1
CHAPTER 1 Microbiology: Then and Now
CHAPTER 2 The Chemical Building Blocks of Life
CHAPTER 3 Concepts and Tools for Studying Microorganisms
CHAPTER 4 Cell Structure and Function in the Bacteria and Archaea
CHAPTER 5 Microbial Growth and Nutrition
CHAPTER 6 Metabolism of Microorganisms
CHAPTER 7 Control of Microorganisms: Physical and Chemical Methods
1 Foundations of Microbiology
P A R T
n 1676, a century before the Declaration of Independence, a Dutch
merchant named Antony van Leeuwenhoek sent a noteworthy let-
ter to the Royal Society of London. Writing in the vernacular of his
home in the United Netherlands, Leeuwenhoek described how he used a simple
microscope to observe vast populations of minute, living creatures. His reports
opened a chapter of science that would evolve into the study of microscopic
organisms and the discipline of microbiology. At that time, few people, including
Leeuwenhoek, attached any practical significance to the microorganisms, but
during the next three centuries, scientists would discover how profoundly these
organisms influence the quality of our lives and the environment around us.
We begin our study of the microorganisms by exploring the grassroot devel-
opments that led to the establishment of microbiology as a science. These devel-
opments are surveyed in Chapter 1, where we focus on some of the individuals
who stood at the forefront of discovery. Today we are in the midst of a third Golden Age of microbiology and our
understanding of microorganisms continues to grow even as you read this book. Chapter 1, therefore, is an important
introduction to microbiology then and now.
Part 1 also contains a chapter on basic chemistry, inasmuch as microbial growth, metabolism, and diversity
are grounded in the molecules and macromolecules these organisms contain and in the biological processes they
undergo. The third chapter in Part 1 sets down some basic concepts and describes one of the major tools for study-
ing microorganisms. Much as the alphabet applies to word development, in succeeding chapters we will formulate
words into sentences and sentences into ideas as we survey the different groups of microorganisms and concentrate
on their importance to public health and human welfare.
Although most microorganisms are harmless—or even beneficial, some cause infectious disease. We will concentrate
on the bacterial organisms in Chapter 4, where we survey their structural frameworks. In Chapter 5, we build on these
frameworks by examining microbial growth patterns and nutritional requirements. Chapter 6 describes the metabolism
of microbial cells, including those chemical reactions that produce energy and use energy. Part 1 concludes by consider-
ing the physical and chemical methods used to control microbial growth and metabolism (Chapter 7).
I
Cells of Vibrio cholerae, transmitted to
humans in contaminated water and food, are
the cause of cholera.
62582_CH01_001_034.pdf 162582.
Distinguish between cellular and acellular. Give examples of microorg.pdfarjuntiwari586
Distinguish between cellular and acellular. Give examples of microorganisms in each category.
Describe the distinguishing features of each type of cell. What are the three domains of life?
Describe features of each domain. Escherichia coli is a bacterial species. Identify the genus and
the species. Escherichia coli has different strains. What is the significance of the strain
designation? What contributes to the emergence and/or re-emergence of infectious diseases?
Define the divisions of microbiology: bacteriology, mycology, virology, parasitology, serology,
molecular biology. The following made significant contributions to the field of microbiology,
identify the contribution of each: Leeuwenhoek, Holmes, Semmelweis, Lister, Pasteur, Koch,
Jenner
Solution
2.Unicellular organism is made up of one cell, a being with a cell wall, that gets along fine on its
own (like amoebas, protozoa or bacteria that usually move about all on their own) or which
could get along fine on its own (like yeasts or algae, which usually grow in bunches or
strings).Acellular organisms do not divide into discrete cells following the division of the
nucleus - they just carry on growing and producing more nuclei.Eg:Viruses, viroids, satellites,
plasmids, phagemids, cosmids, transposons and prions.
3. please specify the cells,in human or microbes?
4.The three domains of life are:
(a)EUKARYOTA
The Eukaryota include the organisms that most people are most familiar with - all animals,
plants, fungi, and protists. They also include the vast majority of the organisms that
paleontologists work with. Although they show unbelievable diversity in form, they share
fundamental characteristics of cellular organization, biochemistry, and molecular biology. Eg:
dinoflagellate,single-celled photosynthetic protist; plants; animals; and fungi.
(b)BACTERIA
Bacteria are often maligned as the causes of human and animal disease (like this one, Leptospira,
which causes serious disease in livestock). However, certain bacteria, the actinomycetes, produce
antibiotics such as streptomycin and nocardicin; others live symbiotically in the guts of animals
(including humans) or elsewhere in their bodies, or on the roots of certain plants, converting
nitrogen into a usable form. Bacteria put the tang in yogurt and the sour in sourdough bread;
bacteria help to break down dead organic matter; bacteria make up the base of the food web in
many environments. Bacteria are of such immense importance because of their extreme
flexibility, capacity for rapid growth and reproduction, and great age - the oldest fossils known,
nearly 3.5 billion years old, are fossils of bacteria-like organisms.
(c)ARCHEA
Archaeans include inhabitants of some of the most extreme environments on the planet. Some
live near rift vents in the deep sea at temperatures well over 100 degrees Centigrade. Others live
in hot springs, or in extremely alkaline or acid waters. They have been found thriving inside the
digestive tracts of cows, t.
Unit 9: Human Microbiome
LECTURE LEARNING GOALS
1. Describe the human microbiome: how many microbes there are, how you get your microbiome, who’s there, and how it changes over time and by region.
2. Describe the domain eukarya. List the five superkingdoms and a few notable species.
3. Explain how the human microbiome is related to health and disease.
This document provides information on the syllabus for a Microbiology course. The syllabus covers topics including the history and development of microbiology, classification of microbes, bacterial structure and growth, isolation and culture of bacteria, microbial genetics, and important microbes in medicine and industry. Recommended textbooks are provided for further reading. The course is 3 credits and will be coordinated by Dr. Angana Sarkar, focusing on theoretical concepts in microbiology.
Microorganisms are tiny living things that are too small to see with the naked eye. They include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae, and archaea. The document discusses the diversity of microorganisms and how they have adapted to live in nearly every environment on Earth. It also summarizes some of the major discoveries in microbiology, including the development of the field and techniques like Koch's postulates, recombinant DNA technology, and uses of microorganisms in areas like bioremediation and gene therapy.
Simply put, the living world can be described as the world around us. It comprises all living creatures, plants and microorganisms that we cannot see. It has changed over the course of billions of years but the general composition has remained the same. The main components are still organic and inorganic matter. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera.
This document provides an overview of the history and key contributors to the development of microbiology. It discusses early microscopists like Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek and their discoveries of cells and microorganisms. It then outlines the debate between spontaneous generation and biogenesis theories, with experiments by Spallanzani and Pasteur supporting biogenesis. Major contributions of Pasteur, including disproving spontaneous generation, developing pasteurization and germ theory of disease, and pioneering vaccine development are summarized. The document also briefly mentions contributions of Redi, Needham, Tyndall, and their experiments related to sources of microbes and disproving spontaneous generation.
1
CHAPTER 1 Microbiology: Then and Now
CHAPTER 2 The Chemical Building Blocks of Life
CHAPTER 3 Concepts and Tools for Studying Microorganisms
CHAPTER 4 Cell Structure and Function in the Bacteria and Archaea
CHAPTER 5 Microbial Growth and Nutrition
CHAPTER 6 Metabolism of Microorganisms
CHAPTER 7 Control of Microorganisms: Physical and Chemical Methods
1 Foundations of Microbiology
P A R T
n 1676, a century before the Declaration of Independence, a Dutch
merchant named Antony van Leeuwenhoek sent a noteworthy let-
ter to the Royal Society of London. Writing in the vernacular of his
home in the United Netherlands, Leeuwenhoek described how he used a simple
microscope to observe vast populations of minute, living creatures. His reports
opened a chapter of science that would evolve into the study of microscopic
organisms and the discipline of microbiology. At that time, few people, including
Leeuwenhoek, attached any practical significance to the microorganisms, but
during the next three centuries, scientists would discover how profoundly these
organisms influence the quality of our lives and the environment around us.
We begin our study of the microorganisms by exploring the grassroot devel-
opments that led to the establishment of microbiology as a science. These devel-
opments are surveyed in Chapter 1, where we focus on some of the individuals
who stood at the forefront of discovery. Today we are in the midst of a third Golden Age of microbiology and our
understanding of microorganisms continues to grow even as you read this book. Chapter 1, therefore, is an important
introduction to microbiology then and now.
Part 1 also contains a chapter on basic chemistry, inasmuch as microbial growth, metabolism, and diversity
are grounded in the molecules and macromolecules these organisms contain and in the biological processes they
undergo. The third chapter in Part 1 sets down some basic concepts and describes one of the major tools for study-
ing microorganisms. Much as the alphabet applies to word development, in succeeding chapters we will formulate
words into sentences and sentences into ideas as we survey the different groups of microorganisms and concentrate
on their importance to public health and human welfare.
Although most microorganisms are harmless—or even beneficial, some cause infectious disease. We will concentrate
on the bacterial organisms in Chapter 4, where we survey their structural frameworks. In Chapter 5, we build on these
frameworks by examining microbial growth patterns and nutritional requirements. Chapter 6 describes the metabolism
of microbial cells, including those chemical reactions that produce energy and use energy. Part 1 concludes by consider-
ing the physical and chemical methods used to control microbial growth and metabolism (Chapter 7).
I
Cells of Vibrio cholerae, transmitted to
humans in contaminated water and food, are
the cause of cholera.
62582_CH01_001_034.pdf 162582.
Distinguish between cellular and acellular. Give examples of microorg.pdfarjuntiwari586
Distinguish between cellular and acellular. Give examples of microorganisms in each category.
Describe the distinguishing features of each type of cell. What are the three domains of life?
Describe features of each domain. Escherichia coli is a bacterial species. Identify the genus and
the species. Escherichia coli has different strains. What is the significance of the strain
designation? What contributes to the emergence and/or re-emergence of infectious diseases?
Define the divisions of microbiology: bacteriology, mycology, virology, parasitology, serology,
molecular biology. The following made significant contributions to the field of microbiology,
identify the contribution of each: Leeuwenhoek, Holmes, Semmelweis, Lister, Pasteur, Koch,
Jenner
Solution
2.Unicellular organism is made up of one cell, a being with a cell wall, that gets along fine on its
own (like amoebas, protozoa or bacteria that usually move about all on their own) or which
could get along fine on its own (like yeasts or algae, which usually grow in bunches or
strings).Acellular organisms do not divide into discrete cells following the division of the
nucleus - they just carry on growing and producing more nuclei.Eg:Viruses, viroids, satellites,
plasmids, phagemids, cosmids, transposons and prions.
3. please specify the cells,in human or microbes?
4.The three domains of life are:
(a)EUKARYOTA
The Eukaryota include the organisms that most people are most familiar with - all animals,
plants, fungi, and protists. They also include the vast majority of the organisms that
paleontologists work with. Although they show unbelievable diversity in form, they share
fundamental characteristics of cellular organization, biochemistry, and molecular biology. Eg:
dinoflagellate,single-celled photosynthetic protist; plants; animals; and fungi.
