This document summarizes and critiques a paper arguing that music exemplifies nonrepresentational experience without objective meaning. It makes the following key points:
1) The paper rejects the notion that music has an exclusively musical meaning, instead arguing that music's lack of objective meaning is simply a lack of objective meaning.
2) It proposes that music is a self-directed practice contingent on engaging with sound for its own sake, subverting objective significance. This allows for consciousness of sound itself.
3) Research in music psychology provides empirical support, accounting for music experience with nonrepresentational psychological structures lacking extrinsic content.
4) In conclusion, music can exemplify nonrepresentational experience without a representational
Understanding Music_ Philosophy and Interpretation ( PDFDrive ).pdfOliver Ramos
This document provides an introduction and overview to the author's book on understanding music. It discusses how aesthetics emerged as a field of philosophy in the 18th century and how music was incorporated into aesthetics through concepts like imitation and expression. However, the author argues these concepts were not well defined. The summary then discusses how the author aims to provide a foundation for musical aesthetics by examining the nature of sound perception and musical elements like melody, rhythm and harmony. It also discusses how music abstracts sounds and imposes its own order independent of physical causes, allowing for metaphorical perception of musical movement.
Music is an art form that uses sound as its medium. Common elements of music include pitch, rhythm, dynamics, timbre, and texture. The definition and significance of music varies by culture and context, ranging from organized compositions to improvisational forms that can be classified as genres. While music involves order and harmony, some philosophers believe any sound could be considered music.
Here are 3 questions for discussion based on the reading:
1. How might Adler's separation of musicology into historical and systematic approaches apply to the study of popular music? What are the benefits and limitations of each approach?
2. What are the implications of Eco, Foucault, and Barthes' ideas about authorship and the open work for how meaning is created and interpreted in popular music? How might this challenge traditional notions of musical analysis?
3. What role do social and cultural contexts play in interpreting popular music according to these theoretical perspectives? How might understanding these contexts enhance musical analysis?
At First, I Tried To Focus On My Own Rhythm As I Did WhileKimberly Jones
1. Vygotsky believed that social interaction and cultural factors strongly influence cognitive development, with children able to develop higher mental functions through guided interactions with more knowledgeable others.
2. A key concept is the zone of proximal development, which refers to the difference between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance and collaboration.
3. Scaffolding within the zone of proximal development allows children to solve problems and internalize new strategies that can then be used independently, supporting their cognitive growth.
This book examines music's role in everyday social life through a series of ethnographic studies. It finds that music actively structures social situations and experiences in ways that are often overlooked. The introduction describes an encounter where a market manager from Nigeria emphasized how music was integrated into everyday tasks and social life in his home country. This highlighted how Western societies may underestimate music's social influence. The book aims to document music's many uses in daily life and develop a theory of its active role in constructing personal and social worlds. It is based on interviews with women in the US and UK, and ethnographic studies of aerobics classes, karaoke nights, music therapy, and background music in retail settings.
Peter kivy its only music so whats to understandRolando Almeida
This document discusses different perspectives on what it means to "understand music." It examines three approaches: 1) Understanding music the way one understands a language by paraphrasing its elements, but dismisses this since music lacks semantic content. 2) Understanding music's internal workings the way one understands how a clock functions, but this breaks down because music lacks a clear purpose like timekeeping. 3) Understanding music in terms of how it produces enjoyment, but this is refuted by the fact that enjoyment is tied to understanding, not separate from it like a drug inducing a high. The document ultimately questions what music theorists and experts really convey about music through their technical analyses and descriptions.
What Kind of Experience is Musical ExperienceVitor Guerreiro
The document discusses Nick Zangwill's book "Music and Aesthetic Reality" which argues that musical experience involves the perception of purely aesthetic properties in sound rather than emotions. Zangwill's formalist view is that music has intrinsic aesthetic value independent of any representational or expressive functions, and that music with extra-musical purposes derives value from its ability to exhibit free beauty. The review discusses issues with Zangwill's conception of musical experience and formal aesthetic properties.
Understanding Music_ Philosophy and Interpretation ( PDFDrive ).pdfOliver Ramos
This document provides an introduction and overview to the author's book on understanding music. It discusses how aesthetics emerged as a field of philosophy in the 18th century and how music was incorporated into aesthetics through concepts like imitation and expression. However, the author argues these concepts were not well defined. The summary then discusses how the author aims to provide a foundation for musical aesthetics by examining the nature of sound perception and musical elements like melody, rhythm and harmony. It also discusses how music abstracts sounds and imposes its own order independent of physical causes, allowing for metaphorical perception of musical movement.
