This document provides a review of adhesion science as it relates to dental materials. It discusses key definitions including adherend, adhesive, interface, and adhesion versus cohesion. The main types of bonding involved in adhesion are described as physical, chemical, and mechanical. Several key principles for achieving good adhesion are outlined, including creating clean surfaces, generating surface roughness, achieving good wetting via proper contact angles, and allowing for adequate flow and adaptation. Future areas for improvement are identified, such as more rigorous characterization and analysis of interfaces before, during, and after adhesion.
Copy of dentin bonding agents1/ rotary endodontic courses by indian dental ac...Indian dental academy
This document discusses dentin bonding agents and their history and development. It provides background on enamel and dentin structure and composition. Adhesion mechanisms include mechanical interlocking and chemical and physical interactions at the molecular level. Earlier standards focused on longevity but changing demands for esthetics led to new adhesive restorative materials like composites. Improvements in bonding agents have revolutionized dentistry by enabling strong and durable bonds between resins and tooth structure through both micromechanical and chemical adhesion.
Dentin bonding agents/ rotary endodontic courses by indian dental academyIndian dental academy
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
This document summarizes key concepts related to reservoir phase behavior and interfacial phenomena. It includes:
- A typical pressure-temperature diagram showing the critical point, bubble point curve, and dew point curve used to classify reservoirs as oil or gas based on temperature.
- Definitions of surface tension, interfacial tension, and surface free energy as forces that exist at boundaries between phases.
- Explanations of liquid, solid, and liquid-liquid interfaces with examples. Wettability is also introduced as the preferential wetting of solids by liquids.
- Figures illustrating fluid distributions and interfacial energies in water-wet and oil-wet systems. Young's equation relates
This document lists examples of different aquatic life categories. It provides two examples of neuston: water striders and snails. It also lists two fish as examples of nekton that live in different water levels: mackerel as holoepipelagic and sawfish as meroepipelagic. It mentions bentos and perifiton but does not provide any examples.
The document provides information about hunting for fossils in Louisiana. It discusses the paleontology collections at the LSU Museum of Natural Science, which include over 17,000 specimens from over 1,000 localities with an emphasis on Louisiana. The document describes how fossils from millions of years ago in the North became gravel deposits in Louisiana, transported south by glaciers. It provides pictures and descriptions of common fossil types found in Louisiana gravels from the Paleozoic era, such as crinoids, corals, bryozoans, mollusks, brachiopods, and trilobites. The document also discusses field trips and activity booklets for learning about paleontology.
This document discusses surface tension and related concepts. It explains that surface tension allows some objects to float on water and insects to run on water. Surface tension is the cohesive force between liquid molecules that makes the liquid assume the least surface area shape. The document contrasts the convex shape of water surfaces with the concave shape of mercury surfaces. It defines cohesion as the attraction between like molecules and adhesion as the attraction between different molecules or surfaces. It also discusses how contact angle and wetting relate to the balance between cohesive and adhesive forces.
A GAO report published in June 2014 but not released to the public until July 28, 2014. Titled "EPA Program to Protect Underground Sources from Injection of Fluids Associated with Oil and Gas Production Needs Improvement" the report, as the title indicates, takes EPA to task for what they say is lax oversight of oil and gas injection wells--wells used to dispose of wastewater from drilling operations. It's important to note that the GAO is extremely partisan and populated with liberal Democrat lifers with an agenda.
This document introduces changes to China's certification procedure and implementation rules for compulsory certification of audio/video and information technology products. Key points include: 1) Allowing type testing and factory inspections to be done in parallel for overseas factories; 2) Requiring a factory quality assurance statement be submitted with applications; 3) Specifying certification modes including type testing with follow-up inspections; and 4) Classifying factories from A to D based on inspection results, with more frequent inspections for lower classes.
Copy of dentin bonding agents1/ rotary endodontic courses by indian dental ac...Indian dental academy
This document discusses dentin bonding agents and their history and development. It provides background on enamel and dentin structure and composition. Adhesion mechanisms include mechanical interlocking and chemical and physical interactions at the molecular level. Earlier standards focused on longevity but changing demands for esthetics led to new adhesive restorative materials like composites. Improvements in bonding agents have revolutionized dentistry by enabling strong and durable bonds between resins and tooth structure through both micromechanical and chemical adhesion.
Dentin bonding agents/ rotary endodontic courses by indian dental academyIndian dental academy
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
This document summarizes key concepts related to reservoir phase behavior and interfacial phenomena. It includes:
- A typical pressure-temperature diagram showing the critical point, bubble point curve, and dew point curve used to classify reservoirs as oil or gas based on temperature.
- Definitions of surface tension, interfacial tension, and surface free energy as forces that exist at boundaries between phases.
- Explanations of liquid, solid, and liquid-liquid interfaces with examples. Wettability is also introduced as the preferential wetting of solids by liquids.
- Figures illustrating fluid distributions and interfacial energies in water-wet and oil-wet systems. Young's equation relates
This document lists examples of different aquatic life categories. It provides two examples of neuston: water striders and snails. It also lists two fish as examples of nekton that live in different water levels: mackerel as holoepipelagic and sawfish as meroepipelagic. It mentions bentos and perifiton but does not provide any examples.
The document provides information about hunting for fossils in Louisiana. It discusses the paleontology collections at the LSU Museum of Natural Science, which include over 17,000 specimens from over 1,000 localities with an emphasis on Louisiana. The document describes how fossils from millions of years ago in the North became gravel deposits in Louisiana, transported south by glaciers. It provides pictures and descriptions of common fossil types found in Louisiana gravels from the Paleozoic era, such as crinoids, corals, bryozoans, mollusks, brachiopods, and trilobites. The document also discusses field trips and activity booklets for learning about paleontology.
This document discusses surface tension and related concepts. It explains that surface tension allows some objects to float on water and insects to run on water. Surface tension is the cohesive force between liquid molecules that makes the liquid assume the least surface area shape. The document contrasts the convex shape of water surfaces with the concave shape of mercury surfaces. It defines cohesion as the attraction between like molecules and adhesion as the attraction between different molecules or surfaces. It also discusses how contact angle and wetting relate to the balance between cohesive and adhesive forces.