(b)BACTERIA
Bacteria are often maligned as the causes of human and animal disease (like this one, Leptospira,
which causes serious disease in livestock). However, certain bacteria, the actinomycetes, produce
antibiotics such as streptomycin and nocardicin; others live symbiotically in the guts of animals
(including humans) or elsewhere in their bodies, or on the roots of certain plants, converting
nitrogen into a usable form. Bacteria put the tang in yogurt and the sour in sourdough bread;
bacteria help to break down dead organic matter; bacteria make up the base of the food web in
many environments. Bacteria are of such immense importance because of their extreme
flexibility, capacity for rapid growth and reproduction, and great age - the oldest fossils known,
nearly 3.5 billion years old, are fossils of bacteria-like organisms.
(c)ARCHEA
Archaeans include inhabitants of some of the most extreme environments on the planet. Some
live near rift vents in the deep sea at temperatures well over 100 degrees Centigrade. Others live
in hot springs, or in extremely alkaline or acid waters. They have been found thriving inside the
digestive tracts of cows, t.
Unit 9: Human Microbiome
LECTURE LEARNING GOALS
1. Describe the human microbiome: how many microbes there are, how you get your microbiome, who’s there, and how it changes over time and by region.
2. Describe the domain eukarya. List the five superkingdoms and a few notable species.
3. Explain how the human microbiome is related to health and disease.
This document provides information on the syllabus for a Microbiology course. The syllabus covers topics including the history and development of microbiology, classification of microbes, bacterial structure and growth, isolation and culture of bacteria, microbial genetics, and important microbes in medicine and industry. Recommended textbooks are provided for further reading. The course is 3 credits and will be coordinated by Dr. Angana Sarkar, focusing on theoretical concepts in microbiology.
Microorganisms are tiny living things that are too small to see with the naked eye. They include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae, and archaea. The document discusses the diversity of microorganisms and how they have adapted to live in nearly every environment on Earth. It also summarizes some of the major discoveries in microbiology, including the development of the field and techniques like Koch's postulates, recombinant DNA technology, and uses of microorganisms in areas like bioremediation and gene therapy.
Simply put, the living world can be described as the world around us. It comprises all living creatures, plants and microorganisms that we cannot see. It has changed over the course of billions of years but the general composition has remained the same. The main components are still organic and inorganic matter. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera. Living things are divided into five kingdoms: animal, plant, fungi, protist and monera.
This document provides an overview of the history and key contributors to the development of microbiology. It discusses early microscopists like Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek and their discoveries of cells and microorganisms. It then outlines the debate between spontaneous generation and biogenesis theories, with experiments by Spallanzani and Pasteur supporting biogenesis. Major contributions of Pasteur, including disproving spontaneous generation, developing pasteurization and germ theory of disease, and pioneering vaccine development are summarized. The document also briefly mentions contributions of Redi, Needham, Tyndall, and their experiments related to sources of microbes and disproving spontaneous generation.
This document provides an overview of the major branches of life science. It discusses 14 branches: ecology, botany, zoology, entomology, microbiology, cell biology, paleontology, genetics, and physiology. Ecology examines interactions between organisms and their environment. Botany focuses on plants, zoology on animals, and entomology on insects and related groups. Microbiology looks at microorganisms like bacteria and viruses. Cell biology studies processes within individual cells. Paleontology studies extinct organisms through fossils. Genetics examines inheritance of traits. Physiology focuses on chemical processes that support life.
This document provides the contents page for a biology textbook divided into 5 units covering topics such as diversity in the living world, structural organization in plants and animals, cell structure and functions, plant physiology, and human physiology. The contents include 22 chapters across the 5 units. Some of the chapter topics include biological classification, plant kingdom, animal kingdom, transport in plants, respiration in plants, digestion and absorption. The document also provides brief biographies of two important biologists, Ernst Mayr and Carolus Linnaeus, known for their pioneering work in evolution and biological classification/taxonomy, respectively.
This document summarizes a lecture given by Dr. Larry Smarr on exploring the human microbiome. In 3 sentences:
Dr. Smarr discussed how recent advances in sequencing have revealed that the human body hosts trillions of microbes containing many times more genes than human cells. Longitudinal studies of his own biomarkers and microbiome provided insights into the dynamics of his autoimmune disease. New research is exploring the complex relationships between the gut microbiome and various health conditions.
This document summarizes a lecture given by Dr. Larry Smarr on his research exploring the human microbiome. Some key points:
- Dr. Smarr has been studying the microbial universe inside the human body for 40 years, since microbiology began as a frontier science.
- Advances in DNA sequencing have enabled the sequencing of human and microbial genomes, revolutionizing our understanding of the microbiome.
- The human microbiome is essential to health and disease, with 99% of our genes located in microbes rather than human cells.
- Dr. Smarr's own microbiome was studied before and after colonoscopy and colon surgery, showing dramatic shifts and recovery periods.
- Fecal microbiota trans
This document provides an overview of pharmaceutical microbiology. It discusses the introduction and branches of microbiology, including pure branches like bacteriology, mycology, and virology, and applied branches like medical, pharmaceutical, and industrial microbiology. The history of microbiology is also summarized, highlighting key figures like Antony van Leeuwenhoek, Louis Pasteur, and Alexander Fleming. Pasteur's contributions to microbiology through experiments on fermentation, sterilization, and pasteurization are described.
The document provides an overview of the contents of a biology textbook organized into 5 units covering various topics in biology. Unit 1 discusses diversity in the living world, including chapters on the living world, biological classification, plant kingdom, and animal kingdom. The summary provides the high-level structure and scope of the textbook without extensive detail on the document contents.
From Me To We: Discovering the Trillions of Microorganisms That are a Part of UsLarry Smarr
The document summarizes a lecture about the human microbiome and its importance in health and disease. It discusses how sequencing DNA has revealed that the human body hosts trillions of microorganisms and that 99% of our genes are microbial. Understanding the microbiome is crucial for medicine as shifts in the microbial ecology can be linked to various diseases. The lecturer discusses his own efforts to track biomarkers and microbiome data over time, revealing how perturbations correlated with disease symptoms and weight changes. Precision approaches analyzing large cohorts will be needed to unravel microbiome dynamics in health and illness.
If you look around you will see a large variety of living organisms, be itpotted plants, insects, birds, your pets or other animals and plants. Thereare also several organisms that you cannot see with your naked eye butthey are all around you.
Introduction to Microbiology & Microorganisms PPT by DR.C.P.PinceDR.PRINCE C P
Microorganisms are the minute living bodies not visible to the naked eyes.Example: Bacteria, Yeast, Amoeba etc
Microbiology is the specific branch of ‘biology’ that deals with the elaborated investigation of ‘small organisms’ termed as microbes or Microorganisms.
In simple words, Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
Bacteria Example: Anthrax Bacilli, Esch. Coli
Fungi - .Example: Yeast, Mushrooms, Pencillium
Algae Example: Diatoms
Protozoan Example : Malaria parasite
Viruses - Example:HIV,Chicken pox
Worms – Example: Round worm, Pin worm
PPT prepared by :
DR.C.P.PRINCE
Discovering the 100 Trillion Bacteria Living Within Each of UsLarry Smarr
This document provides a summary of a lecture on the human microbiome given by Dr. Larry Smarr. Some key points:
- The human microbiome refers to the trillions of bacteria that live within the human body. Each person contains 100 trillion bacteria, outnumbering human cells.
- Research into the microbiome is a rapidly growing field that provides insights into health and disease. The microbiome plays a role in processes like drug metabolism and immunity.
- The microbiome is established early in life and influenced by factors like birth method and antibiotic use in the first years. This early development can impact future health.
- Microbiome composition and function can change with health status, diet, medications and other
Discovering the 100 Trillion Bacteria Living Within Each of UsLarry Smarr
This document provides a summary of a lecture on the human microbiome given by Dr. Larry Smarr. Some key points:
- The human microbiome refers to the trillions of bacteria that live within the human body. Each person contains 100 trillion bacteria, outnumbering human cells.
- Research into the microbiome is a rapidly growing field that provides insights into health and disease. The microbiome plays a role in processes like drug metabolism and immunity.
- The microbiome is established early in life and influenced by factors like birth method and antibiotic use in the first years. This early development can impact future health.
- Microbiome imbalances are linked to diseases like inflammatory bowel disease. New treatments are
This document provides an introduction and history of microbiology. It discusses the study of microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. Key events in the history of microbiology include Leeuwenhoek's early observations under the microscope in the 1670s, Jenner's development of the smallpox vaccine in 1796, Pasteur's work on fermentation and sterilization in the 1850s, Lister's introduction of antiseptic surgery in the 1860s, and Koch's postulates for identifying pathogenic bacteria in 1876. The document also outlines the structure and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, classification systems for microorganisms, and characteristics of important medical
This document discusses microorganisms and provides information about their types and roles. It begins by defining microorganisms as organisms that are mostly microscopic in size and can be seen with a microscope. It then lists the main types of microorganisms as fungi, bacteria, protozoa, algae, and viruses. The document also discusses how some microorganisms like lactobacilli and yeast can be good, protecting the body from diseases, while others like certain bacteria can cause illnesses. It concludes by stating that bacteria can be both good and bad for humans, as some are needed for digestion while others cause pathogenic infections.
This document outlines the course content for a course on microbial ecology. It covers 5 units: (1) microbes and ecological theory, (2) microorganisms in ecosystems, (3) physiological adaptations of microorganisms, (4) bioconversion, and (5) microbial interactions. Unit 1 defines key terms like ecosystem, habitat, niche, and discusses colonization and succession. It provides examples of succession on cellophane films, dung, and human hair. The overall objective of the course is to study microbial community dynamics and interactions between microbes, plants, animals and their environments.
Biology First Year Complete 14 ChaptersSeetal Daas
This document provides notes on biology for a first year class. It begins with definitions of biology and classifications of living organisms. It then discusses the key kingdoms - Monera, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Later sections cover branches of biology, biological methods, examples like malaria, concepts like cloning and hydroponics, and levels of biological organization from subatomic particles to the biosphere. It concludes by discussing biochemistry and the important properties of water for biological functions.
This document provides an introduction to the field of microbiology. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
1. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and viruses. Major groups include bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. Microorganisms play important roles in nature, industries, causing diseases, and more.
2. The discovery of microorganisms began in the 1600s with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's microscope observations of "animalcules". However, microbiology emerged as a science in the late 1800s with advances like germ theory and pure culture techniques.
3. Louis P
Scientific names are used to classify the enormous diversity of living organisms into a hierarchical system and study them systematically. There are three domains of life - Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya. Eukarya is further divided into five kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Classification arranges organisms into taxonomic groups like domain, kingdom, phylum etc based on their evolutionary relationships and similarities. This hierarchical classification system with scientific names helps comprehend the vast diversity of life on Earth.
The document provides an overview of various fields in biology. It discusses biology and its two main branches of botany and zoology. It then describes several specialized fields within biology including ichthyology, the study of fish; zoology and its branches; embryology, the study of development of embryos; botany, the study of plants; microbiology, the study of microorganisms; and fields like genetics, ecology, and molecular biology.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye, including bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. These microbes play key roles in processes like soil formation, nutrient cycling, and were the only life forms on Earth for billions of years. There are several branches of microbiology focused on different types of microbes. Important figures like van Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, Koch, and others helped develop microbiology and establish concepts like the germ theory of disease. Microbiology now informs diverse fields like medicine, biotechnology, and more.
For this Portfolio Project, you will write a paper about John A.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Portfolio Project, you will write a paper about "John Adams" as well as any event in U.S. history that is relevant to your major area of study or of interest to you. You will write about John Adams from the perspective of another historical personality who lived at the same time as the person or event you are going to describe.