Music is an art form that uses sound as its medium. Common elements of music include pitch, rhythm, dynamics, timbre, and texture. The definition and significance of music varies by culture and context, ranging from organized compositions to improvisational forms that can be classified as genres. While music involves order and harmony, some philosophers believe any sound could be considered music.
Here are 3 questions for discussion based on the reading:
1. How might Adler's separation of musicology into historical and systematic approaches apply to the study of popular music? What are the benefits and limitations of each approach?
2. What are the implications of Eco, Foucault, and Barthes' ideas about authorship and the open work for how meaning is created and interpreted in popular music? How might this challenge traditional notions of musical analysis?
3. What role do social and cultural contexts play in interpreting popular music according to these theoretical perspectives? How might understanding these contexts enhance musical analysis?
At First, I Tried To Focus On My Own Rhythm As I Did WhileKimberly Jones
1. Vygotsky believed that social interaction and cultural factors strongly influence cognitive development, with children able to develop higher mental functions through guided interactions with more knowledgeable others.
2. A key concept is the zone of proximal development, which refers to the difference between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance and collaboration.
3. Scaffolding within the zone of proximal development allows children to solve problems and internalize new strategies that can then be used independently, supporting their cognitive growth.
This book examines music's role in everyday social life through a series of ethnographic studies. It finds that music actively structures social situations and experiences in ways that are often overlooked. The introduction describes an encounter where a market manager from Nigeria emphasized how music was integrated into everyday tasks and social life in his home country. This highlighted how Western societies may underestimate music's social influence. The book aims to document music's many uses in daily life and develop a theory of its active role in constructing personal and social worlds. It is based on interviews with women in the US and UK, and ethnographic studies of aerobics classes, karaoke nights, music therapy, and background music in retail settings.
Peter kivy its only music so whats to understandRolando Almeida
This document discusses different perspectives on what it means to "understand music." It examines three approaches: 1) Understanding music the way one understands a language by paraphrasing its elements, but dismisses this since music lacks semantic content. 2) Understanding music's internal workings the way one understands how a clock functions, but this breaks down because music lacks a clear purpose like timekeeping. 3) Understanding music in terms of how it produces enjoyment, but this is refuted by the fact that enjoyment is tied to understanding, not separate from it like a drug inducing a high. The document ultimately questions what music theorists and experts really convey about music through their technical analyses and descriptions.
What Kind of Experience is Musical ExperienceVitor Guerreiro
The document discusses Nick Zangwill's book "Music and Aesthetic Reality" which argues that musical experience involves the perception of purely aesthetic properties in sound rather than emotions. Zangwill's formalist view is that music has intrinsic aesthetic value independent of any representational or expressive functions, and that music with extra-musical purposes derives value from its ability to exhibit free beauty. The review discusses issues with Zangwill's conception of musical experience and formal aesthetic properties.
This document summarizes an article that discusses the shift in perspectives on the power of music from ancient Greek philosophers to Baroque era thinkers. It describes the ancient Greek views, including Pythagoras' "Music of the Spheres" theory that numbers and ratios explained the cosmos. Plato took a more anthropological view, discussing music's effects on human senses and emotions. The article argues this shift reflected changing views from a "cosmological" perspective justifying music in terms of the cosmos, to an "anthropological" perspective focusing on human needs and experiences.
AN ARCHAEOLOGY OF LISTENING A TEMPORAL STRATOPHONY OF MUSICAL DISCOURSESRenee Lewis
This paper discusses the idea of developing an "archaeology of listening" to understand the mechanisms of change and continuity in musical discourses over time. An archaeology of listening would study a community's sound objects and listening practices to observe how listening transforms according to prevailing musical discourses. The author argues that listening is music's ontological foundation and that organized sound is produced for and through listening. By analyzing the organization of music separately from the organization of listening, it may be possible to observe the unfolding of perceptual listening processes and how listening becomes an archaeological object itself. Developing an archaeology of listening could provide insights into the continuities and discontinuities of musical discourses over historical time periods.
The document discusses the definition and history of music. It provides a broad definition of music as organized sound and discusses how music involves elements such as pitch, rhythm, and timbre. It also briefly outlines the history of music and how it has evolved across different cultures over time.