A GAO report published in June 2014 but not released to the public until July 28, 2014. Titled "EPA Program to Protect Underground Sources from Injection of Fluids Associated with Oil and Gas Production Needs Improvement" the report, as the title indicates, takes EPA to task for what they say is lax oversight of oil and gas injection wells--wells used to dispose of wastewater from drilling operations. It's important to note that the GAO is extremely partisan and populated with liberal Democrat lifers with an agenda.
This document introduces changes to China's certification procedure and implementation rules for compulsory certification of audio/video and information technology products. Key points include: 1) Allowing type testing and factory inspections to be done in parallel for overseas factories; 2) Requiring a factory quality assurance statement be submitted with applications; 3) Specifying certification modes including type testing with follow-up inspections; and 4) Classifying factories from A to D based on inspection results, with more frequent inspections for lower classes.
Concerts and Holidays in Hirosaki (Japan)silviowey
This document appears to be a photo album from a trip to Hirosaki, Japan in April 2007. It contains captions for various photos taken during activities like visiting hot springs, fish markets, concerts, dinners, and sightseeing cherry blossom festivals. Locations mentioned include Mt. Hakkoda and Ajigasawa Hall. People in the photos include Takeshi, Yurika, Eri, Yutaka, and members of various musical groups.
Xpert IT Solutions provides dispatch software that allows users to track the status of loads, trucks, trailers, and drivers. It displays an electronic dispatch board and allows for quick trip settlement and payment of drivers/owner operators. The software integrates features like safety reminders, equipment repairs, fuel tax reporting, and accounts receivable/payable with the dispatch functionality. It also generates various reports to help manage the business. Contact information is provided to learn more about the dispatch software capabilities.
3D Scan Processing for the Museum of PaleontologyDimitris Fotiou
This document lists 3D scans of various fossils and bones from the Museum of Paleontology in Athens, Greece that were converted and processed into point-cloud data formats. The list includes scans of a hippopotamus skull, cervical vertebra, sacrum, skulls labeled with identification numbers or names, and various bones from the Megalopolis region.
Understanding the sedimentary rocks - Geotalk 2 (MGSS)KYI KHIN
Sedimentary rocks form from the compaction and cementation of sediments like sand and mud. This document discusses the formation of sedimentary rocks, including weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, and diagenesis. It describes key sedimentary rock types like sandstone, shale, and conglomerate. Examples are given of each rock type and how to identify them based on composition, texture, and sedimentary structures. The study of sedimentary rocks provides information about geology, natural resources, and earth's history.
La guía instruye a realizar 5 pasos: 1) anclar 5 accesos directos, 2) cambiar la hora y fecha a las 18.57 del 16 de mayo de 2012 en la zona horaria UTC-4, 3) abrir 10 documentos, y 4) aplicar el tamaño de los iconos.
The document outlines Qatar Petroleum procedures for constructing a pipe protection structure using an arch erection method. It details the excavation and preparation of the foundation, installation of arch elements with cranes, alignment checks, grouting of joints, and backfilling. Images show the erection sequence and requirements for placement of fill material over the completed structure before heavy vehicles can cross.
The document discusses reservoir-induced seismicity, providing several examples of how reservoir filling and fluid injection/extraction can trigger earthquakes. Reservoir-induced seismicity typically involves small earthquakes that are concentrated near the reservoir. The physical mechanism is that increased fluid pressures in the reservoir reduce normal stresses on nearby faults, making them more prone to slip and cause earthquakes. While small, these induced seismic events demonstrate that human activities like dam building, oil/gas extraction, and water storage can effectively stress nearby faults enough to trigger earthquakes.
Anticoagulation in diagnostic and interventional procedure and monitoring a...Deb Boruah
The document discusses anticoagulation in diagnostic and interventional procedures. It describes the three mechanisms of blood clotting - vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood clotting. It then discusses the blood coagulation cascade and mechanisms of heparin and low molecular weight heparins as anticoagulants. It also covers monitoring of anticoagulation therapy, including tests for heparin, warfarin, and antiplatelet drugs.
This document provides information about an oil reservoir in West Africa and enhanced oil recovery techniques being considered to increase production. It summarizes:
1) The reservoir began production in 1977 with 6 platforms and 49 wells currently. Polymer flooding is being evaluated as an enhanced oil recovery method.
2) Simulations of polymer flooding were run on two extended sectors, with better results in Sector B. The best strategies were HPAM injection and xanthan polymer injection.
3) An economic analysis found polymer flooding in Sector B could be profitable over the evaluation period, while polymer flooding was not advantageous compared to water flooding in Sector A. Future work may include laboratory tests and full field implementation in Sector B
Adapting remote sensing research for environmental monitoring: Citizen mappin...FOSS4G 2011
Adapting remote sensing research for environmental monitoring: Citizen mapping the BP oil spill with balloons and kites, by the Public Laboratory for Open Technology and Science.
This document discusses different types of oil reservoirs based on their driving mechanisms and fluid compositions. There are six main driving mechanisms that provide natural energy for oil recovery: rock and liquid expansion, depletion, gas cap, water, gravity, and combination drives. Reservoirs are also classified based on their initial pressure and temperature relative to the fluid properties. Depending on initial reservoir pressure compared to the bubble point pressure, reservoirs can be undersaturated, saturated, or gas-cap. Gas reservoirs are classified based on their phase diagrams as retrograde gas-condensate, near-critical gas-condensate, wet gas, or dry gas. Development considerations vary depending on the reservoir type and conditions.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
The document discusses various theories of adhesion including physical absorption, chemical bonding, diffusion, electrostatic, and mechanical interlocking theories. It explains that adhesion occurs due to molecular contact and surface forces between two materials. Adhesives are now commonly used in manufacturing across many industries like construction, automobiles, footwear, and more due to advantages like joining dissimilar materials and reducing weight.
The document discusses the history and development of dental bonding systems. It describes the key differences between first, second, and third generation bonding agents. First generation agents from the 1960s produced weak bonds of 2-3 MPa and had high failure rates. Second generation agents from the 1970s-1980s left the smear layer intact and achieved bonds of 4.5-6 MPa. Third generation "total-etch" systems from the 1990s removed the smear layer prior to bonding and produced stronger bonds of 16-26 MPa approaching that of enamel. The three-step approach of conditioning, priming, and applying adhesive resin was developed to strongly bond to both enamel and dentin.