For your historical personality, try to select someone from an under-represented population (examples of possible perspectives include that of Anne Hutchinson, Pocahontas, or Sojourner Truth). This analysis is to make you think about how events/people’s actions were interpreted at the time.
Key Points::
Remember that you will be writing from the perspective of a historical person about another person or an event from a period of U.S. history up to Reconstruction. From your historical person’s perspective, provide a thorough summary of the person or event you’ve chosen to write about, including the incidents that took place and any key individuals involved or affected.
Address the general importance of the person or event in the context of U.S. history.
Now, explain specifically how the person or event changed “your” daily life—“you” being the historical persona you have adopted.
Think long-term: How will the person or the event you are describing make a long-term impact in the lives of people who are in the under-represented group to which your historical person/perspective belongs?
Paper Requirements:
Your paper must be four to six pages, not including the required references and title pages.
Use at least five sources, not including the textbook. Include a scholarly journal article. Include at least one
primary
source from those identified in the syllabus.
Definition of a Primary Source
: A primary source is any source, document or artifact that was created at the time of the event. It was usually created by someone who witnessed the event, lived during or even shortly afterwards, or somehow would have first-hand knowledge of that event. A secondary source, by contrast, is written by a historian or someone writing about the event after it happened.
Have an introduction and strong thesis statement. Make use of support and examples supporting your thesis
Finish with a forceful conclusion reiterating your main idea.
Format your paper according to the
CSU-Global Guide to Writing and APA Requirements
(Links to an external site.)
.
.
For this portfolio assignment, you are required to research and anal.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this portfolio assignment, you are required to research and analyze a TV program that ran between 1955 and 1965.
To successfully complete this essay, you will need to answer the following questions:
What is the background of this show? Explain what years it was on TV, describe the channel it aired on, the main characters, setting, etc..
What social issues and historical events were taking place at the time the show was being broadcast?
Did these issues affect the television show in any way?
Did the television show make an impact on popular culture?
Your thesis for the essay should attempt to answer this question:
Explain the cultural relevance of the show, given the information gathered from the show's background, and cultural history. How can television act as a reflection of the social, political, and cultural current events?
.
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This document summarizes a lecture given by Dr. Larry Smarr on his research exploring the human microbiome. Some key points:
- Dr. Smarr has been studying the microbial universe inside the human body for 40 years, since microbiology began as a frontier science.
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- The human microbiome is essential to health and disease, with 99% of our genes located in microbes rather than human cells.
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This document provides an overview of pharmaceutical microbiology. It discusses the introduction and branches of microbiology, including pure branches like bacteriology, mycology, and virology, and applied branches like medical, pharmaceutical, and industrial microbiology. The history of microbiology is also summarized, highlighting key figures like Antony van Leeuwenhoek, Louis Pasteur, and Alexander Fleming. Pasteur's contributions to microbiology through experiments on fermentation, sterilization, and pasteurization are described.
The document provides an overview of the contents of a biology textbook organized into 5 units covering various topics in biology. Unit 1 discusses diversity in the living world, including chapters on the living world, biological classification, plant kingdom, and animal kingdom. The summary provides the high-level structure and scope of the textbook without extensive detail on the document contents.
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The document summarizes a lecture about the human microbiome and its importance in health and disease. It discusses how sequencing DNA has revealed that the human body hosts trillions of microorganisms and that 99% of our genes are microbial. Understanding the microbiome is crucial for medicine as shifts in the microbial ecology can be linked to various diseases. The lecturer discusses his own efforts to track biomarkers and microbiome data over time, revealing how perturbations correlated with disease symptoms and weight changes. Precision approaches analyzing large cohorts will be needed to unravel microbiome dynamics in health and illness.
If you look around you will see a large variety of living organisms, be itpotted plants, insects, birds, your pets or other animals and plants. Thereare also several organisms that you cannot see with your naked eye butthey are all around you.
Introduction to Microbiology & Microorganisms PPT by DR.C.P.PinceDR.PRINCE C P
Microorganisms are the minute living bodies not visible to the naked eyes.Example: Bacteria, Yeast, Amoeba etc
Microbiology is the specific branch of ‘biology’ that deals with the elaborated investigation of ‘small organisms’ termed as microbes or Microorganisms.
In simple words, Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
Bacteria Example: Anthrax Bacilli, Esch. Coli
Fungi - .Example: Yeast, Mushrooms, Pencillium
Algae Example: Diatoms
Protozoan Example : Malaria parasite
Viruses - Example:HIV,Chicken pox
Worms – Example: Round worm, Pin worm
PPT prepared by :
DR.C.P.PRINCE
Discovering the 100 Trillion Bacteria Living Within Each of UsLarry Smarr
This document provides a summary of a lecture on the human microbiome given by Dr. Larry Smarr. Some key points:
- The human microbiome refers to the trillions of bacteria that live within the human body. Each person contains 100 trillion bacteria, outnumbering human cells.
- Research into the microbiome is a rapidly growing field that provides insights into health and disease. The microbiome plays a role in processes like drug metabolism and immunity.
- The microbiome is established early in life and influenced by factors like birth method and antibiotic use in the first years. This early development can impact future health.
- Microbiome composition and function can change with health status, diet, medications and other
Discovering the 100 Trillion Bacteria Living Within Each of UsLarry Smarr
This document provides a summary of a lecture on the human microbiome given by Dr. Larry Smarr. Some key points:
- The human microbiome refers to the trillions of bacteria that live within the human body. Each person contains 100 trillion bacteria, outnumbering human cells.
- Research into the microbiome is a rapidly growing field that provides insights into health and disease. The microbiome plays a role in processes like drug metabolism and immunity.
- The microbiome is established early in life and influenced by factors like birth method and antibiotic use in the first years. This early development can impact future health.
- Microbiome imbalances are linked to diseases like inflammatory bowel disease. New treatments are
This document provides an introduction and history of microbiology. It discusses the study of microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. Key events in the history of microbiology include Leeuwenhoek's early observations under the microscope in the 1670s, Jenner's development of the smallpox vaccine in 1796, Pasteur's work on fermentation and sterilization in the 1850s, Lister's introduction of antiseptic surgery in the 1860s, and Koch's postulates for identifying pathogenic bacteria in 1876. The document also outlines the structure and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, classification systems for microorganisms, and characteristics of important medical
This document discusses microorganisms and provides information about their types and roles. It begins by defining microorganisms as organisms that are mostly microscopic in size and can be seen with a microscope. It then lists the main types of microorganisms as fungi, bacteria, protozoa, algae, and viruses. The document also discusses how some microorganisms like lactobacilli and yeast can be good, protecting the body from diseases, while others like certain bacteria can cause illnesses. It concludes by stating that bacteria can be both good and bad for humans, as some are needed for digestion while others cause pathogenic infections.
This document outlines the course content for a course on microbial ecology. It covers 5 units: (1) microbes and ecological theory, (2) microorganisms in ecosystems, (3) physiological adaptations of microorganisms, (4) bioconversion, and (5) microbial interactions. Unit 1 defines key terms like ecosystem, habitat, niche, and discusses colonization and succession. It provides examples of succession on cellophane films, dung, and human hair. The overall objective of the course is to study microbial community dynamics and interactions between microbes, plants, animals and their environments.
Biology First Year Complete 14 ChaptersSeetal Daas
This document provides notes on biology for a first year class. It begins with definitions of biology and classifications of living organisms. It then discusses the key kingdoms - Monera, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Later sections cover branches of biology, biological methods, examples like malaria, concepts like cloning and hydroponics, and levels of biological organization from subatomic particles to the biosphere. It concludes by discussing biochemistry and the important properties of water for biological functions.
This document provides an introduction to the field of microbiology. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
1. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and viruses. Major groups include bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. Microorganisms play important roles in nature, industries, causing diseases, and more.
2. The discovery of microorganisms began in the 1600s with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's microscope observations of "animalcules". However, microbiology emerged as a science in the late 1800s with advances like germ theory and pure culture techniques.
3. Louis P
Scientific names are used to classify the enormous diversity of living organisms into a hierarchical system and study them systematically. There are three domains of life - Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya. Eukarya is further divided into five kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Classification arranges organisms into taxonomic groups like domain, kingdom, phylum etc based on their evolutionary relationships and similarities. This hierarchical classification system with scientific names helps comprehend the vast diversity of life on Earth.
The document provides an overview of various fields in biology. It discusses biology and its two main branches of botany and zoology. It then describes several specialized fields within biology including ichthyology, the study of fish; zoology and its branches; embryology, the study of development of embryos; botany, the study of plants; microbiology, the study of microorganisms; and fields like genetics, ecology, and molecular biology.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye, including bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. These microbes play key roles in processes like soil formation, nutrient cycling, and were the only life forms on Earth for billions of years. There are several branches of microbiology focused on different types of microbes. Important figures like van Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, Koch, and others helped develop microbiology and establish concepts like the germ theory of disease. Microbiology now informs diverse fields like medicine, biotechnology, and more.
Similar to A R E P O RT F R O M T H E A M E R I C A N AC A D E M Y.docx (20)
For this Portfolio Project, you will write a paper about John A.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Portfolio Project, you will write a paper about "John Adams" as well as any event in U.S. history that is relevant to your major area of study or of interest to you. You will write about John Adams from the perspective of another historical personality who lived at the same time as the person or event you are going to describe.
For your historical personality, try to select someone from an under-represented population (examples of possible perspectives include that of Anne Hutchinson, Pocahontas, or Sojourner Truth). This analysis is to make you think about how events/people’s actions were interpreted at the time.
Key Points::
Remember that you will be writing from the perspective of a historical person about another person or an event from a period of U.S. history up to Reconstruction. From your historical person’s perspective, provide a thorough summary of the person or event you’ve chosen to write about, including the incidents that took place and any key individuals involved or affected.
Address the general importance of the person or event in the context of U.S. history.
Now, explain specifically how the person or event changed “your” daily life—“you” being the historical persona you have adopted.
Think long-term: How will the person or the event you are describing make a long-term impact in the lives of people who are in the under-represented group to which your historical person/perspective belongs?
Paper Requirements:
Your paper must be four to six pages, not including the required references and title pages.
Use at least five sources, not including the textbook. Include a scholarly journal article. Include at least one
primary
source from those identified in the syllabus.
Definition of a Primary Source
: A primary source is any source, document or artifact that was created at the time of the event. It was usually created by someone who witnessed the event, lived during or even shortly afterwards, or somehow would have first-hand knowledge of that event. A secondary source, by contrast, is written by a historian or someone writing about the event after it happened.
Have an introduction and strong thesis statement. Make use of support and examples supporting your thesis
Finish with a forceful conclusion reiterating your main idea.
Format your paper according to the
CSU-Global Guide to Writing and APA Requirements
(Links to an external site.)
.
.
For this portfolio assignment, you are required to research and anal.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this portfolio assignment, you are required to research and analyze a TV program that ran between 1955 and 1965.
To successfully complete this essay, you will need to answer the following questions:
What is the background of this show? Explain what years it was on TV, describe the channel it aired on, the main characters, setting, etc..
What social issues and historical events were taking place at the time the show was being broadcast?
Did these issues affect the television show in any way?
Did the television show make an impact on popular culture?
Your thesis for the essay should attempt to answer this question:
Explain the cultural relevance of the show, given the information gathered from the show's background, and cultural history. How can television act as a reflection of the social, political, and cultural current events?
.