Audio is an art form defined by the medium of silence and sound. A track is typically considered the smallest standalone piece of music, especially in performance. The core elements of music are pitch, beat, tempo, meter, articulation, dynamics, texture, and timbre. Music can be defined as the production, critique, study of history, and artistic sharing of sound. The definition and role of music varies by culture and social context, ranging from composed pieces to improvisational or aleatoric styles. Music can be classified as a skill, fine art, or auditory art and can be experienced live, as part of a work, recorded, or integral to a lifestyle.
In this book there has been analysis made about the philosophical outlook of Kierkegaard's Philosophy in relation to the notions of live music. Interesting aspect that Senyshyn has drawn is connecting the philosophy of Kierkegaard in live music. There has been discussion made by Senyshyn as to how subjectivity and aesthetics provides insights into the live music performance by the artist
This assignment explores music as a means of therapy for people living with dementia. Looking at the neurophysiological side of the disease, music therapy could be utilised as a way of changing behaviour that could be labelled as disruptive or unacceptable to the rest of society. Considering the important role that music plays in the lives of many people, cultures and societies and the need of people living with dementia to connect, engage, grow and flourish, music can and should play a much larger role in creating a life worth living for people with dementia. Music should be made part of the person-centred approach to care and not be simply used to entertain, distract or to blur out background sounds. The difficulty of capturing the true emotional spectrum of what music can do for and to the human soul is clear in the research. The practical implementation of music in the care setting should be carefully considered to take into consideration the individuality of each person living with dementia, as well as those who care for them.
This document discusses theories of musical meaning from various musicologists. It outlines Guido Adler's distinction between historical and systematic musicology. It discusses Eduard Hanslick's view that music does not directly impact extra-musical feelings. It also summarizes Mayer's triadic model of musical meaning, which examines the stimulus, what it refers to, and who understands it. Mayer believes meaning arises from awareness of implications of a musical stimulus. The document also discusses absolutist and referentialist views of musical meaning.
This document discusses the history of thought around the origins and nature of music from pre-1700 to the early 1900s. Key points discussed include:
- In the 17th century, music was thought to have divine origins but lost its perfection after the Biblical fall of man. Pythagoras' theory of the "music of the spheres" influenced this view.
- Enlightenment thinkers like Rameau viewed music through mathematical and scientific lenses, seeking its origins in nature. Mattheson challenged this rationalism with a focus on music's sensual pleasures.
- Wagner had immense influence on later artists and thinkers through his synthesis of music, drama, and language in opera. His work influenced symbol
Music can be defined as the art of arranging sounds in time. It typically involves melody, harmony, rhythm, dynamics, and timbre. Music varies across cultures and contexts, from strictly composed pieces to improvised or random styles. It can be experienced live, included in other works, or recorded. For many people around the world, music is an integral part of their lives.
CATC / PhD Presentation - Brussels June 2015 (G. Tordzro)RMBorders
This document discusses potential parallels between traditional social science research methods and pan-African arts practices. It explores how arts-based research is developing new research tools and challenges traditional disciplines. The author is interested in the "creative, expressive and communicative 'affordances'" that pan-African arts, like music, offer to thinking about social science research processes, strategies, design, and presentation of findings. The document considers if everyday practices in African music making can inform traditional social research methods from a phenomenological perspective.
Music can be defined as organized sound that follows observable patterns. While cultural variations exist, music utilizes the properties of sound as perceived by humans and animals. Music is formulated sound that sometimes aims to manipulate listeners' emotions, as seen in movie soundtracks. Definitions of music have ranged from tones organized as melodies and harmonies to any sounds one can hear, as 20th century composers challenged what constituted music. There is no universal definition of what does and does not qualify as music across cultures.
The student reflects on what they learned in their Humanities 101 course over the semester. They discuss how the course challenged some of their preconceived notions about the humanities and exposed them to new ways of thinking. The student also realized the importance of being open-minded and considering different perspectives on important issues. Overall, the course helped the student gain a broader understanding of the human experience and how to think critically.
When I first started Humanities 101, I'll admit I wasn't too excited about it. As someone who majored in science and tech in high school, the humanities wasn't really my thing.
This document is a research proposal for a senior project that will examine the concepts of authenticity and hybridity in world music. The author proposes to write a 25+ page research paper utilizing peer-reviewed sources to cover background information on the origins of world music as a genre and perspectives from scholars, industry personnel, and musicians. The author hypothesizes that some degree of hybridity is always present in world music and that perceptions of authenticity influence how different levels of hybridity are received. The proposal provides an annotated bibliography summarizing several academic sources that will inform the author's analysis of these key concepts in world music.
