed in Experiment 1
USA. California girls, Surfin’ USA, Good vibrations. All
per-
formed by The Beach Boys.
Chinese. The beauty of the Himalayas, Little girl, Dancing
and
singing in the village. All performed by The Peking Brothers.
B
ailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95 93
Indian. Aaja nachle, Dhadak dhadak, Dhoom machale. All
performed by Sunidhi Chauhan.
Appendix 2. Music employed in Experiment 2
Classical. The four seasons (Spring) – Vivaldi; Fifth
symphony
– Beethoven; Cello concerto – Elgar; Nessun dorma –
Puccini;
Habanera – Bizet.
Country. Your cheatin’ heart – Hank Williams; Stand by
your
73. man – Tammy Wynette; Crazy – Patsy Cline; I walk the line
–
Johnny Cash; I will always love you – Dolly Parton.
Appendix 3. Music employed in Experiment 3
Classical. The four seasons (Spring) – Vivaldi; Fifth
symphony
– Beethoven; Cello concerto – Elgar; Nessun dorma –
Puccini;
Habanera – Bizet.
Easy listening. A whiter shade of pale; Granada; Mornings at
seven; In the mood; Viva España (All performed by James
Last
and His Orchestra).
References
chabal, Dale D., Shelby McIntyre and Stephen A. Smith (1990),
“Maximizing
Profits for Periodic Department Store Promotions,” Journal of
Retailing, 66,
383–407.
dams, Jean and Jane Beenstock (2012), “Price Discounts on
Alcohol in a City
in Northern England,” Alcohol and Alcoholism, 47, 187.
ilawadi, Kusum L., J.P. Beauchamp, Naveen Donthu, Dinesh K.
Gauri and
Venkatesh Shankar (2009), “Communication and Promotion
Decisions in
Retailing: A Review and Directions for Future Research,”
Journal of Retail-
ing, 85, 42–55.
74. lpert, Judy I. and Mark I. Alpert (1990), “Music Influences on
Mood and
Purchase Intentions,” Psychology & Marketing, 7, 109–33.
lpert, Mark I., Judy I. Alpert and Eliot N. Maltz (2005),
“Purchase Occa-
sion Influence on the Role of Music in Advertising,” Journal of
Business
Research, 58, 369–76.
nderson, John R. (1983), “A Spreading Activation Theory of
Memory,” Journal
of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 261–95.
nonymous (2015), Playlists for Commercial Background Music,.
http://www.audiosparx.com/sa/playlists/ (accessed May 19,
2015)
reni, Charles S. (2010), “Café tunes,” Café Culture, 23, 40.
reni, Charles S. and David Kim (1993), “The Influence of
Background Music
on Shopping Behavior: Classical Versus Top-Forty Music in a
Wine Store,”
Advances in Consumer Research, 20, 336–40.
reni, Charles S., Dale F. Duhan and Pamela L. Kiecker (1999),
“Point-of-
Purchase Displays, Product Organization, and Brand Purchase
Likelihoods,”
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 27, 428–41.
ucouturier, Jean-Julien and Francois Pachet (2003),
“Representing Musical
Genre: A State of the Art,” Journal of New Music Research, 32,
83–93.
75. ailey, Nicole and Charles S. Areni (2006), “When a Few
Minutes Sound Like
a Lifetime: Does Atmospheric Music Expand or Contract
Perceived Time?,”
Journal of Retailing, 82, 189–202.
aker, Julie, Michael Levy and Dhruv Grewal (1992), “An
Experimental
Approach to Making Retail Store Environmental Decisions,”
Journal of
Retailing, 68, 445–60.
argh, John A. (1984), “Automatic and Conscious Processing of
Social Infor-
mation,” In Handbook of Social Cognition, Vol. 3, Wyer Robert
S. Jr. and
Srull Thomas K. eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1–44.
erkowitz, Leonard and Karen H. Rogers (1986), “A Priming
Effect Analysis
of Media Influences,” in Perspectives on Media Effects, Bryant
Jennings and
Zillman Dolf, eds. Hilsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbuam Associates,
57–82.