Adhesion is one of the essential properties in printing Ink and coatings industry that ensures the coating (or ink film) remains adhered to the surface for long especially under aggressive conditions.
The document discusses the principles and evolution of adhesive dentistry. It explains that adhesive dentistry aims to create adhesion between tooth structure and restorative materials. Historically, acid etching of enamel by Buonocore in 1955 improved adhesion of acrylic resin to enamel and marked the beginning of adhesive dentistry. The document covers topics such as the principles of adhesion, mechanisms of adhesion, factors affecting adhesion, dentin bonding systems, classification of bonding agents, and challenges in adhesion.
Dentin boning agents /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental ac...Indian dental academy
Welcome to Indian Dental Academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy has a unique training program & curriculum that provides students with exceptional clinical skills and enabling them to return to their office with high level confidence and start treating patients
State of the art comprehensive training-Faculty of world wide repute &Very affordable.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Concerts and Holidays in Hirosaki (Japan)silviowey
This document appears to be a photo album from a trip to Hirosaki, Japan in April 2007. It contains captions for various photos taken during activities like visiting hot springs, fish markets, concerts, dinners, and sightseeing cherry blossom festivals. Locations mentioned include Mt. Hakkoda and Ajigasawa Hall. People in the photos include Takeshi, Yurika, Eri, Yutaka, and members of various musical groups.
Xpert IT Solutions provides dispatch software that allows users to track the status of loads, trucks, trailers, and drivers. It displays an electronic dispatch board and allows for quick trip settlement and payment of drivers/owner operators. The software integrates features like safety reminders, equipment repairs, fuel tax reporting, and accounts receivable/payable with the dispatch functionality. It also generates various reports to help manage the business. Contact information is provided to learn more about the dispatch software capabilities.
3D Scan Processing for the Museum of PaleontologyDimitris Fotiou
This document lists 3D scans of various fossils and bones from the Museum of Paleontology in Athens, Greece that were converted and processed into point-cloud data formats. The list includes scans of a hippopotamus skull, cervical vertebra, sacrum, skulls labeled with identification numbers or names, and various bones from the Megalopolis region.
Understanding the sedimentary rocks - Geotalk 2 (MGSS)KYI KHIN
Sedimentary rocks form from the compaction and cementation of sediments like sand and mud. This document discusses the formation of sedimentary rocks, including weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, and diagenesis. It describes key sedimentary rock types like sandstone, shale, and conglomerate. Examples are given of each rock type and how to identify them based on composition, texture, and sedimentary structures. The study of sedimentary rocks provides information about geology, natural resources, and earth's history.
La guía instruye a realizar 5 pasos: 1) anclar 5 accesos directos, 2) cambiar la hora y fecha a las 18.57 del 16 de mayo de 2012 en la zona horaria UTC-4, 3) abrir 10 documentos, y 4) aplicar el tamaño de los iconos.
The document outlines Qatar Petroleum procedures for constructing a pipe protection structure using an arch erection method. It details the excavation and preparation of the foundation, installation of arch elements with cranes, alignment checks, grouting of joints, and backfilling. Images show the erection sequence and requirements for placement of fill material over the completed structure before heavy vehicles can cross.
The document discusses reservoir-induced seismicity, providing several examples of how reservoir filling and fluid injection/extraction can trigger earthquakes. Reservoir-induced seismicity typically involves small earthquakes that are concentrated near the reservoir. The physical mechanism is that increased fluid pressures in the reservoir reduce normal stresses on nearby faults, making them more prone to slip and cause earthquakes. While small, these induced seismic events demonstrate that human activities like dam building, oil/gas extraction, and water storage can effectively stress nearby faults enough to trigger earthquakes.
Anticoagulation in diagnostic and interventional procedure and monitoring a...Deb Boruah
The document discusses anticoagulation in diagnostic and interventional procedures. It describes the three mechanisms of blood clotting - vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood clotting. It then discusses the blood coagulation cascade and mechanisms of heparin and low molecular weight heparins as anticoagulants. It also covers monitoring of anticoagulation therapy, including tests for heparin, warfarin, and antiplatelet drugs.
This document provides information about an oil reservoir in West Africa and enhanced oil recovery techniques being considered to increase production. It summarizes:
1) The reservoir began production in 1977 with 6 platforms and 49 wells currently. Polymer flooding is being evaluated as an enhanced oil recovery method.
2) Simulations of polymer flooding were run on two extended sectors, with better results in Sector B. The best strategies were HPAM injection and xanthan polymer injection.
3) An economic analysis found polymer flooding in Sector B could be profitable over the evaluation period, while polymer flooding was not advantageous compared to water flooding in Sector A. Future work may include laboratory tests and full field implementation in Sector B
Adapting remote sensing research for environmental monitoring: Citizen mappin...FOSS4G 2011
Adapting remote sensing research for environmental monitoring: Citizen mapping the BP oil spill with balloons and kites, by the Public Laboratory for Open Technology and Science.
This document discusses different types of oil reservoirs based on their driving mechanisms and fluid compositions. There are six main driving mechanisms that provide natural energy for oil recovery: rock and liquid expansion, depletion, gas cap, water, gravity, and combination drives. Reservoirs are also classified based on their initial pressure and temperature relative to the fluid properties. Depending on initial reservoir pressure compared to the bubble point pressure, reservoirs can be undersaturated, saturated, or gas-cap. Gas reservoirs are classified based on their phase diagrams as retrograde gas-condensate, near-critical gas-condensate, wet gas, or dry gas. Development considerations vary depending on the reservoir type and conditions.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
The document discusses various theories of adhesion including physical absorption, chemical bonding, diffusion, electrostatic, and mechanical interlocking theories. It explains that adhesion occurs due to molecular contact and surface forces between two materials. Adhesives are now commonly used in manufacturing across many industries like construction, automobiles, footwear, and more due to advantages like joining dissimilar materials and reducing weight.
The document discusses the history and development of dental bonding systems. It describes the key differences between first, second, and third generation bonding agents. First generation agents from the 1960s produced weak bonds of 2-3 MPa and had high failure rates. Second generation agents from the 1970s-1980s left the smear layer intact and achieved bonds of 4.5-6 MPa. Third generation "total-etch" systems from the 1990s removed the smear layer prior to bonding and produced stronger bonds of 16-26 MPa approaching that of enamel. The three-step approach of conditioning, priming, and applying adhesive resin was developed to strongly bond to both enamel and dentin.