This document provides an introduction and overview of the book "Choral Conducting and the Construction of Meaning". It summarizes that:
1) The book examines how gestural languages of choral conducting and associated body languages of choirs are integral to how musicians understand the music and their own identities.
2) It draws on theories of music and identity, performance studies, choral conducting literature, and nonverbal communication to analyze how musical style, social meanings, and performer identity are constructed in choral performance.
3) The book aims to theorize these relationships and draw practical conclusions for transferring conducting skills between musical idioms. It seeks to bridge critical musicology and choral practice.
Nhemamusasa From ShonaThe Girl From Ipanemamueve.docxvannagoforth
Nhemamusasa From Shona
The Girl From Ipanema
mueve la cintura mulata lyrics
La Maria Chuchena
Patria Borinquena
CHAPTER 1 •
Thinking about Music
if you can speak you can sing; if you can walk you can dance.
(Zimbabwean Shona proverb)
People make music meaningful and useful in their lives. That statement
encapsulates much of what ethnomusicologists are interested in and
offers a framing perspective for many ways of thinking both about peo-
ple and about music all over the world. In this chapter I shall explore
each word in the statement with two purposes in mind: to suggest new
ways you might think about music that you regularly hear, and to begin
to expand your musical horizon. I shall also begin by speaking briefly
about the dissemination of music and the ways it is taught and learned,
because what you think about music has been influenced by how you
have learned it.
PEOPLE
Music Makers. Who makes music in our familiar world? Music mak-
ers are individuals and groups, adults and children, female and male,
amateurs and professionals. They are people who make music only for
themselves, such as shower singers or secretly-sing-along-with-the-
radio types, and they are performers, people who make music pur-
posefully for others. They are people who make music because they are
required to and people who do so simply from desire. Some music mak-
ers study seriously, while others are content to make music however
they can, without special effort.
To think about music makers globally, you might ask whether music
makers are regarded in any particular way in a particular place. At one
end of a spectrum, some societies expect people who make music to
1
2 = THINKING MUSICALLY
be specialists, born into the role or endowed with a special capacity.
At the other end of that spectrum, in some societies it is assumed that
the practice of music is a human capacity and that all people will
express themselves musically as a normal part of life. Particularly in
situations where orality is a viable mode for transmission of knowl-
edge (teaching by sounding), being a musician-or reciter, as in figure
1.1-is an option for visually impaired individuals. in figure 1.1 a
sighted sheikh, in company with two blind reciters, participates in a
performance of Qur'anic recitation in Egypt. There, where the aurality
of the tradition (learning by hearing) has been culturally affirmed,
becoming a reciter -has been a potential profession for blind men.
Through a long period of premodem Japanese history, blind players
of shamisen and koto (Fig. 1.2) held a governmentally sanctioned
monopology on performing and teaching of orally transmitted reper-
tories for their instruments.
FIGURE 1.1 Egyptian reciter. Multiple reciters of the Qur' an, accompanied by
friends and relatives, participate in a performance at a gathering in Egypt-possibly
the opening of a conference. That the illustrious Sheikh Mustafa Ismail ...
New Age music aims to create tranquil and meditative atmospheres through instrumental and vocal styles. It emerged in the 1970s alongside counterculture movements and incorporated elements of meditation, Eastern religions, nature worship, and channeling. New Age music emphasizes anonymity and erasing distinctions between artists and listeners to foster a sense of communal spirituality and oneness with nature. However, it also commercializes and domesticates nature through its analogies between music and the natural world.
The document discusses Helen Keller's quotes about how avoiding danger and pessimism limits human potential and progress. It then summarizes a framework called Synergy Arts Mosaic that utilizes various art forms like music, art, drama and dance to help with personal transformation, understanding, hope and health. The framework is designed to help individuals progress to higher levels of consciousness and enlightenment through experiencing different art forms in a synergistic way.
This document discusses the relationship between creativity, music, and psychotherapy. It explores creativity from philosophical, psychological, and mythological perspectives. Creativity is seen as an encounter that demands courage and risk-taking. Music is said to bypass cognition and access repressed emotions and memories. Listening to music can provide a therapeutic container and induce altered states similar to meditation. The document also examines how creating and listening to music may parallel intimate relationships and invoke psychological processes like projection and introjection. Overall, the document analyzes how creativity and music can impact mental health and the therapeutic process.