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0022-4359(15)00055-X/sbref0005
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0022-4359(15)00055-X/sbref0005
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0022-4359(15)00055-X/sbref0005
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0022-4359(15)00055-X/sbref0005
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0022-4359(15)00055-X/sbref0005
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0022-4359(15)00055-X/sbref0005
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0022-4359(15)00055-X/sbref0005
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0022-4359(15)00055-X/sbref0005
87. M
M
M
M
M
N
N
N
N
N
O
R
4 A.C. North et al. / Journal
lair, M. Elizabeth and Eva M. Hyatt (1992), “Home is Where
the Heart is: An
Analysis of Meanings of the Home in Country Music,” Popular
Music and
Society, 16, 69–82.
lankson, Charles and Stavros P. Kalafatis (2004), “The
Development and
Validation of a Scale Measuring Consumer/Customer-Derived
Generic
88. Typology of Positioning Strategies,” Journal of Marketing
Management, 20,
5–43.
oer, Diana, Ronald Fischer, Ma L.G. Atilano, Jimena G.
Hernández, Luz
I.M. García, Socorro Mendoza, Valdiny V. Gouveia, Jason Lam
and Eva
Lo (2013), “Music, Identity, and Musical Ethnocentrism of
Young People
in Six Asian, Latin American, and Western Cultures,” Journal of
Applied
Social Psychology, 43, 2360–76.
olton, Ruth N. and Venkatesh Shankar (2003), “An Empirically
Derived Tax-
onomy of Retailer Pricing and Promotion Strategies,” Journal of
Retailing,
79, 213–24.
rinberg, David, John G. Lynch Jr. and Alan G. Sawyer (1992),
“Hypothe-
sized and Confounded Explanations in Theory Tests: A
Bayesian Analysis,”
Journal of Consumer Research, 19, 139–54.
runer, Gordon C. II (1990), “Music, Mood, and Marketing,”
Journal of Mar-
keting, 54, 94–104.
aldwell, Clare and Sally A. Hibbert (2002), “The Influence of
Music Tempo
and Musical Preference on Restaurant Patrons’ Behavior,”
Psychology &
Marketing, 19, 895–917.
89. ollins, Allan M. and Elizabeth F. Loftus (1975), “A Spreading-
Activation
Theory of Semantic Processing,” Psychological Review, 82,
407–28.
omke, David, Dhavan V. Shah and Daneil B. Wackman (1998),
“Media Priming
Effects: Accessibility, Association, and Activation,”
International Journal
of Public Opinion Research, 10, 51–75.
ube, Laurette, Jean-Charles Chebat and Silvie Morin (2007),
“The Effects
of Background Music on Consumers’ Desire to Affiliate in
Buyer-Seller
Interactions,” Psychology & Marketing, 12, 305–19.
uffy, Sean and John Smith (2014), “Cognitive Load in the
Multi-Player Pris-
oner’s Game: Are There Brains in Games?,” Journal of
Behavioral and
Experimental Economics, 51, 47–56.
llis, Iain (2010), “Resistance and Relief: The Wit and Woes of
Early Twen-
tieth Century Folk and Country Music,” International Journal of
Humor
Research, 23, 161–78.
iske, Susan T. (1993), “Social Cognition and Social
Perception,” Annual Review
of Psychology, 44, 155–94.
olkestad, Goran (2002), “National Identity and Music,” in
Musical Identities,
MacDonald Raymond, Hargreaves David J. and Miell Dorothy,
90. eds. New
York: Oxford University Press, 151–62.
ord, Thomas E. and Arie W. Kruglanski (1995), “Effects of
Epistemic Motiva-
tions on the Use of Accessible Constructs in Social Judgment,”
Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 950–62.
arlin, Francine V. and Katherine Owens (2006), “Setting the
Tone With the
Tune: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Effects of Background
Music in Retail
Settings,” Journal of Business Research, 59, 755–64.
ilbert, Daniel T. and J. Gregory Hixon (1991), “The Trouble of
Thinking:
Activation and Application of Stereotypic Beliefs,” Journal of
Personality
and Social Psychology, 60, 509–17.
rewal, Dhruv, Julie Baker, Michael Levy and Glenn B. Voss
(2003), “The
Effects of Wait Expectations and Store Atmosphere Evaluations
on Patron-
age Intentions in Service-Intensive Retail Stores,” Journal of
Retailing, 79,
259–68.
aans, Hans and Els Gijsbrechts (2011), “‘One-deal-fits-all?’ On
Category Sales
Promotion Effectiveness in Smaller Versus Larger
Supermarkets,” Journal
of Retailing, 87, 427–43.
ansen, Christine H. and Walter Krygowski (1994), “Arousal-
91. Augmented Prim-
ing Effects: Rock Music Videos and Sex Object Schemas,”
Communication
Research, 18, 24–47.
iggins, E. Tori and Gillian King (1981), “Accessibility of Social
Constructs:
Information Processing Consequences of Individual and
Contextual Vari-
ability,” in Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction,
Cantor Nancy
and Kihlstrom John, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 69–121.
ui, Michael K., Laurette Dube and Jean-Charles Chebat (1997),
“The Impact
of Music on Consumers’ Reactions to Waiting for Services,”
Journal of
Retailing, 73, 87–104.