Adhesion is one of the essential properties in printing Ink and coatings industry that ensures the coating (or ink film) remains adhered to the surface for long especially under aggressive conditions.
The document discusses the principles and evolution of adhesive dentistry. It explains that adhesive dentistry aims to create adhesion between tooth structure and restorative materials. Historically, acid etching of enamel by Buonocore in 1955 improved adhesion of acrylic resin to enamel and marked the beginning of adhesive dentistry. The document covers topics such as the principles of adhesion, mechanisms of adhesion, factors affecting adhesion, dentin bonding systems, classification of bonding agents, and challenges in adhesion.
Dentin boning agents /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental ac...Indian dental academy
Welcome to Indian Dental Academy
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.
Indian dental academy has a unique training program & curriculum that provides students with exceptional clinical skills and enabling them to return to their office with high level confidence and start treating patients
State of the art comprehensive training-Faculty of world wide repute &Very affordable.
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training
center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental
professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified
courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry,
Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
This document discusses materials used for direct bonding and enamel preparation in orthodontics. It provides background on the history of adhesive bonding systems dating back to 1955 when Buonocore demonstrated that acid pretreatment increased adhesion. Common direct bonding materials discussed include composites, which are a mixture of resin matrix and inorganic filler particles. The resin matrix usually includes bis-GMA, UEDMA, and TEGDMA. Enamel preparation techniques to increase bonding such as acid etching, laser etching, and air microabrasion are also covered.
This document provides an overview of adhesives for rubber compounds. It defines adhesives and differentiates terms like glue, cement, and gum. It describes the forces involved in adhesion like mechanical interpenetration, diffusion, electrostatic attraction, and adsorption. It also covers adhesive classification systems based on origin, application method, functionality, and components. Superficial treatments are discussed to increase surface energy and promote wettability.
This document discusses adhesion and bonding in dentistry. It provides background on the history of adhesion, definitions of key terms, and the principles of adhesion. Specifically, it describes how adhesion is achieved through mechanical interlocking and various adhesion mechanisms for bonding dental materials to tooth structures like enamel and dentin. It discusses the role of surface properties, bonding agents, and clinical factors that influence adhesion. Methods for bonding various restorative materials like glass ionomers, amalgam, and ceramics are also covered.
References
Clinical Applications For Dental assistants And Dental Hygienists ,3rd edition
Phillips’ Science of Dental Materials, 12th edition.
Sturdevant’s Art and Science of Operative Dentistry, 7th edition.
Dental Hard Tissues and Bonding Interfacial Phenomena and Related Properties , G. Eliades , D. C. Watts · T, Eliades (Eds.), 2005.
BASIC DENTAL MATERIALS, 3rd edition.
Textbook of OPERATIVE DENTISTRY By Nisha Garg & Amit Garg , 3rd edition , 2015.
Clinical Aspects Of Dental Materials Theory, Practice, and Cases
4th edition , 2013
This document provides information on bonding in operative dentistry and enamel and dentin adhesion. It discusses the history and development of dental bonding agents from the 1950s to present. Key topics covered include the mechanism of adhesion, factors affecting adhesion to enamel and dentin, wet versus dry adhesion techniques, challenges with bonding, and the requirements for an ideal bonding agent. The document also defines important terms, discusses the components and removal of the smear layer, and compares adhesion to enamel versus dentin.
1. The document discusses the mechanisms of adhesion, which can be divided into chemical bonding and physical bonding. Chemical bonding involves primary bonds formed by electron sharing or exchange, and secondary bonds formed through mechanical linking. Physical bonding involves mechanical interlocking, diffusion, adsorption, and electrostatic forces.
2. Mechanical interlocking occurs when an adhesive penetrates pores and irregularities in a substrate to create a mechanical link. Diffusion bonding is caused by compatibility between polymer chains that allows for mixing and penetration. Adsorption bonding is through intermolecular attraction like van der Waals forces, requiring wetting of the substrate. Electrostatic bonding arises from separation of charges at interfaces, affecting polar adhesives.
It is an adhesive technique in dentistry involving the acid etching of tooth enamel and/or dentin so as to create tags of resin within the tooth structure that results in mechanical retention of the restorative material.Reliable bonding of resins to enamel and dentin has revolutionized the practice of dentistry. Improvements in dentin bonding materials and techniques are likely to continue. Even as the materials themselves become better and easier to use, however, proper attention to technique and a good understanding of the bonding process remain essential for clinical success.
Current trends in dentistry have rightfully earned the title of age of adhesive dentistry.
1) TERMINOLOGIES2)INTERATOMIC BOND3)FACTORS AFFECTING ADHESION4)MECHANISM OF ADHESION5)HISTORY6)ACID ETCHING7)SMEAR LAYER8)HYBRID LAYER9)CONDITIONING OF DENTIN10)MECHANISM OF DENTIN BONDING11)WET BONDING VS DRY BONDING12)PRIMER13)ADHESIVE14)CLASSIFICATION15)GENERATIONS OF DENTIN BONDING AGENT16)UNIVERSAL ADHESIVES17) SILICON BONDING AGENT18) CERAMIC BONDING19) CONCLUSION
This document discusses adhesion and bonding in dentistry. It begins by introducing the fundamental objective of creating adhesion between tooth structure and restorative materials. It then covers the principles of adhesion, including the different types of adhesion mechanisms. Some key factors and challenges that impact adhesion are surface energy, contact angle, wetting, surface contamination, and water content. The document reviews the history of bonding agents, from early experiments in the 1950s to the development of multi-step bonding systems. It also separates the discussion of enamel bonding agents from dentin bonding agents.
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
This document discusses luting agents used for cementing dental restorations. It describes various types of cements including zinc phosphate, glass ionomer, and resin cements. The key characteristics of an ideal luting agent are described as well as the composition and setting reaction of zinc phosphate cement, which is still commonly used. Factors that influence the retention of fixed prostheses like film thickness, cement strength, and dimensional stability during setting are also summarized.
Similar to A Review of Adhesion Science (Sally J. Marshall) (20)
Preparation and properties of calcium-silicate filled resins for dental restoration. Part II: Micro-mechanical behaviour to primed mineral-depleted dentine.