For this paper, discuss the similarities and differences of the .docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this paper, discuss the similarities and differences of the impacts of the causes of the 2008 Great Recession and the current world crisis with the CoVID-19 virus*
How did the regulations you've studied over the past few chapters and in the Financial Crisis Chapter (Chapter 12) prepare banks and other financial institutions to better weather the effects of the stay-at-home orders and other impacts of the pandemic? Are there other regulations that could be placed on the banking industry that would make sense and help them through these trying times?
*Note: I am not trying to downplay or minimize in any way the "human" impact or any other non-economic impacts of the virus; this paper is just focusing on one component of the costs, among the many different impacts (perhaps much more important impacts)
4 pages 4 resources
.
For this paper, discuss the similarities and differences of the impa.docxevonnehoggarth79783
The document asks the student to discuss the similarities and differences between the impacts of the causes of the 2008 Great Recession and the current CoVID-19 crisis. It prompts the student to consider how banking regulations studied in previous chapters prepared financial institutions for the pandemic's effects and whether additional regulations could help the banking industry weather challenging times. The document notes that the focus is solely on the economic impacts of the virus, not minimizing its human and other non-economic costs.
For this paper choose two mythological narratives that we have exami.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this paper choose two mythological narratives that we have examined so far in this course, or that you are otherwise personally familiar with. The two myths that you choose should have one or more elements in common, possibly including (but not limited to):
Overarching story (e.g., creation, flood) or story elements (e.g., descent into the underworld, establishment of divine rulership, rapture of mortals by gods, divine disguise)
Narrative structure (e.g., repetitive patterns, discursion)
Themes (e.g., love, jealousy, mortality, revenge, mutability/transformation, limits of human power/knowledge)
Characters (e.g., tricksters)
Cultural functions (e.g., reinforcement of societal norms, explanation of origins of society, explanation of natural phenomena, incorporation in ritual practices, entertainment)
Compare and contrast the two myths you choose, taking into consideration the various elements noted above and any others you deem relevant. (In making comparisons, you do not necessarily need to apply the specifically "comparativist" approach discussed in the course as one historical strand of mythological analysis.)
While you are welcome to reference external sources, this is not a research paper and the use of secondary sources is not required or expected. If you choose to examine a myth not discussed in the course, however, please indicate the source from which you have taken this.
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For this module, there is only one option. You are to begin to deve.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this module, there is only one option. You are to begin to develop your diversity consciousness by
identifying a current event in the news pertaining to social inequality in terms social class, gender, or racial ethnicity.
You are to
provide the link to this news article and analyze
the report including in your discussion the following:
What social inequality is being demonstrated in this current even? Describe it
What relationship is going on between the “majority” and “minority group.” Define who is the majority and who is the minority. Describe why you have identified the group as minority and majority.
Who is being marginalized in this event? How? Why do you believe they are being marginalized?
Is any group being “blamed” in this event? Is this “blame” at the individual level or the societal level – or both?
Who has the power in this situation? What is that power?
Who has the privilege in this situation? What is that privilege?
What suggestions do you have that would assist in addressing this social inequality?
What did you learn? (How did this develop your diversity consciousness?)
need to cite using apa and needs to be at least 250 words
.
For this Major Assignment 2, you will finalize your analysis in .docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Major Assignment 2, you will finalize your analysis in your Part 3, Results section, and finalize your presentation of results from the different data sources. Also, for this week, you will complete the Part 4, Trustworthiness and Summary section to finalize the last part of this Major Assignment 2.
To prepare for this Assignment:
· Review the social change articles found in this week’s Learning Resources.
Part 4: Trustworthiness and Summary
D. Trustworthiness—summarize across the different data sources and respond to the following:
o What themes are in common?
o What sources have different themes?
o Explain the trustworthiness of your findings, in terms of:
§ Credibility
§ Transferability
§ Dependability strategies
§ Confirmability
Summary
· Based on the results of your analyses, how would you answer the question: “What is the meaning of social change for Walden graduate students?”
· Self-Reflection—Has your own understanding of you as a positive social change agent changed? Explain your reasoning.
· Based on your review of the three articles on social change, which one is aligned with your interests regarding social change and why?
By Day 7
Submit
Parts 1, 2, 3, and 4 of your Major Assignment 2.
.
For this Final Visual Analysis Project, you will choose one website .docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Final Visual Analysis Project, you will choose one website that you visit frequently (it must be a professional business website, not your own personal website). Feel free to use websites such as Nike, Apple, Northwestern Mutual, etc. or a website that applies to your career choices.
Once you choose your website, you will begin to consider the effects the visual elements have on the viewers and
create a thesis statement and outline using the response elements 1-5 below.
For the Thesis & Outline TEMPLATE document click
here
.
APA title page, reference page, and formatting.
Use at least four academic/scholarly sources.
Use properly cited quotes and paraphrases when necessary.
Complete, polished, and error-free cohesive sentences.
Contains an introduction, body, and conclusion.
Sensory Response –
When analyzing the viewer’s sensory response to a particular visual, it is important to consider the visual elements that attract the eyes. Close your eyes when considering a visual. When you open your eyes, what are the first visual elements that you see? When analyzing a viewer’s Sensory Response, you may consider analyzing at least two of the following effects:
Colors
Lines
Shapes
Balance
Contrast
Perceptual Response –
When analyzing a viewer’s perception of visuals, it is important to consider the audience. Consider who is or is not attracted to this type of visual communication. When analyzing a viewer’s Perceptual Response, consider at least two of the following effects:
Target audience specifics (age, profession, gender, financial status, etc.)
Cultural familiarity elements (ethnicity, religious preference, social groups, etc)
Cognitive visuals (viewer’s memories, experiences, values, beliefs, etc.)
Technical Response –
When analyzing a viewer’s response to certain visuals, we need to consider the technical visual aspects that may affect perception. Describe how visuals affect the interpretation of the intended media communication message. Address specific technological elements that impact perception. When analyzing the Technical Response, consider the Laws of Perceptual Organization (similarity, proximity, continuity, common fate, etc), and at least two of the following types of visuals:
Drop-down menus
Hover-over highlighting
Animations
Quality of visuals
Emotional Response
– When analyzing a viewer’s Emotional Response, it is important to consider the targeted audience preferences and emotional intelligence. Discuss what the viewer might want to see and what type of visual presentation will set the tone for that response. When analyzing the Emotional Response, consider the effects of at least two of the following types of visuals:
Mood setting colors
Mood setting lighting
Persuasive images
Positioning of search or purchase buttons
Social media icons and share options
Ethical Response -
When analyzing a viewer’s Ethical Response, it is important to consider the ta.
For this essay, you will select one of the sources you have found th.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this essay, you will select one of the sources you have found through your preliminary research about your research topic (see Assignment 1.1). Which source you choose is up to you; however, it should be substantial enough that you will be able to talk about it at length, and intricate enough that it will keep you (and your reader) interested. For more info see attached document
.
For this discussion, you will address the following prompts. Keep in.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this discussion, you will address the following prompts. Keep in mind that the article or video you’ve chosen should not be about critical thinking, but should be about someone making a statement, claim, or argument related to Povetry & Income equality. One source should demonstrate good critical thinking skills and the other source should demonstrate the lack or absence of critical thinking skills. Personal examples should not be used.
1. Explain at least five elements of critical thinking that you found in the reading material.
2.Search the Internet, media, and find an example in which good critical thinking skills are being demonstrated by the author or speaker. Summarize the content and explain why you think it demonstrates good critical thinking skills.
3.Search the Internet, media, or and find an example in which the author or speaker lacks good critical thinking skills. Summarize the content and explain why you think it demonstrates the absence of good, critical thinking skills.
Your initial post should be at least 250 words in length, which should include a thorough response to each question.
Due midnight Thursday April 22,2020
.
For this discussion, research a recent science news event that h.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this discussion, research a recent science news event that has occurred in the last six months. The event should come from a well-known news source, such as ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox, NPR, PBS, BBC, National Geographic, The New York Times, and so on. Post a link to the news story, and in your initial post:
* Summarize your news story and its contributions to the science or STEM fields
* If your news event is overtly related to globalization, explain how this event contributes to global studies. If your news event does not directly relate to globalization, how could the science behind your event be applied to global studies?
.
For this Discussion, review the case Learning Resources and the .docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Discussion, review the case Learning Resources and the case study excerpt presented. Reflect on the case study excerpt and consider the therapy approaches you might take to assess, diagnose, and treat the patient’s health needs.
Case: An elderly widow who just lost her spouse.
Subjective: A patient presents to your primary care office today with chief complaint of insomnia. Patient is 75 YO with PMH of DM, HTN, and MDD. Her husband of 41 years passed away 10 months ago. Since then, she states her depression has gotten worse as well as her sleep habits. The patient has no previous history of depression prior to her husband’s death. She is awake, alert, and oriented x3. Patient normally sees PCP once or twice a year. Patient denies any suicidal ideations. Patient arrived at the office today by private vehicle. Patient currently takes the following medications:
•
Metformin 500mg BID
•
Januvia 100mg daily
•
Losartan 100mg daily
•
HCTZ 25mg daily
•
Sertraline 100mg daily
Current weight: 88 kg
Current height: 64 inches
Temp: 98.6 degrees F
BP: 132/86
By Day 3 of Week 7
Post
a response to each of the following:
• List three questions you might ask the patient if she were in your office. Provide a rationale for why you might ask these questions.
• Identify people in the patient’s life you would need to speak to or get feedback from to further assess the patient’s situation. Include specific questions you might ask these people and why.
• Explain what, if any, physical exams, and diagnostic tests would be appropriate for the patient and how the results would be used.
• List a differential diagnosis for the patient. Identify the one that you think is most likely and explain why.
• List two pharmacologic agents and their dosing that would be appropriate for the patient’s antidepressant therapy based on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. From a mechanism of action perspective, provide a rationale for why you might choose one agent over the other.
• For the drug therapy you select, identify any contraindications to use or alterations in dosing that may need to be considered based on the client’s ethnicity. Discuss why the contraindication/alteration you identify exists. That is, what would be problematic with the use of this drug in individuals of other ethnicities?
• Include any “check points” (i.e., follow-up data at Week 4, 8, 12, etc.), and indicate any therapeutic changes that you might make based on possible outcomes that may happen given your treatment options chosen.
Respond to the these discussions. All questions need to be addressed.
Discussion 2 Me
Treatment of a Patient with Insomnia
The case presented this week, is that of a 75-year-old widow who just lost her spouse 10-months ago. Th patient presents with chief complaints of insomnia. Past medical history of DM, HTN, and MDD is reported. Since the passing of her husband, she states her depression has gotten worse .
For this Discussion, give an example of how an event in one part.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Discussion, give an example of how an event in one part of the world can cause a response elsewhere in the world:
Reviewing the aspects of your event, analyze the cause and effect of global influences through direct or indirect means.
What aspects of diversity are evident in your event?
How can understanding diversity benefit a society?
.
For this discussion, consider the role of the LPN and the RN in .docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this discussion, consider the role of the LPN and the RN in the nursing process.
How would the LPN and RN collaborate to develop the nursing plan of care to ensure the patient is achieving their goal?
What are the role expectations for the LPN and RN in the nursing process?
Pls include two references and intext citation.
.
For this discussion, after you have viewed the videos on this topi.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this discussion, after you have viewed the videos on this topic posted in this week's assignment, please answer the questions posted with this week's discussion.