S
ailing 92 (1, 2016) 83–95
o, Eunkyung and Leonard Berkowitz (1994), “A Priming Effect
Analysis of
Media Influences: An Update,” in Media Effects, Bryant
Jennings and Zill-
mann Dolf, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
43–60.
amakura, Wagner A. and Wooseong Kang (2007), “Chain-Wide
and Store-
Level Analysis for Cross-Category Management,” Journal of
Retailing, 83,
159–70.
92. ellaris, James J. and Robert J. Kent (1992), “The Effects of
Music on Tem-
poral Perception; Does Time Fly When You’re Having Fun?,”
Journal of
Consumer Psychology, 1, 365–76.
and (1994), “An Exploratory
Investigation of Responses Elicited by Music Varying in
Tempo, Tonality,
and Texture,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 2, 381–401.
ellaris, James J. and Ronald C. Rice (1993), “The Influence of
Tempo,
Loudness, and Gender of Listener on Responses to Music,”
Psychology &
Marketing, 10, 15–29.
ellaris, James J., Anthony D. Cox and Dena Cox (1993), “The
Effect of Back-
ground Music on Ad Processing: A Contingency Explanation,”
Journal of
Marketing, 57, 114–25.
aran, Laran, Amy N. Dalton and Eduardo B. Andrade (2011),
“The curious
case of behavioral backlash: Why brands produce priming
effects and slo-
gans produce reverse priming effects,” Journal of Consumer
Research, 37,
999–1014.
ewis, George H. (1999), “Traps, Troubles, and Social Issues:
Country Music
in the Social Science Classroom,” Popular Music and Society,
23, 61–82.
93. acInnis, Deborah and C. Whan Park (1991), “The Differential
Role of Char-
acteristics of Music on High- and Low-Involvement Consumers’
Processing
of Ads,” Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 61–173.
attila, Anna and Jochen Wirtz (2001), “Congruency of Scent and
Music as
a Driver of In-Store Evaluations and Behavior,” Journal of
Retailing, 77,
273–89.
illiman, Ronald E. (1982), “Using Background Music to Affect
the Behavior
of Supermarket Shoppers,” Journal of Marketing, 46, 86–91.
(1986), “The Influence of Background Music on the
Behavior of Restaurant Patrons,” Journal of Consumer
Research, 13,
286–9.
orin, Silvie, Laurette Dube and Jean-Charles Chebat (2007),
“The Role of
Pleasant Music in Servicescapes: A Test of the Dual Model of
Environmental
Perception,” Journal of Retailing, 83, 115–30.
orrison, Michael, Sarah Gan, Chris Dubelaar and Harmen
Oppewal (2011),
“In-Store Music and Aroma Influences on Shopper Behavior and
Satisfac-
tion,” Journal of Business Research, 64, 558–64.
ewman, John (1996), Give: A Cognitive-Linguistic Study,
Berlin & New York:
94. Mouton de Gruyter.
orth, Adrian C. (2012), “The Effect of Background Music on the
Taste of
Wine,” British Journal of Psychology, 103, 293–301.
orth, Adrian C. and David J. Hargreaves (1998), “The Effect of
Music on
Atmosphere and Purchase Intentions in a Cafeteria,” Journal of
Applied
Social Psychology, 28, 2254–73.
orth, Adrian C., David J. Hargreaves and Jennifer McKendrick
(1997), “In-
Store Music Affects Product Choice,” Nature, 390, 132.
, and
(1999), “The Effect of Music on In-store Wine Selections,”
Journal of
Applied Psychology, 84, 271–6.
orth, Adrian C., Amber Shilcock and David J. Hargreaves
(2003), “The Effect
of Musical Style on Restaurant Customers’ Spending,”
Environment and
Behavior, 35, 712–8.
akes, Steve (2000), “The Influence of the Musicscape Within
Service Envi-
ronments,” Journal of Services Marketing, 14, 539–56.
(2003), “Musical Tempo and Waiting Perceptions,” Psy-
chology and Marketing, 20, 685–705.
(2007), “Evaluating Empirical Research into Music in
Advertising: A Congruity Perspective,” Journal of Advertising