The document discusses several aspects of how music is cognitively represented and understood by people. It argues that music is structured internally in people's minds in at least three ways: 1) A notational representation similar to what is written on sheet music, 2) An acoustic representation of the sounds as an undifferentiated stream or as meaningfully segmented into musical representations, and 3) A motor representation involved in instrumental performance. It also discusses how the acoustic representation is parsed into meaningful groups and how underlying progressions or "good linkages" between notes in a melody are identified. Understanding music involves recognizing these structural aspects as well as more content-based understanding by relating patterns in the music to familiar abstracted scripts or archetypes.
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Short Stories To Write Ideas - Pagspeed. Online assignment writing service.Andrew Parish
This document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Receive the paper and authorize payment if pleased. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with a refund option for plagiarized work. The service aims to provide original, high-quality content through a bidding system and revision process.
Jacksonville- Michele Norris Communications And The Media DietAndrew Parish
The document discusses the benefits of the minimum legal driving age. It begins by stating that the minimum legal driving age should not be increased to 18 because that would not help decrease the rate of teen accidents. While some argue accidents caused by teens justify a higher age, the document counters that maturity levels vary and delaying licensure could reduce overall experience and skills. Restricting mobility may also restrict opportunities for work, education and independence. Raising the age could even have unintended consequences of increased risk-taking.
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This document summarizes an article that discusses the shift in perspectives on the power of music from ancient Greek philosophers to Baroque era thinkers. It describes the ancient Greek views, including Pythagoras' "Music of the Spheres" theory that numbers and ratios explained the cosmos. Plato took a more anthropological view, discussing music's effects on human senses and emotions. The article argues this shift reflected changing views from a "cosmological" perspective justifying music in terms of the cosmos, to an "anthropological" perspective focusing on human needs and experiences.
AN ARCHAEOLOGY OF LISTENING A TEMPORAL STRATOPHONY OF MUSICAL DISCOURSESRenee Lewis
This paper discusses the idea of developing an "archaeology of listening" to understand the mechanisms of change and continuity in musical discourses over time. An archaeology of listening would study a community's sound objects and listening practices to observe how listening transforms according to prevailing musical discourses. The author argues that listening is music's ontological foundation and that organized sound is produced for and through listening. By analyzing the organization of music separately from the organization of listening, it may be possible to observe the unfolding of perceptual listening processes and how listening becomes an archaeological object itself. Developing an archaeology of listening could provide insights into the continuities and discontinuities of musical discourses over historical time periods.
The document discusses the definition and history of music. It provides a broad definition of music as organized sound and discusses how music involves elements such as pitch, rhythm, and timbre. It also briefly outlines the history of music and how it has evolved across different cultures over time.
Audio is an art form defined by the medium of silence and sound. A track is typically considered the smallest standalone piece of music, especially in performance. The core elements of music are pitch, beat, tempo, meter, articulation, dynamics, texture, and timbre. Music can be defined as the production, critique, study of history, and artistic sharing of sound. The definition and role of music varies by culture and social context, ranging from composed pieces to improvisational or aleatoric styles. Music can be classified as a skill, fine art, or auditory art and can be experienced live, as part of a work, recorded, or integral to a lifestyle.
In this book there has been analysis made about the philosophical outlook of Kierkegaard's Philosophy in relation to the notions of live music. Interesting aspect that Senyshyn has drawn is connecting the philosophy of Kierkegaard in live music. There has been discussion made by Senyshyn as to how subjectivity and aesthetics provides insights into the live music performance by the artist
This assignment explores music as a means of therapy for people living with dementia. Looking at the neurophysiological side of the disease, music therapy could be utilised as a way of changing behaviour that could be labelled as disruptive or unacceptable to the rest of society. Considering the important role that music plays in the lives of many people, cultures and societies and the need of people living with dementia to connect, engage, grow and flourish, music can and should play a much larger role in creating a life worth living for people with dementia. Music should be made part of the person-centred approach to care and not be simply used to entertain, distract or to blur out background sounds. The difficulty of capturing the true emotional spectrum of what music can do for and to the human soul is clear in the research. The practical implementation of music in the care setting should be carefully considered to take into consideration the individuality of each person living with dementia, as well as those who care for them.
This document discusses theories of musical meaning from various musicologists. It outlines Guido Adler's distinction between historical and systematic musicology. It discusses Eduard Hanslick's view that music does not directly impact extra-musical feelings. It also summarizes Mayer's triadic model of musical meaning, which examines the stimulus, what it refers to, and who understands it. Mayer believes meaning arises from awareness of implications of a musical stimulus. The document also discusses absolutist and referentialist views of musical meaning.