Profeta AC.
Preparation and properties of calcium-silicate filled resins for dental restoration. Part I: Chemical-physical characterization and apatite-forming ability.
Profeta AC.
Functionalizing a dentin bonding resin to become bioactive (Tobias Tauböck)DrMarkHogan
OBJECTIVES: To investigate chemo-mechanical effects of incorporating alkaline bioactive glass nanoparticles into a light-curable dental resin matrix.
METHODS: An unfilled Bis-GMA/TEGDMA material was infiltrated with up to 20wt% of ultrafine SiO2-Na2O-CaO-P2O5-Bi2O3 particles. The unfilled and filled resins were investigated regarding their viscosity before setting and compared to commercially available materials. Set specimens were immersed for 21 days in phosphate buffered saline at 37°C. Water uptake, pH, Knoop hardness, and degree of conversion of freshly polymerized and stored samples were investigated. Resin surfaces were viewed and mapped in a scanning electron microscope for the formation of calcium phosphate (Ca/P) precipitates. In addition, Raman spectroscopy was performed. Numeric values were statistically compared (p<0.01).><0.01).><0.01) increased the degree of conversion after 21 days. Ca/P precipitates formed on specimens filled with 20wt% of the particles, while they were scarce on counterparts loaded with 10wt%, and absent on unfilled resin surfaces.
SIGNIFICANCE: The results of the current study show that a Bis-GMA-based resin can be functionalized using alkaline nanoparticles. A material with bioactive properties and similar hardness as the unfilled resin was obtained by incorporating 20wt% of ultrafine SiO2-Na2O-CaO-P2O5-Bi2O3 particles into the resin matrix.
Bioactive effects of a calcium/sodium phosphosilicate on the resin–dentine in...DrMarkHogan
This study evaluated, through microtensile bond strength (μTBS) testing, the bioactive effects of a calcium/sodium phosphosilicate (BAG) at the resin–dentine interface after 6 months of storage in phosphate buffer solution (PBS). Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were also per- formed. Three bonding protocols were evaluated: (i) RES-Ctr (no use of BAG), (ii) BAG containing adhesive (BAG-AD), and (iii) BAG/H3PO4 before adhesive (BAG-PR). The dentin-bonded specimens were prepared for μTBS testing, which was carried out after 24 h or 6 months of storage in PBS. Scanning electron microscopy ultramorphology analysis was performed after debonding. Confocal laser scanning microscopy was used to evaluate the morphological and nanoleakage changes induced by PBS storage. High μTBS values were achieved in all groups after 24 h of storage in PBS. Subsequent to 6 months of storage in PBS the specimens created using the BAG-AD bonding approach still showed no significant reduction in μTBS. Moreover, specimens created using the BAG-AD or the BAG-PR approach showed an evident reduction of nanoleakage after prolonged storage in PBS. The use of BAG-containing adhesive may enhance the durability of the resin–dentine bonds through therapeutic/protective effects associated with mineral deposition within the bonding interface and a possible interference with collagenolytic enzyme activity (matrix metalloproteinases) responsible for the degradation of the hybrid layer.
Dentine bonding agents comprising calcium-silicates to support proactive dent...DrMarkHogan
The origin of ion-releasing dentine bonding agents lies in a change in attitude regarding the qualities demanded of a restorative dental material. The objectives of this paper are to review recent studies on novel hybrid adhesives comprising bioactive fillers based on information from original research papers, reviews, and patent literatures. Literature searches of free text and MeSH terms were performed by using MedLine (PubMed), Web of Science, Scopus, Scielo and the Cochrane Library (6th November, 2013). Reference lists of primary research reports and eligible systematic reviews were cross-checked in an attempt to identify additional studies. Experimental methacrylate-based adhesives, either when incorporating calcium/sodium phosphate-phyllosilicates or calcium silicate cements, demonstrated to promote therapeutic/protective effects on the micro-mechanical and ultramorphological properties of resin bonded-dentine interfaces associated with mineral deposition over time. Further randomized control trials are needed in order to confirm these initial results in vivo.
Hybridisation of dental hard tissues with modified adhesive systems: therapeu...DrMarkHogan
- The document is a PhD thesis submitted by Andrea Corrado Profeta to King's College London examining strategies to improve the durability of resin-dentine bonds through the use of bioactive compounds.
- The thesis contains a literature review on limitations of contemporary bonding systems and strategies to prevent bond degradation, followed by experimental projects testing calcium/sodium phosphosilicate and calcium silicate fillers.
- Preliminary studies used spectroscopy and thermal analysis to characterize experimental resin cements containing bioactive fillers, finding they absorbed water and released ions. Subsequent studies assessed the bioactive effects on bond strength, nano-leakage and mineral deposition over time.
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kol...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Versio
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
2. e12 dental materials 2 6 ( 2 0 1 0 ) e11–e16
of adhesion which is used in dentistry today came from the
4th–7th centuries AD, enamelling for artwork and jewelry. This
type of adhesion is used for ceramo-metal restorations. A non-
dental example is when Sir Isaac Newton observed in the 17th
Century that if he placed two transparent optical elements
of the same refractive index together, there was no reflection
at the point of contact. This principle formed the basis for
building interferometers. The consequences of different types
of interfaces will be discussed in the following sections.
2. Science of adhesion
It is important at this point to acknowledge that the sci-
ence for creating adhesion or cohesion involves quite different
energetic considerations than that science of interpreting
their associated failures. The topic of adhesion includes (1)
formation of adhesion-or-cohesion, (2) characterization of
the adhesive-or-cohesive interfaces, (3) destruction of the
interfaces (bond strength testing), and (4) failure analysis of
interfaces. Our focus will be primarily on the first two topics,
since it is clear that separation of a bonded joint is not simply
the reverse of making that joint in the first place. Data on joint
breaking strengths teach little about the surface properties
initially supporting good bond formation.
2.1. Definitions for adhesion and cohesion
Adhesion involves molecular interactions at the interface
between materials. Any event described as adhesion is really
an assembly involving an “adherend” (or substratum) with an
applied “adhesive” that creates an intervening “interface.” The
combination is defined as an “adhesive joint.” Quite often a
joint is more complex and includes two or more interfaces. In
dentistry adherends can be quite varied (e.g., enamel, dentin,
amalgam, composite, ceramic, cast metal, glass ionomer, etc.)
and adhesives can involve single interfaces (e.g., sealants,
ceramic bonded to metal) or multiple ones (composite bonded
to dentin, ceramic restorations bonded to tooth structure). Any
interface may include adhesion and/or cohesion [2–5].