After posting your individual answers to questions, you are required to respond to 2 students answers with meaningful/thoughtful input on their comments. Your responses must be minimum of a paragraph with at least 3 sentences. Your comments to 2 students
Video #1: History of Homosexuality on Film -- https://youtu.be/SeDhMKd83r4
Video #2: The Gay Culture, According to Television -- https://youtu.be/EbdxRZJfRp4
Video #3: Top 10 Groundbreaking Moments for LGBTQ Characters on TV -- https://youtu.be/yXJAzPJFjQ8
Video #4: I'm Gay, But I'm not ... -- https://criticalmediaproject.org/im-gay-but-im-not/
Video #5: Acting Gay - One Word Cut -- https://youtu.be/a4jfiqiIy0A
LGBTQ+ Questions:
· Name some common stereotypes associated with LGBTQ community?
· What role does media play in establishing & perpetuating these stereotypes?
· Name 2 LGBTQ characters, 1 one from current show/movie; 1 from 10-15 years ago
. Are there differences in the characters?
. Have things changed? Evolved? Improved?
· Are LGBTQ characters portrayed differently than straight characters?
· Why do stories involving LGBTQ characters revolve around their sexuality or sexual orientation?
Acting Gay - One Word: What is your one-word association with the saying "Acting Gay"? Why did you choose this word?
Jarrett Kelley
LGBTQ Discussion
COLLAPSE
Top of Form
1. Some common stereotypes that coincide with the LGBTQ community are promiscuous, non-religious, flamboyant, mentally ill, high sex drives, etc.
2. The media plays a role in establishing these stereotypes because the general public is always watching these shows, reading the news, and listening to stories about different cultures and groups and media that they may not see or interact with in their lives. Therefore, media is an outlet to show these things in a easy way to gain knowledge about people without meeting people face-to-face apart of these groups when sometimes the stereotypes shown can't represent everyone in those groups.
3. Currently, in Marvel's Runaways, that ended in December, there are two lesbian superheros that share a kiss at the end of a season. Karolina, one of the characters, wants to get away from her childhood of religious upbringing and wants to pursue her own life with her superpower of glowing colors. Nico is shown with a Gothic appearance and can be seen as aggressive but down to earth as well. The War at Home was a television show on Fox and a character named Kenny, who is sixteen years old, is kicked out of his house by his parents after finding out he is gay.
a. There are some differences in the characters as Karolina is more flamboyant and colorful, compared to Nico who is goth and likes to remain strictly to business. Kenny is quiet most of the time about his life, especially about his gay crush until his p.
For this discussion choose one of the case studies listed bel.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this "discussion" choose
one
of the case studies listed below and mention which case study number you picked. After completing your readings, you should be able to identify the psychological disorder associated to each. After choosing one case study, identify the diagnosis, symptoms in your words and treatment plan for that diagnosis. Provide
in-text citations and references in APA format
to indicate where you are getting information from regarding diagnosis and treatment options).
This is the Case Study I chose:
Martin is a 21 year-old business major at a large university. Over the past few weeks his family and friends have noticed increasingly bizarre behaviors. On many occasions they’ve overheard him whispering in an agitated voice, even though there is no one nearby. Lately, he has refused to answer or make calls on his cell phone, claiming that if he does it will activate a deadly chip that was implanted in his brain by evil aliens. His parents have tried to get him to go with them to a psychiatrist for an evaluation, but he refuses. He has accused them on several occasions of conspiring with the aliens to have him killed so they can remove his brain and put it inside one of their own. He has stopped attended classes altogether. He is now so far behind in his coursework that he will fail if something doesn’t change very soon. Although Martin occasionally has a few beers with his friends, he’s never been known to abuse alcohol or use drugs. He does, however, have an estranged aunt who has been in and out of psychiatric hospitals over the years due to erratic and bizarre behavior.
The Psychological disorder is: SCHIZOPHRENIA
I have attached the reading as well.
Please Consider the following:
APA Format
Only sources from the text
250 words or more
Please let me know if you need anything else.
.
For this assignment, you will use what youve learned about symbolic.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this assignment, you will use what you've learned about symbolic interactionism to develop your own analysis.
Your assignment is to select a television program that you know contains social inequality or social class themes. In 3-5 pages make sure to provide the following:
Provide a brief introduction that includes the program's title, describes the type of program, and explains which social theme you are addressing
Describe and explain scenes that apply to the social theme.
Identify all observed body language, facial expressions, gestures, posture stances, modes of dress, nonverbal cues, symbols, and any other observed nonverbal forms of communication in the scenes.
Explain your interpretation of the meanings of the identified nonverbal communications and symbolism.
Summarize how these interpretations are important to the sociological understanding of your chosen social inequality or social class theme.
Suggest how your interpretation of the respective meanings might be generalized to society as a whole.
.
For this Assignment, you will research various perspectives of a mul.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Assignment, you will research various perspectives of a multicultural education issue and develop an advocacy plan to effectively communicate and advocate for a culturally responsive solution. During the development of your advocacy plan, synthesize and reflect on the major learning points that are applicable to leading culturally responsive social change in your context.
To prepare for this Assignment, review the issues you identified in the Equity Audit assignment.
Review Chapters 1–5 (pp. 1–64) of “An Introduction to Advocacy: Training Guide.”
Develop and submit your advocacy plan. To complete this Assignment, use the document below:
.
For this assignment, you will be studying a story from the Gospe.docxevonnehoggarth79783
Jesus visited Mary and Martha in Luke 10:38-42. The passage describes Mary sitting at Jesus' feet listening to his teaching while Martha was distracted by her household duties. Jesus affirmed Mary's choice to listen to him over working, showing the importance of prioritizing time with God over other tasks.
For this assignment, you will discuss how you see the Design Princip.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this assignment, you will discuss how you see the Design Principles used in a 2D print. You can select a 2D print from your home, workplace, or use the CSU Art Appreciation LibGuide to find a print in an online museum. Take a photograph of the print or save an image of the print, and include it in the worksheet.In Unit II, our assignment was to describe an artwork using the Visual Elements. We can think of the Design Principles as a way that the artist organized the Visual Elements. Instead of focusing on the small parts of the artwork (like line, shape, and mass) the Design Principles look at the whole artwork and how all the elements work together. Provide a detailed description of the design principles in your 2D print, using full and complete sentences. For Design Principles, make sure you describe how the artist used the ones in Chapter 5: unity and variety, balance, emphasis, repetition and rhythm, and scale and proportion. Questions to consider are included below:
Unity: what elements work together to make a harmonious whole?
Variety: What creates diversity?
Balance: Is it symmetrical or asymmetrical?
Emphasis: What is the focal point?
Repetition and rhythm: Is an element repeated?
Scale and proportion: Are the objects in proportion to each other?
Be sure to describe exactly where in the artwork you see each Principle. You'll want to describe each artwork using the terms we learned in this unit's reading. Remember to write in complete sentences and use proper grammar.
.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
A R E P O RT F R O M T H E A M E R I C A N AC A D E M Y.docx
1. A R E P O RT F R O M
T H E A M E R I C A N AC A D E M Y
O F M I C R O B I O LO G Y
HUMAN
MICROBIOME
ABOUT ASM FAQs
The American Academy of Microbiology
is the honorific branch of the American
Society for Microbiology, a non-profit
scientific society with almost 40,000
members. Fellows of the AAM have been
elected by their peers in recognition of
their outstanding contributions to the field
of microbiology. Through its colloquium
program, the AAM draws on the expertise
of these fellows to address critical issues
in microbiology.
FAQ reports are based on the
deliberations of 15-20 expert scientists
who gather for a day to develop
science-based answers to questions
the public might have about topics in
microbiology. The reports are reviewed
by all participants, and by outside experts,
and every effort is made to ensure that
the information is accurate and complete.
However, the report is not intended to
3. Leah Gibbons
Colloquium and Public
Outreach Program Assistant
Shannon E. Greene, Ph.D.
Colloquium Fellow
Ann Reid
Director
PARTICIPANTS:
Brett Finlay, Ph.D.
The University of British Columbia
Wendy Garrett, M.D., Ph.D.
Harvard University
Gary Huffnagle, Ph.D.
University of Michigan
Curtis Huttenhower, Ph.D.
Harvard University
Janet Jansson, Ph.D.
Lawrence Berkeley National Lab
Rob Knight, Ph.D.
University of Colorado at Boulder
Sarkis Mazmanian, Ph.D.
California Institute of Technology
David A. Mills, Ph.D.
University of California, Davis
4. Dave Relman, M.D.
Stanford University
Vincent Young, M.D., Ph.D.
University of Michigan
Written by Ann Reid and Shannon Greene
If you think back to your high school biology class, you
probably remember
learning about cells. You learned that the human body is made
up of many
different kinds of cells — skin cells, muscle cells, neurons, and
blood
cells, for example. You might even remember learning that each
of these
different kinds of cells develops and functions in accordance
with the
directions encoded by a single set of genes shared by all human
cells and
that the full set of these human genes is called the human
genome.
1) What is the human microbiome?
FAQ: MICROBIOME 1
5. What you almost certainly did not hear about was that
the human body also contains trillions of cells that are
not human, but microbial, each of which has its own
unique complement of genes. Together, these microbes
constitute the human microbiome and scientists are
now finding that they play an important role in human
health. If you need a little refresher course on the
definition of microbes, please take a look at the box
entitled “Wait a minute! What’s a microbe?”
The bottom line is that the human body hosts a
huge number of microbes of many different kinds.
These microbes play a role in many fundamental life
processes. The collection of microbes that constitute
the microbiome is not random; the human microbiome
is made up of a particular set of microbes that
complement each other and the human host. Systematic
study of the human microbiome is a very young
science and scientists are just beginning to address the
questions of what constitutes a normal microbiome,
how the microbiome changes over time, and how the
composition and activity of the microbiome affect health
and disease. What is already clear is that the effect of
the microbiome on its human host is profound and
multifaceted. Indeed, it is reasonable to characterize the
microbiome as a newly recognized organ, with a great
range of metabolic activities.
Wait a minute, what’s a microbe?
The term “microbe” is used to describe organisms
that are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
Microbes include bacteria, archaea, fungi, protists,
and viruses. Bacteria and archaea are single-celled
organisms that do not enclose their genetic material
in a nucleus. Although similar in appearance, at the
6. genetic level bacteria and archaea are only very
distantly related. Together, these two life forms
represent a huge proportion of the diversity of
life on Earth, each constituting a major branch, or
domain, of the tree of life. The third major branch,
the Eukarya, includes all the plants and animals you
can see (including humans). There are also many
microbes on the eukaryotic branch of the tree of
life, including some fungi (like yeast), some algae,
amoebas, slime molds and protozoa. Finally, viruses
are also considered microbes. Because viruses can
only reproduce by infecting cells and hijacking the
cell’s own machinery to make new viruses, there is
debate as to whether they can be considered alive
and they are not included in the universal tree of life.
Undoubtedly, though, viruses play many important,
even essential, roles in biological systems, so they
must be taken into account as important participants
in microbial communities.
Norman R. Pace, A Molecular View of Microbial
Diversity and the Biosphere. Science 276, 734 (1997)
BACTERIA
ARCHAEA
EUCARYA
root
E
M
17
16. iu
m
Po
rph
yraCo
sta
ria
Humans are here
Corn is here
A REPORT FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF
MICROBIOLOGY2
Definitions:
The term “human microbiome” is so new that there
is not yet a fully agreed upon definition. But names
matter. It’s worth exploring how scientists talk about the
microbial communities associated with the human body,
because when a new field of study is first emerging,
definitions are important. They ensure that everyone is
talking about the same thing.
Humans are not the only organisms that have a closely
associated microbial community. In fact, there are
microbial communities everywhere — in the soil, in the
ocean, in every building and water pipe, and on every
plant and animal. So the terms below can be used to
describe microbial communities wherever they are found.
17. n Microbiota: all the microorganisms that live in a
particular environment, for example, the human body.
The organisms living on humans were once called
the “microflora” but this term is now considered
incorrect and misleading, since it implies that humans
are colonized with tiny plants. The organisms that
constitute the human microbiota are not plants; they
are microbes of various kinds.
n Microbiome: This term has two definitions, one
genetic and one ecological.
n Definition 1: Just as the entire collection of
human genes is called the human genome,
this definition of microbiome means the
entire collection of genes found in all of the
microbes associated with a particular host. A
broader term, “metagenome” means the entire
collection of microbial genes found in a particular
environment. A “metagenome” may or may not
be host-associated — metagenomes have been
generated for sea water, showerheads, and hot
springs, among many other environments.
n Definition 2: Ecologists use the term “biome”
to describe the collection of plants and animals
that live in a particular environment. Thus
there are various terrestrial and aquatic biomes
(temperate grasslands, or tropical coral reefs,
for example) that are characterized by similar
climatic conditions and collections of organisms.
When microbiome is used in this sense, it refers
to the ecosystem made up of microbes within
and on the human body — that is, the collection
of microbes that live in the human ”habitat.”
18. 3FAQ: MICROBIOME
The microbial world may be largely invisible
to the human eye, but it is vast almost
beyond imagination. There are hundreds
of thousands of different kinds of bacteria
alone (leaving aside for the moment the other
kinds of microbes: archaea, viruses, fungi,
and protists), living in every conceivable
environment including deep under the seabed,
high in the clouds, in the near boiling hot
springs of Yellowstone National Park, and
in highly acidic drainage from old mines.
Billions of years before multicellular organisms
emerged, microbes had seemingly occupied every
possible ecological niche. The emergence of multicellular
organisms created an entirely new set of habitats — in and
on all those animals and plants. The kinds of partnerships
between animals and plants and their microbes are just
beginning to be explored, but the important thing to
recognize is that these associations are not random. Each
organism has evolved to have intimate associations with
19. particular kinds of microbes — perhaps not exactly the
same species in every case, but with characteristic types.
Humans are no exception; of the hundreds of thousands
of kinds of microbes on Earth, only about 1,000 have been
found associated with humans.
So there are hundreds of thousands of different kinds
of microbes in the world, and several hundred different
2) Where does our microbiome come from?
4 A REPORT FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF
MICROBIOLOGY
kinds are generally found in the average human
microbiome. How do we get the right ones? Where do
they come from?
The short answer is that we get most of them from
other humans. Newborn babies encounter microbes
for the first time during birth. As the baby is being
born, it is coated with microbes from the mother’s birth
canal. Babies that are born by caesarean section first
encounter microbes from the mother’s skin and from
other individuals who touch the baby. We don’t yet know
whether the mode of birth has a permanent effect on the
composition of one’s adult microbiome, but early results
suggest that the effects can be long-lasting. The next
source of microbes is breast milk. Surprised? Most of us
are used to thinking of microbes as dangerous, so finding
out that mother’s milk contains bacteria may be shocking.
But in fact the microbes in milk play an important and
very interesting role in the establishment of the baby’s
healthy microbiome (see box on breast milk).
20. Newborns also acquire microbes from their fathers,
siblings, and caregivers. As babies grow more mobile
and begin to explore the world, they encounter both
environmental microbes (like those that live in soil and
water), and microbes that have been shed by other
people, pets, and plants. They also ingest microbes
in food as their diet becomes more diverse. The vast
majority of environmental microbes will not become
part of the microbiome; they are not capable of living
in the habitats provided by the human body. Newly
encountered microbes that can live in humans have to
compete with the microbes that are already established
in and on the infant. An important concept to remember
is that of “selection” — as the human microbiome
becomes established, there is selection going on in
multiple directions; newly encountered microbes seek
an appropriate environment, which includes both the
conditions at the human body site, and the microbes
that are already there. At the same time, the human is
selecting for microbes that provide needed services and
do not cause harm. Microbes sense and interact with
specific markers that are secreted by cells or found on
their surfaces and use these cues to “decide” where
to grow. Thus, there is a role for human genetics in
the eventual structure of the microbiome. The exact
mechanisms that govern these selection processes are
also under active study, but they certainly include a great
deal of chemical communication, as well as physical
cues like temperature and moisture levels. In any event,
the set of microbes that ends up constituting a mature
microbiome is far from random — during the first two
years of life, there is a process of mutual selection
between the baby and the microbes it encounters.
Breast milk: baby’s first microbes
21. plus a snack for their friends
Breast milk has been fine-tuned over tens of thousands
of years of evolution to provide the ideal nutrition for
the developing infant. Replete with nutrients, vitamins,
and antibodies, it is the only food a baby needs for
the first six months of life. And now it turns out that
in addition to providing nutrition, breast milk also
supplies many different kinds of bacteria to populate
the baby’s gut and nutrients that are specifically used
by those bacteria to grow and thrive.
In addition to bacteria, breast milk also contains a
number of complex carbohydrates (oligosaccharides)
and glycosolated proteins that actually cannot be
digested by the infant. However, they are readily
consumed by bacteria of the Bifidobacterium
species. Bifidobacteria are the dominant species
in the infant microbiome and are thought to play a
role in coating the intestinal surface and preventing
the attachment of pathogens. Thus, breast milk
contains both probiotics (beneficial microbes) and
prebiotics (compounds that support the growth and
establishment of beneficial microbes).
FAQ: MICROBIOME 5
3) How big is
the microbiome?
NUMBER OF ORGANISMS:
The microbiome includes approximately 100 trillion
bacterial cells. That’s 100,000,000,000,000! You may have
heard that there are 10 times more microbial cells than
22. human cells in the human body, but that commonly-
cited ratio was based on an estimate of 10 trillion cells
in the human body. More recent estimates suggest
that the human body actually is made up of about 37
trillion human cells. Thus at any given time, the average
human body is carrying around 3 times more bacterial
cells than human ones. But the microbiome includes
more than just bacteria. Remember that it also includes
plenty of viruses, fungi, archaea, and single-celled
eukaryotes. There is general agreement that viruses
outnumber bacterial cells, maybe by as much as 5 to 1.
There are thought to be about 10-fold fewer fungal cells
than bacteria. All of these numbers are estimates and
because the microbiome is a dynamic community, the
numbers may change under different circumstances.
However, by whatever measure, the microbiome is big!
TOTAL VOLUME:
The microbiome is also pretty big in terms of the space
it occupies and its total weight. Even though each
individual member is microscopic, those large numbers
do add up. Most estimates put the weight of an average
human microbiome at about 2.5 pounds. In volume, if
consolidated, the microbiome would occupy about 3
pints. Keep in mind though, that the microbiome is not all
consolidated in one place, and the density of the various
microbial communities varies greatly from body site
to body site. Blood and lymphatic fluids are practically
sterile, while the intestines and colon contain one of the
densest known microbial communities on Earth. What
is the secret to that high density in the intestinal tract?
Surface area. The inner surfaces of the human intestine
and colon are highly convoluted. If you were to flatten
out the entire inner surface of the intestine, it would be
the size of a tennis court! Dense microbial communities
23. coat that entire surface and also fill the interior spaces of
the intestines, resulting in a very dense community.
SPECIES DIVERSITY:
The microbiome is also diverse — a normal
microbiome includes around a thousand different
species. Thinking back again to your high school
biology class, you might recall learning about three
basic kinds of bacteria: rods, spheres, and spirals.
Certainly bacteriologists developed and used a much
more detailed classification system that took into
account bacterial physiology and metabolism, but until
quite recently, known bacterial diversity was confined
to the approximately 5,000 bacterial species that could
be grown in the laboratory. Technological advances,
especially the capacity to sequence genetic material
from environmental samples, have allowed scientists
to explore the bacterial world at much greater depth
and resolution. Scientists now estimate that there are
at least a million species of bacteria and there may be
many more. Because bacteria are so small, and look
so similar under the microscope, it may be difficult
to grasp just how different these bacterial species
are from each other. But at the level of their genetic
blueprints, even quite similar looking bacteria can be
as different from one another as humans are from
roundworms (see “Looks can be deceiving”).
The extraordinary diversity of bacteria stems from the
fact that they have been evolving for over 3.5 billion
years, during which time they evolved the capacity
to live in wildly different environments. Just as polar
bears are adapted to the cold and cacti to the desert,
different kinds of bacteria have evolved to thrive
in virtually every environment on Earth including
places where there is no light, virtually no water, and
24. temperatures from well below zero to near boiling.
Given how different those environments are, it starts to
make sense that these bacteria must be very different
from each other.
The microbiome is big by almost any measure —
number of organisms, total volume, species diversity,
and genetic diversity.
HUMAN
BACTERIAL
FUNGAL
Kinds of cells in the human body
A REPORT FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF
MICROBIOLOGY6
Out of that vast diversity, only a tiny fraction is
adapted to live in and on people. So while the human
microbiome includes many hundreds of species of
bacteria, these represent only a small subset of all of
the different kinds of microbes on Earth.
The diversity of viral and fungal species in the human
microbiome has not yet been studied as thoroughly
as that of bacteria, but these populations also include
hundreds or perhaps even thousands of different species.
Bacteriophage — viruses that infect bacteria — are often
highly adapted to particular host bacterial species, so it
25. is possible that the viral component of the microbiome is
as, or even more, diverse than the bacterial.
GENETIC DIVERSITY:
The human genome — the full set of genetic blueprints
that each baby inherits from its parents — includes
about 20,000 genes. The collective genomes of all the
bacteria, fungi and viruses in one person’s microbiome
are thought to include as many as 8,000,000 genes. Thus
for every human gene, there are up to 300 non-human
genes. If you think of each gene as a set of instructions
to produce a protein that can do a particular task, this
means that the microbiome provides each of us with an
enormous reservoir of genetic capability that does not
have to be encoded by the human genome itself.
What does this mean in concrete terms? Let us take as an
example the digestion of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates
like sugar and starch are a class of chemical compounds
that are synthesized by all living organisms and are
extremely diverse. The plants that humans eat, for
example, contain carbohydrates with thousands of
different chemical structures. During digestion, those
carbohydrates are broken down to their simplest
components to provide us with energy. The human
genome, however, has fewer than 20 carbohydrate-
digesting enzymes. On their own, then, human cells
cannot break down most of the carbohydrates we
consume. By contrast, the genome of just one gut
bacterium — Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron — has over
260 such enzymes! It’s as if the human genome has
just a few Allen wrenches while the B. thetaiotaomicron
genome has a whole hardware store. Hundreds of other
gut microbes have genes for even more carbohydrate-
digesting enzymes. Carbohydrate digesting enzymes are
just one example of the genetic tools that humans gain
26. access to via the microbiome.