2.2. Cohesion versus adhesion
Cohesion involves intermolecular attractions between like-
molecules/atoms and is often reported as the cohesive
strength of a material or tissue. For example, when measur-
ing bond strength between dentin and an adhesive, we often
examine the fracture surfaces to determine which of the mate-
rials actually failed and thus, determine whether the strength
value measured is truly a measure of the bond strength, or
is a measure of the cohesive strength of the adhesive, the
adherend or some combination of the two.
Cohesion involves primary bonding and may include
strong secondary bonding such as hydrogen bonding. It is a
relatively strong force among polar molecules such as water,
in which hydrogen bonding forms extensively. The propen-
sity for water droplet formation on low energy surfaces is, in
part, a result of cohesive forces in water. Higher energy sur-
faces better compete with water’s cohesive forces and thus
the water droplets are flatter or spread completely. An exam-
ple of cohesion inside of a restorative dental material is gold
foil. The “sea of electrons” forms a strong bond from its over-
lapping metallic bonds among gold atoms. At the same time,
the restoration is held in place within tooth structure by gross
mechanical interlocking.
2.3. Types of adhesion
Adhesion or cohesion may be categorized by the type of
physical, chemical, and/or mechanical bonding processes that
contribute to the interfacial strength of the assembly. Remem-
ber that bonding occurs within the adherend, within the
adhesive, and between the two at the interface. We are most
often focusing on the bonding at the interface. Physical bond-
ing forces are generally very weak. Chemical bonding is strong
but also very difficult to produce in a dense manner across
an interface. Mechanical bonding is the most effective means
of creating strong joints. Each includes different subtypes as
well. Each will be considered in more detail as follows.
Physical adhesion or bonding is always present even
though it is weak. Thus, while van der Waals forces occur
at every interface, they are often supplemented by significant
contributions from stronger bonds that may be present, such
as those from permanent dipoles in addition to the van der
Waals induced dipoles. For example when water is present,
such as water between two glass slides, the permanent dipoles
allow for hydrogen bonding at the interface, but such bonding
does not occur to polyethylene or other polymers which lack
H-bonding partner sites [3].
Chemical bonding includes possibilities for covalent, ionic,
metallic, and, in some cases, chelation bonding. There are
numerous possibilities for creating chemical bonding. As
previously noted, cohesion of gold to itself will create an
interface that essentially disappears as the surface atoms
become bonded. However, for other systems, trying to cre-
ate bonds between unlike surfaces such as metal–ceramic and
polymer–polymer interfaces, the situation is much more com-
plicated and may result in very limited chemical bonding and
much lower interfacial strengths.
There are many examples of creative ways to promote
some chemical adhesion by using organo-silane coupling
agents. Despite opportunities for chemical reactions or for
chelation reactions, most of the moieties involved do not pro-
duce much chemical bonding at all. Rather they function to
dramatically improve the wetting of phases and act by increas-
ing the adaptation of materials along interfaces.
Chemical adhesion has been sought for decades in numer-
ous dental materials applications. The results have largely
been disappointing. Contaminants are hard to eliminate com-
pletely and interfere with the intimate adaptation needed to
form bonds. At the same time, the theoretical bond densities
that could form are quite small and therefore are normally
overshadowed by mechanical bonding.
Mechanical interlocking is a common type of adhesion.
This is certainly true for dental materials as well [2,4,6].
There are several different variations on the theme, but
all involve the adhesive penetrating into the adherend and
becoming mechanically interlocked at some level. A clas-
sic non-dental example is a Velcro closure. A simple dental
example is an amalgam restoration placed into cavities with
3. dental materials 2 6 ( 2 0 1 0 ) e11–e16 e13
undercuts to provide retention. Other examples cover the
spectrum of interlocking, from dental cements that fill the
roughness in castings and help retain them, to the penetration
of monomers into etched enamel, which are then polymer-
ized to form tags of several micrometers in size for retention.
There is also permeation of monomers throughout the col-
lagen fibril matrix in etched dentin to form the hybrid layer.
Heterogeneity of the adherend microstructure contributes a
variety of options for mechanical interlocking.
3. Requirements for creating good adhesion
There are several sequential events that are required to form
an effective adhesive/cohesive joint. These are discussed in
detail as follows.
3.1. Clean surfaces
A principal requirement for strong adhesive bonds is that
the surface be clean and therefore in a high energy state.
Films of water, organic debris, and/or biofilms are always
present in the clinical situation, and interfere with wetting
and spreading. These cannot be removed by tooth brush-
ing with dentifrices alone. Teeth that are prepared for dental
restorative procedures have low energy surfaces because of
contaminants and smear layer that remain on the surface.
Acid etching removes most of the contaminants, produces sur-
face roughness for micro-mechanical interlocking, and forms
facets on the mineral crystals [3]. Etched enamel is wet readily
by monomers, allowing good penetration, and forms micro-
mechanical bonds easily [4,6]. Hydrophilic monomers can
penetrate into surface cracks among or within the enamel
crystals and thus help resist crack propagation after poly-
merization. The process also may displace any water layer
on the prepared surface. Organic groups that enhance wet-
ting include –OH, –SH, –COOH, and –NH2. Unfortunately the
presence of F discourages wetting [3].
3.2. Surface roughness
Wettability is enhanced for most practical dental situations by
the presence of microsurface roughness. Wettability is related
to roughness by the Wenzel equation [7] that states that:
r =
cos 1
cos 2
,
where r is the ratio of the contact angles of the smooth and
rough surfaces, respectively. This equation predicts that for
contact angles less than 90◦, wetting is increased by sur-
face roughness, but decreased for non-wetting materials with
contact angles greater than 90◦. The Wenzel effect has been
confirmed for a number of dental materials investigations
including polymer surfaces [8], cements [9], and composites
[10].
3.3. Proper contact angle and good wetting
Adhesion requires intimate contact of the materials to be
joined. Since the surface of a material is different from the
Table 1 – Contact angles (degrees).
Teflon–Hg 150
Teflon–water 112
PE–water 103
Skin–water 90
Gold–water 66
Pt–water 40
Glass–water 5
interior, understanding of the surface characteristics of mate-
rials is essential to understanding and promoting adhesion.
In the interior atoms are in equilibrium and the interatomic
forces between adjacent atoms in the crystal structure are in
balance. At the surface this is not true because there are no
interatomic interactions on the external surface of the atoms.
The surface free energy,
, represents the difference between
an atom on the surface and an atom in the interior [2,3,5].
The affected surface layer is likely to be at least 5 atomic lay-
ers thick [1]. Surface physics and chemistry are affected in
adhesives or tissues [3].
For adhesion to occur the adhesive must wet the sub-
stratum. The most common method of observing wetting is
measuring the contact angle. The contact angle is the internal
angle in a droplet of liquid in contact with a solid. It rep-
resents the energetic equilibrium between the solid, liquid,
and gas phases involved. In most cases, the gas phase is air,
and one simply focuses on the liquid droplet and solid sub-
stratum because the gas phase at the operative microscopic
solid/liquid/gas interface is always fully saturated with the
liquid’s vapor.
Wetting is categorized from liquid (usually water, but
not necessarily) contact angle as non-wetting (90◦), wetting
(90◦), and spreading (∼0◦), although all liquids do wet all
solids to some extent; degree of wetting = degree of adhesion.
The goal is always to select conditions that promote spread-
ing, without going so low in liquid surface tension that the
liquid’s cohesive strength is adversely diminished. The equa-
tion governing the energy balance in an interface is Young’s
equation [11]:
sl =
sv +
lv cos ,
where “” is the contact angle, and “s”, “v,” and “l” refer to the
solid, liquid, and vapor phases, respectively. The “critical sur-
face tension” of a solid is related to its surface free energy and
is determined from a graph of liquid surface tension versus
contact angle, when various liquids of known surface tension
are plotted versus contact angle. The critical surface tension is
the value obtained when the graph is extrapolated to a contact
angle of 0◦.
Contact angles of common liquid/material combinations
are in Table 1 [2].
Low contact angles are formed by liquids or monomers
on clean high energy surfaces. High energy surfaces include
solids that are strong, hard, crystalline, and have high melting
points. Etched enamel is a high energy surface. Lower energy
surfaces include softer solids with lower melting point materi-
als, such as dentin collagen and ubiquitous oral salivary films
[3]. An otherwise high energy enamel or dentin surface can
easily become contaminated. While an adhesive may still wet
these contaminated surfaces, the strength and integrity of any
4. e14 dental materials 2 6 ( 2 0 1 0 ) e11–e16
adhesive is limited to the strength and integrity of the surface
film which it overlays.
This situation may be summarized in terms of energy as
the adhesion at an interface occurs if there is a net reduction
in energy by forming the interface. The work of adhesion can
be determined for an interface of A and B by [11]:
WAB =
A +
B −
AB.
If the materials in contact cannot interact to reduce the total
energy of the system, then materials will try to reduce the
contact area of interaction, such as water beading on a Teflon
surface. The round shape of the droplets is consequence of
surface tension [2,3].
Although the liquid/vapor surface tension of water is about
72 dynes/cm, the energy required to expose new water surface
area, the critical surface tension for spreading over bulk water
is 22 dynes/cm at 20 ◦C, the lower surface tension required to
cover that same area of water. Familiar dental polymers have
values of 20–45 dynes/cm [12]. In 1973, Baier determined the
critical surface tension of teeth in vivo to be ∼32 dynes/cm
[3]. Eick quoted values of 42 for smear layer covered dentin,
29 after EDTA demineralization, and 27 after 2.5% nitric acid
treatment from Benediktsson’s MS thesis at UAB [13]. Phos-
phoric acid etching increases it to about 44 dynes/cm. Thus,
acid etching of enamel and dentin increases wetting and
promotes mechanical interlocking. Monomers dissolved in
solvents such as water, acetone, or alcohol displace water,
promote wetting, and expand the collagen network in dentin,
thus enhancing adhesion at several levels [13].
3.4. Low viscosity adhesives and adequate flow
Even though the critical surface tension is appropriate for con-
tact, the adhesive generally must be low enough in viscosity
and be capable of sufficient flow within the available applica-
tion time to spread and adapt to the details of the adherend
surface.
Viscosity behavior in response to shear stresses for most
adhesives for dental materials is pseudoplastic. Dental mate-
rials often include a critical shear stress barrier for the onset of
flow [14]. Each of these can be measured in a straight-forward
manner using commercial rheometers or viscosity methods.
Yet, this is still only part of the story. Most adhesive systems
require successful penetration into small surface roughness
features. The tendency to flow into holes can be measured
in terms of a penetration coefficient [15]. The penetration
coefficient, PC, is defined as the term in parentheses in the
Washburn equation:
d2
=
cos /2
rt
,
where d is the distance moved by the liquid,
is the surface
tension of the liquid, is the contact angle, is the dynamic
viscosity of the liquid, r is the radius, and t is the penetra-
tion time. Larger PC values correspond to faster penetration.
This was first utilized to rate early sealant compositions and
their abilities to penetrate pits and fissures. However, there is
strong interest in applying the same approach to rate existing
adhesives for micro-interdigitation along roughened or porous
dental substrates.
3.5. Resistance to phase separation
Dental adhesive compositions are primarily based on volatile
diluents that cause adhesive phase separation during the last
stages of flow as solvent loss is occurring rapidly. While some
of the problems have been described there is very little clear
understanding of what the actual interfacial phases might be
by the conclusion of the adhesion formation event. This clearly
deserves much more attention.
3.6. Adhesive solidification
While many situations in dentistry involve heat to create
adhesive interactions, enamel and dentin adhesive systems
require polymerization of the liquid components as their final
stage. Many of the dental situations requiring the use of
adhesives are challenged by poor access for visible light cur-
ing. It is obvious that effective adhesion requires adequate
degree of conversion. This information needs to be collected
on actual bonded dental assemblies and not simply on the
adhesive itself. The most popular method of measuring this is
to measure the relative conversion of available double bonds
during polymerization setting reactions [16]. This approach
only examines the material within the adhesive and not the
bonding at the interface. This is much more challenging.
4. Characterization of adhesive joints
4.1. Phases present in adhesive systems
Many sophisticated surface analysis methods are available,
but none is as easy to use as contact angle measurements.