Bacterial genomes can change dramatically more
quickly than the human genome. Bacteria that are
distantly related can exchange genetic material
in several ways, allowing genes that provide a
selective advantage in a particular environment to
spread throughout mixed bacterial populations. This
phenomenon is why antibiotic resistance is such a
big problem; if one bacterium evolves resistance to
an antibiotic, the responsible gene can be transferred
to other bacteria, rendering them resistant too. While
antibiotic resistance may be an undesirable trait from
the human point of view, the capacity of bacteria to
share genes means that the microbiome can change
over time at the level of individual genes in addition to
changing mixtures of species. Theoretically, because
the microbiome can change much more quickly than
the human genome, the microbiome provides a much
more rapid means for humans to adapt and thrive
when environmental conditions change.
One example of such an adaptation is the discovery of a
gene for digesting seaweed in the microbiome of some
Japanese people. The gene is rarely found in human
microbiomes outside of Japan. Where did it come
from? It is usually found in environmental bacteria that
feed on seaweed in nature. At some point, one such
environmental bacterium, possibly while passing through
someone’s gut on a piece of seaweed, transferred
some of its genes to a normal bacterial constituent of
the human microbiome. The gene conferred the ability
to digest the seaweed that is a common part of the
Japanese diet, a capability that is now part of the genetic
capacity of the human microbiome in Japan.
27. Looks can be deceiving
They may look alike, but the two species of bacteria
Bacteriodes fragilis and Escherichia coli are about as similar
at the genetic level as humans and nematode worms.
Shared genes = 38%
Caenorhabditis
elegans
(nematode) Human
Bacteriodes
fragilis
Shared genes = 40%
Escherichia
coli
FAQ: MICROBIOME 7
4) Where is the microbiome located,
and what is it doing?
SKIN:
Microbes live on all skin surfaces as well as within
pores and sweat glands, and along hair shafts. The
composition of the skin microbiome varies from place
to place, with dry areas like the arms and legs having
fewer and different microbes than moist or oily areas
like the armpits or nasal creases. There are indications
that some commonly found skin microbes can help
28. keep away pathogens. For example, the frequently
found Staphylococcus epidermidis has been shown
to produce compounds that inhibit the related, but
pathogenic, Staphylococcus aureus.
MOUTH:
About 1000 microbial species have been found in the
human mouth, with any individual person usually
hosting 100-200 species. Like the skin, the mouth
contains many different microhabitats including tooth
surfaces, tongue, cheeks, and gums. Most of these
habitats are exposed to the air, but the pockets formed
where teeth emerge from the gums can be anaerobic
and permit the growth of microbes that can grow without
oxygen. In what is emerging as a common theme when
it comes to the human microbiome, the line between
oral health and diseases like dental caries (cavities)
and periodontal (gum) disease seems to depend on
maintaining a well-functioning community of microbes
that exists in harmony with the immune system. When
this balance is disrupted, pathogens can gain a foothold.
Wherever the human body is exposed to the outside world, there
is a
microbial community. That means that the entire surface of the
skin, and the
linings of the nasal passages, lungs, digestive and urogenital
tracts are all
home to microbial communities. Some of these communities are
extremely
dense and others more sparse. And because the living conditions
are very
29. different in these different sites, it is no surprise that each one
has its own
characteristic set of microbes. What the microbiome is doing
also varies
from place to place and many of its functions have not yet been
worked out.
Here are some examples of human microbiome communities:
A REPORT FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF
MICROBIOLOGY8
GUT:
The gut is the best-studied site in the human
microbiome and it contains the largest, densest, and
most diverse microbial community in the human
body. In fact, the microbial community in the human
large intestine, at up to 100 billion to one trillion
cells per milliliter, is among the densest microbial
ecosystems ever observed. The gut microbiome acts
as a highly efficient bioreactor, helping to extract
energy and nutrients from the food we eat. Like the
microbial communities elsewhere on the body, the
gut microbiome protects against pathogens and is in
constant communication with the immune system.
The gut microbiome is also important because of
the many chemical reactions that can be carried
out by microbes. Compounds that humans cannot
digest on their own can be broken down by microbes.
Evolutionarily, these microbial capabilities allowed
30. humans to benefit from a wider variety of foodstuffs.
The metabolic diversity of microbes also has a
contemporary impact. Gut microbes have been found
to affect the metabolism of some drugs, such as digoxin
(a heart medication often used to treat atrial fibrillation)
and acetaminophen (used to treat pain and fever). A
drug used to treat advanced colorectal cancer, called
irinotecan, or CPT-11, which is normally detoxified
by the liver, is turned back into its active form by gut
microbes, causing extensive cell death in the intestines
and thus severe diarrhea. Prescribing an additional
drug that inhibits the microbial enzyme responsible
for re-activation may allow cancer patients to be given
higher doses of the anticancer drug.
Finally, the gut microbiome has complex effects on
human metabolism and changes in its composition
have been linked to a number of diseases including
inflammatory bowel disease, Clostridium difficile
infections, autoimmune disorders, and even diabetes
and obesity. In most cases, the associations between
the microbiome and these diseases are just that —
associations. Many specific mechanisms have been
demonstrated in animal models, but it is not yet
known which are most important in humans. What is
certain is that the microbes of the gut are extremely
metabolically active in their own right and many of
the chemical compounds they secrete — known as
metabolites — pass through the gut wall into the
bloodstream and circulate throughout the body. There
are intriguing indications that the gut microbiome
may affect sleep patterns, mood, and other behaviors.
Again, the science is still young, but it is clear that the
microbiome has many systemic effects.
Do I still have to wash my hands
31. and brush my teeth?
YES! The vast majority of microbes that you encounter
in your daily life are harmless or even useful for
replenishing your microbiome. Many studies suggest
that increasing levels of hygiene in the past 100 years
may actually have deprived humans of contact with
the rich range of microbes that our immune systems
evolved to expect and contributed to the relatively
recent rise of allergies and other autoimmune disorders.
Be that as it may, even though a healthy microbiome
helps prevent pathogens from becoming established,
it’s still important to give your microbiome a hand
when it comes to avoiding microbes that might make
you sick. So, by all means, wash your hands frequently
and thoroughly (with warm water and regular soap),
especially when you have been in situations that would
be likely to expose you to pathogens or when you are
likely to come into contact with individuals who have
compromised immune systems. And yes, you should
still brush and floss your teeth just like the dentist
orders. There is no need to use special “antibacterial”
soaps or rinses. It is also important to avoid the
unnecessary use of antibiotics because they can disrupt
your microbial communities and potentially leave them
vulnerable to invasion by pathogens.
FAQ: MICROBIOME 9
Each individual’s microbiome carries out many similar
functions, but the jobs are not necessarily done by the
same microbial species in each person. Also, the species
carrying out the various functions in any given individual
may change over time. The situation is analogous to
32. any other kind of ecosystem — if you were to compare
forests from all over the world, you would find trees,
ground cover, birds, insects, and animals in each forest.
Some might be dominated by oak trees, others by
spruce, but the various ecological niches that make up
a forest would all be filled. Another useful analogy is
that of a city: every city has firefighters, police officers,
bus drivers, and garbage collectors, but different people
fill those roles in each city. In the human microbiome,
certain broad functional capabilities are always found,
but they are not always carried out by the same
microbial species. Some functions are quite specific —
for example, the ability to metabolize a particular drug
or digest a specific dietary compound — and these
functions are not found in everybody, or at all times.
The first five years of the Human Microbiome Project,
a research program funded by the National Institutes
of Health, examined the microbiomes of 242 healthy
individuals at 15 (male) to 18 (female) body sites and
found them to be quite diverse, both from individual
to individual and from body site to body site. What did
they find out?
n There is quite a bit of variation from
one person to the next, but one’s own
microbiome is fairly stable over time.
n The microbiomes of various body sites are similar
in everyone. Thus, your skin microbiome is
more similar to other people’s skin microbiomes
than to your own gut microbiome.
n When microbiomes are classified by the
bacterial species they contain, they look very
33. different from person to person. If they’re
classified by the presence of various functional
capabilities — the ability to digest different
kinds of carbohydrates, synthesize vitamins,
or break down toxins, for example — they
look more similar from person to person.
The Human Microbiome Project focused on healthy
individuals with the goal of establishing a baseline
description of a “normal” microbiome. Ongoing studies
are starting to look at whether particular microbiome
compositions correlate with particular diseases, disease
risks, and responses to drugs or other treatments.
Furthermore, microbiome studies are moving beyond
identification of “who’s there” — that is, microbial
species composition of the microbiome — to “what are
they doing?” — that is, understanding their functions.
Yes and no.
5) Is everyone’s microbiome the same?
Does everyone
have a microbial
“fingerprint”?
Will there soon come a time when forensic scientists
will be able to identify a suspect by matching crime
scene evidence to his or her microbiome? Or will
it be possible to tell where someone has traveled
by testing for characteristic microbes? At present,
these scenarios are purely hypothetical. We do not
yet know enough about how much variation there is
between individuals’ microbiomes, nor do we know
how much or how quickly microbiomes change
34. over time, to use such data in a forensic setting. So
it will probably be quite a while before microbiome
evidence appears in a real-life trial — although a study
that matched office workers with their computer
keyboards by analyzing the microbes transferred from
their skin to the keys did find its way onto a television
drama! Valid use of microbiome information for
forensic purposes will require a much larger reference
database than is currently available.
A REPORT FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF
MICROBIOLOGY10
It is worth noting that this natural succession of species
may proceed differently in an area where there has
been a lot of human activity. In such a situation, weeds,
pests, or other invasive species may arrive first and
out-compete the native plants. The area may never
regain the native mix of species.
During the first two years of life, infants gradually
acquire a microbiome that resembles the typical adult
microbiome. Soon after birth is a unique time when, for
example, rare microbes can become established — later
they would be out-competed. The recognition that these
early years are a crucial time for the establishment of the
microbiome has drawn new attention to practices that are
fairly recent human introductions — caesarean delivery,
formula feeding, and, especially, the use of antibiotics
early in life. The long-term impact of different practices
on the microbiome is unknown. Indeed, it appears that
the process of acquiring a functional microbiome is
quite robust as the vast majority of babies, whether born
vaginally or by caesarean, breastfed or not, do just fine.
35. Nevertheless, long-term and detailed surveys will be
required to determine whether such recent healthcare and
nutritional practices have unintended consequences that
are predictable, and possibly preventable.
After the adult-like microbiome is established, does it
change over time, or can it be intentionally changed?
On the simplest level, the answer to both questions is
yes. The microbiome can change as a result of changing
diet, treatment with antibiotics, or a move to a new
environment, whether these changes are intentionally
aimed at changing the microbiome or not.
The microbiome can change in different ways — some
species will be found at all times while others will come
and go. Certainly, the proportion of different species or
groups of species will change. Characteristic distributions
of certain groups of gut bacteria correlate closely with
obesity and the microbiomes of individuals who lose
weight will gradually come to resemble the microbiomes
more characteristic of lean people. What is harder to
measure, but certainly also true, is that the function of
the microbiome can change even if its composition
does not. This is because the microbes that make up the
microbiome are complex organisms with diverse genetic
capabilities. When conditions change, they will activate
different metabolic pathways. That, in turn, will affect the
microbes around them, and the human host.
Understanding how the microbiome can change over
time requires getting into the mindset of an ecologist.
Together a human host and its microbiome form an
ecosystem — actually, many interacting ecosystems.
Changes in any one member, or in the external
environment, ripple through the community in ways that
scientists are only beginning to unravel. The ultimate
36. goal is to understand what constitutes a healthy human-
microbiome ecosystem and then to develop the means
to keep it healthy and repair it when necessary.
The microbiome definitely changes dramatically between birth
and the age of about two
years, when it begins to look like a typical adult microbiome.