There are major advantages for these techniques in revealing
the microstructure and properties of adhesive systems. How-
ever, special care must be taken to avoid or at least be aware
of surface alterations caused by them [12]. Many also require a
high vacuum, which either disqualifies its use on natural tis-
sues or alters the tissues. A brief summary of advantages and
disadvantages of several of them follows [12].
ESCA (electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis), also
called XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) uses an X-ray
beam focused on a specimen that causes emission of inner
shell electrons. The energy of the electrons is measured to
identify the elements present. The equipment is expensive
and requires a high vacuum, but there is little specimen dam-
age.
SIMS (secondary ion mass spectroscopy) uses an ion beam
(Xe, Ar, Ce, Ga) that sputters the surface and measures the
mass of the atoms on the surface. It requires a high vacuum
and is expensive. It measures only the outermost 1–2 atoms,
which makes it truly a surface measurement. Like ESCA, SIMS
requires a very dry specimen so its use on natural tooth tissues
is limited.
FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) uses
infrared radiation to determine chemical composition at a
much lower resolution and is less surface sensitive. An advan-
tage of this technique is that it can be used on wet specimens.
Raman spectroscopy uses inelastic scattering of light, from
a laser in the visible or near IR or near UV range, and gives
5. dental materials 2 6 ( 2 0 1 0 ) e11–e16 e15
chemical information. Raman microspectroscopy allows high
resolution imaging of compositional variations.
SEM/EDS (scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy) is the major topography and chemical
analysis technique used in dental materials research. It has
the advantage of depth of field, producing topographical
images. Chemical analysis is done by analyzing the X-rays
ejected by the electrons. Some SEM/EDS equipment needs a
high vacuum, while some allows moisture to remain on the
specimen (as in environmental SEM, ESEM).
AFM (atomic force microscopy) has gained much popularity
in analyzing surface topography. It operates on the principle
of measuring the deflection of a sharp tip. Many other modes,
such as piezo force microscopy and measurement of mechan-
ical properties at a fine scale are available. A major advantage
is that these instruments can operate in liquid, thus repro-
ducing the clinical situation better than most other analytical
techniques.
5. Geometry of adhesive layer
In the absence of efficient and effective chemical bonding,
interfaces depend primarily on intimate atomic contact and
mechanical bonding for success. Rough surfaces are generally
more advantageous than smooth ones. Mechanical bonding
can be viewed at a variety of levels as macro-mechanical reten-
tion, micro-mechanical retention, and nano-interdigitation.
Macro-mechanical bonding has been used in dentistry for
decades by creating dentin undercuts in the cavity designs of
intra-coronal restorations to prevent removal and by relying
on surface roughness of both extra-coronal restorations and
tooth structure to allow dental cements to prevent restoration
withdrawal.
Micro-mechanical bonding is the basis of most of contem-
porary adhesive dentistry. It depends on microsized relief of
enamel and dentin surfaces to allow adhesive penetration that
interlocks it into surface spaces. The surface relief is created
by acid etching. The interlocking occurs at two levels. The first
involves the formation of microtags of resin around enamel
prisms or within dentinal tubules. The second involves a much
finer penetration of adhesive nanotags among enamel crystals
or into the dentin collagen spaces. Nanotags seem to be much
more important to overall retention and can be imagined as a
nano-interdigitation mechanism.
These adhesive bonds involve the formation of an inter-
phase. Determination of parameters such as permeability
coefficient helps to predict the contributions of diffusion
bonding [13]. Another interesting result of interphase adhe-
sion is the phenomenon of stringing. During debonding,
strings of adhesive are stretched across the original interface,
bridging the gap, and preventing complete crack formation.
This discourages the propagation of a crack at the interface.
This phenomenon is common with general-purpose adhe-
sives or glues.
Nano-interdigitation also occurs when adhesive
monomers diffuse into existing polymer phases, poly-
merize, and become molecularly intertwined with existing
molecules. While there are no new chemical bonds formed
between the old and new polymer molecules, breaking of
one or the other polymer chains is generally required to
make the interface fail. This is a mechanism that commonly
occurs with methyl methacrylate monomer in acrylic dough
systems used for denture bases and teeth or with acrylic bone
cements.
A related event occurs when atoms or molecules diffuse
across an interface, rearrange the bulk material, and eliminate
the original boundaries. With metal and ceramic systems, this
type of diffusion requires heating to promote atomic move-
ments [1]. A good example is sintering of ceramic or metal
powders.
6. Adhesion changes in service
The past few years have seen an intense growth in research
monitoring changes over time in bond strength as a func-
tion of water effects, deleterious intraoral enzymes, thermal
cycling, mechanical cycling, and other special intraoral events
in the mouth like bleaching. These are left to others at this
conference to assess. Clearly, there needs to be a model for
testing these in an effective manner. It should include careful
microstructural characterization and not just property testing.
The ultimate goal of good adhesion in dental materials is
to produce an interface that is strong and durable. A well-
formed interface should have minimal imperfections [11].
Understanding the changing microstructure of the interface
and its defects over time continues to be a great challenge.
7. Failures of adhesive/cohesive joint
7.1. Bond strength evaluation
Historically, it has been much easier to screen the effective-
ness of bonding by destructively testing adhesive/cohesive
joints. Bond strength testing has “ruled” much of the last four
decades of dental materials research. Yet, in the absence of
well-understood substrata, adhesive systems, and interfaces,
any interpretation of the failure events has been suppositional
at best. Others presenting at this meeting will deal with the
details of testing results, testing variables, and testing prob-
lems.
7.2. Fractographic analysis
A potentially valuable tool for post-test characterization
of failures is fractographic analysis. Effective fractography
demands much more than simply a classification of the
remaining interfacial phases along the fracture faces as
related to the adhesive materials (adhesive), the substratum
(cohesive), or both (mixed). Rather, effective analysis consid-
ers identification of the fracture origin (crack initiation), the
direction and pattern of crack propagation, the energetics of
the fracture (single event or fatigue; brittle or ductile), and the
phases included along the fracture plane. Very little of this
has been done for dental materials in general, much less for
bonded systems. This is one of the future challenges for this
area of science.
6. e16 dental materials 2 6 ( 2 0 1 0 ) e11–e16
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