The situation is not unlike what
happens after a fire or volcanic eruption in a natural
environment; certain plants and animals are
predictably the first to colonize the cleared area, with others
arriving as the conditions change.
After some years, the cleared area will resemble areas around it
that were not disturbed.
6) Does the microbiome change over time?
FAQ: MICROBIOME 11
Any suggestion that complex conditions like
diabetes or obesity can be explained simply
by the composition of the microbiome is
likely to be misleading. There have been
many studies that show a correlation
between certain mixtures of microbes and
37. certain disease states, but evidence that
any particular microbial community actually
causes a particular disease is still limited.
What is clear, however, is that the microbiome
is probably an important factor in many
diseases, a factor that has been neglected
in the past. A better understanding of the
microbiome will deepen our perception of
human health and likely contribute to new
kinds of treatments and more effective
ways to deploy traditional treatments.
The early history of microbiology was dominated by the
quest to identify the microbes responsible for disease,
and find ways to stop them. As far back as 1890, the
microbiologist Robert Koch and colleagues advanced
the then-revolutionary idea that particular microbes
caused particular diseases. The implications of this
insight were profound. Identification and study of
causative agents was the first step in developing ways
to prevent and cure infectious diseases, certainly one of
the public health triumphs of the 20th century.
Koch developed a set of postulates laying out the
conditions that had to be fulfilled in order for a disease
38. to be attributed to a particular microbe. Still used today,
Koch’s postulates rest on the assumptions that each
disease can be attributed to a particular microbe and
that disease-causing microbes are not found in healthy
individuals. The “one microbe-one disease” concept is
so strong that many diseases are actually named for
the microbe that causes them — for example, polio
is caused by the polio virus and strep throat by the
bacterium Streptococcus.
Koch’s postulate #1:
The microorganism must be found in abundance in all
organisms suffering from the disease, but should not
be found in healthy organisms.
Koch’s postulate #2:
The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased
organism and grown in pure culture.
Koch’s postulate #3:
The cultured microorganism should cause disease
when introduced into a healthy organism.
Koch’s postulate #4:
The microorganism must be re-isolated from the
inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as
being identical to the original specific causative agent.
If you read Koch’s postulates with an awareness of the
magnitude and multiple roles of the microbiome, you
can see that their ability to describe the relationship
between microbes and disease has become less
universal. What is becoming clear is that not all
7) What is the relationship between
the microbiome, health, and disease?
39. A REPORT FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF
MICROBIOLOGY12
microbially-associated diseases are “infectious” in
the traditional sense. Some diseases are caused
by microbes that are normal constituents of the
microbiome, so they are found in both healthy and
diseased individuals. E. coli, yeast, Staphylococcus
aureus, and Clostridium difficile are all examples
of potential pathogens that can be found in healthy
individuals, but cause disease only when the
microbiome is disturbed or the microbes gain access
to a part of the body where they do not normally
live. The role of the microbiome in crowding out or
otherwise inhibiting pathogens is another reason that
mere presence of a pathogen does not necessarily
mean disease. A pathogen may not cause disease if it
is introduced in the context of a healthy microbiome,
or, conversely, a dramatically smaller dose of the
pathogen may result in disease if the microbiome
is disturbed. For example, the infectious dose of
Salmonella is one-thousand fold lower for individuals
who are on antibiotics.
Some diseases may be the result of disturbance
of the microbial “community” that makes up the
microbiome. In this case, the symptoms are not caused
by a particular microbe, but by altered proportions of
various normal constituents or altered behaviors of
the normal constituents under conditions of stress. For
example, the discomfort that many people experience
after taking broad-spectrum antibiotics is the result of
a disturbance of the normal microbial community in
40. the gut that leads to gastrointestinal inflammation and
diarrhea, and sometimes sets the stage for infections
by pathogens like Clostridium difficile.
A corollary of the fact that human health depends
on maintaining a good relationship with a complex
set of microbes is the recognition that microbes can
contribute to disease in previously unexpected ways.
Many human diseases in which microbes were not
previously thought to play a role have recently been
shown, largely in animal models, to be at least partially
influenced by the microbiome. Diseases as different
as asthma, diabetes, obesity, cancer, and heart disease
have been shown to be influenced by the microbiome.
In mice, there are even intriguing, if very preliminary,
indications that the microbiome may play a role in
conditions like anxiety and insomnia.
The gut microbiome is not the only one with a role in
disease and health; the microbiomes of the mouth, skin,
vagina, lungs, and stomach are also altered in various
disease states. The microbes in these body sites are not
simply passive bystanders but are playing active roles
in the dynamic balance between health and disease. In
the majority of cases, the underlying mechanisms by
which the microbiome affects health have not yet been
determined, but highly suggestive correlations have
been found. Research on model organisms, especially
mice, is ongoing in an attempt to better understand
exactly what is going on.
FAQ: MICROBIOME 13
41. Complicating the effort to understand the role of
the microbiome in many non-infectious diseases
is the fact that most such conditions are multi-
factorial. Changes in the microbiome may
be a major contributor in some patients
or under certain conditions, but not
all. Obesity, for example, has genetic,
environmental, hormonal, neurological
and many other contributing factors, in
addition to the role of the microbiome.
Nevertheless, obesity is a disease in which
the study of the microbiome could have
profound implications for human health.
Much of what scientists know, or suspect,
about the roles of the human microbiome
in metabolism come from studies in mice.
Many experiments can be done with mice
that would be impossible or unethical to
impose on humans. For example, mice
can be raised without a microbiome (such
mice are called “germ-free”); microbes can
be introduced in a defined manner (these
mice are called “gnotobiotic” to signify that the
42. composition of their microbiomes is precisely
known); microbiomes can be swapped between
mice; and diet can be completely controlled.
Studies in mice suggest that there are very strong
feedback loops connecting diet, the microbiome,
and metabolism. Among the results that point to
important roles for the microbiome in obesity and
other metabolic conditions are:
n Mice that are maintained in the germ-free state
are leaner than mice with microbiomes even
when they are fed more food or a high-fat,
high-sugar diet. Without a microbiome, much
of the food passes through undigested.
8) Spotlight on the role of
the gut microbiome in digestion
and metabolism
A REPORT FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF
MICROBIOLOGY14
n Germ-free mice that are inoculated with the
microbiome of an obese mouse or human
donor gain more fat than those that receive the
microbiome of a lean control, even when both
receive the same amount of food. Co-housing
these two groups of mice allows bacteria from the
lean donor to invade the obesity-associated gut
microbiome, blocking the increase in body fat.
43. n Microbiome composition changes within a
single day when mice or humans are fed high-fat
diets. When the resultant “high-fat” microbiome
is transferred into a germ-free mouse, that
mouse will be fatter than a littermate given the
microbiome of an adult on a normal diet.
These and many other observations in mice,
humans, and other animals suggest not only that the
microbiome has a major effect on body fat, but that
it is possible to shift the microbiome in ways that
either encourage or discourage the accumulation of
fat. It should be noted, however, that at this point,
most studies, even in mice, are looking at correlations
between gut microbiome composition and factors
like weight, insulin sensitivity, and other metabolic
measures. And, of course, while mice are excellent
model organisms for understanding human health,
they are not perfect and it is not clear how the human
and mouse microbiomes will differ in their effects
on the host’s health and metabolism. Exactly how
the microbiome exerts these effects is the subject
of intense study as is the question of whether the
composition of the human microbiome can easily
be shifted from one state to another. The prospects,
however, are intriguing.
In addition to obesity, studies examining the gut
microbiome in humans have found a number of
interesting correlations between microbiome
composition and several diseases related to
inflammation of the gut including inflammatory bowel
and Crohn’s diseases. Disorders related to auto-immune
reactions, including celiac disease, asthma, and
44. other allergies have also been related to differences
in microbiomes, or correlated to factors that affect
microbiome composition like vaginal vs. caesarean
section birth, or extent of antibiotic exposure. Disruption
of the gut microbiome by antibiotics has been
implicated in the development of persistent Clostridium
difficile infections, but not everyone who takes high
dose antibiotics develops this condition. A great deal
of work remains to be done to determine the role that
particular microbes or combinations of microbes play
in any or all of these conditions. The answers are likely
to be complicated because the microbiome does not
exist in a vacuum and no two human microbiomes are
the same. There is a dynamic relationship between the
microbiome and many other factors. One’s individual
genetic make-up may affect which microbes your
body will encourage, tolerate, or reject. Major changes
in diet do not only affect the microbiome — they
affect the host as well, setting up a complex web of
feedback interactions. Environmental factors like
exposure to antibiotics and other drugs, or moving to
a new geographic location, may also change or even
destabilize the microbiome.
FAQ: MICROBIOME 15
9) How can I take care
of my microbial partners?
Now that you know about the trillions of
microbes that call you home, and play such
an important role in health, you may be
45. wondering what you can do to keep them
happy. The answer, for the moment, is that
we just don’t yet know what characterizes
a healthy microbiome, or how our behavior
affects it. There are a few things we can say,
though. Broad-spectrum antibiotics can have a
profound and often long-lasting effect on the
microbiome. They can also be life-savers. The
key is to use antibiotics only when necessary.
We also know for certain that your diet can affect your
microbiome in two ways. First, just as we say that
a pregnant woman is eating for two, it is absolutely
true that you are eating for yourself and trillions of
microbes. The foods you consume are also feeding
your microbes. Some foods encourage the growth
of microbes that are associated with good health —
these foods contain certain compounds, like specific
carbohydrates, that “feed” desirable microbes. The
compounds are called “prebiotics.” Thus, one of the
ways that a diet rich in fiber, fruits, and vegetables
contributes to good health is that it also encourages
a healthy microbiome. Second, consuming microbes
can change your GI microbiota. Fermented foods
like yogurt, cheese, and sauerkraut actually contain
microbes that are similar to those found in your GI
46. tract. There are also supplements that are made up
solely of microbes, called “probiotics.” There is lots
of evidence that probiotics can contribute to health,
but caution is called for. Probiotics are not regulated
like drugs, so labels may not accurately reflect which
microbes are present, whether they are viable, or
how many are in a serving. For many prebiotics and
probiotics, the kind of rigorous clinical testing that
establishes whether a drug is effective, how much
is needed, and how often it should be taken has
not been performed. Measuring health and testing
health claims can be a challenge given that medical
knowledge about what defines “healthy” pales in
comparison to what is known about disease. Probiotics
are sometimes marketed as undifferentiated “cure-
alls,” as if any microbe or mixture of microbes will be
helpful for any condition. But probiotics are probably
more analogous to any other kind of therapeutics, like
drugs. After all, you don’t just take a random drug if
you are ill; you seek out the right drug for that disease
or symptom. Over time, clinical testing will reveal
which probiotics are effective for which conditions,
in which patients. Indeed, some specific mixtures of
microbes have already demonstrated effectiveness in
treating irritable bowel syndrome and ulcerative colitis
in randomized clinical trials.
As scientists and physicians learn more about the
microbiome, the activities of pre- and probiotics
will be better understood and it will be possible
to apply more rigorous standards. Then it will be
possible to give the public better guidance on how
best to care for their microbiomes. Study of the
human microbiome is a rapidly advancing field of
science with new and exciting discoveries emerging
constantly. You can be sure that you’ll be hearing
47. more and more about the essential microbial
partners that make up your microbiome.
A REPORT FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF
MICROBIOLOGY16
FAQ: MICROBIOME
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