This document discusses the history of thought around the origins and nature of music from pre-1700 to the early 1900s. Key points discussed include:
- In the 17th century, music was thought to have divine origins but lost its perfection after the Biblical fall of man. Pythagoras' theory of the "music of the spheres" influenced this view.
- Enlightenment thinkers like Rameau viewed music through mathematical and scientific lenses, seeking its origins in nature. Mattheson challenged this rationalism with a focus on music's sensual pleasures.
- Wagner had immense influence on later artists and thinkers through his synthesis of music, drama, and language in opera. His work influenced symbol
Music can be defined as the art of arranging sounds in time. It typically involves melody, harmony, rhythm, dynamics, and timbre. Music varies across cultures and contexts, from strictly composed pieces to improvised or random styles. It can be experienced live, included in other works, or recorded. For many people around the world, music is an integral part of their lives.
CATC / PhD Presentation - Brussels June 2015 (G. Tordzro)RMBorders
This document discusses potential parallels between traditional social science research methods and pan-African arts practices. It explores how arts-based research is developing new research tools and challenges traditional disciplines. The author is interested in the "creative, expressive and communicative 'affordances'" that pan-African arts, like music, offer to thinking about social science research processes, strategies, design, and presentation of findings. The document considers if everyday practices in African music making can inform traditional social research methods from a phenomenological perspective.
Music can be defined as organized sound that follows observable patterns. While cultural variations exist, music utilizes the properties of sound as perceived by humans and animals. Music is formulated sound that sometimes aims to manipulate listeners' emotions, as seen in movie soundtracks. Definitions of music have ranged from tones organized as melodies and harmonies to any sounds one can hear, as 20th century composers challenged what constituted music. There is no universal definition of what does and does not qualify as music across cultures.
The student reflects on what they learned in their Humanities 101 course over the semester. They discuss how the course challenged some of their preconceived notions about the humanities and exposed them to new ways of thinking. The student also realized the importance of being open-minded and considering different perspectives on important issues. Overall, the course helped the student gain a broader understanding of the human experience and how to think critically.
When I first started Humanities 101, I'll admit I wasn't too excited about it. As someone who majored in science and tech in high school, the humanities wasn't really my thing.
This document is a research proposal for a senior project that will examine the concepts of authenticity and hybridity in world music. The author proposes to write a 25+ page research paper utilizing peer-reviewed sources to cover background information on the origins of world music as a genre and perspectives from scholars, industry personnel, and musicians. The author hypothesizes that some degree of hybridity is always present in world music and that perceptions of authenticity influence how different levels of hybridity are received. The proposal provides an annotated bibliography summarizing several academic sources that will inform the author's analysis of these key concepts in world music.
This document provides an introduction and overview of the book "Choral Conducting and the Construction of Meaning". It summarizes that:
1) The book examines how gestural languages of choral conducting and associated body languages of choirs are integral to how musicians understand the music and their own identities.
2) It draws on theories of music and identity, performance studies, choral conducting literature, and nonverbal communication to analyze how musical style, social meanings, and performer identity are constructed in choral performance.
3) The book aims to theorize these relationships and draw practical conclusions for transferring conducting skills between musical idioms. It seeks to bridge critical musicology and choral practice.
Nhemamusasa From ShonaThe Girl From Ipanemamueve.docxvannagoforth
Nhemamusasa From Shona
The Girl From Ipanema
mueve la cintura mulata lyrics
La Maria Chuchena
Patria Borinquena
CHAPTER 1 •
Thinking about Music
if you can speak you can sing; if you can walk you can dance.
(Zimbabwean Shona proverb)
People make music meaningful and useful in their lives. That statement
encapsulates much of what ethnomusicologists are interested in and
offers a framing perspective for many ways of thinking both about peo-
ple and about music all over the world. In this chapter I shall explore
each word in the statement with two purposes in mind: to suggest new
ways you might think about music that you regularly hear, and to begin
to expand your musical horizon. I shall also begin by speaking briefly
about the dissemination of music and the ways it is taught and learned,
because what you think about music has been influenced by how you
have learned it.
PEOPLE
Music Makers. Who makes music in our familiar world? Music mak-
ers are individuals and groups, adults and children, female and male,
amateurs and professionals. They are people who make music only for
themselves, such as shower singers or secretly-sing-along-with-the-
radio types, and they are performers, people who make music pur-
posefully for others. They are people who make music because they are
required to and people who do so simply from desire. Some music mak-
ers study seriously, while others are content to make music however
they can, without special effort.
To think about music makers globally, you might ask whether music
makers are regarded in any particular way in a particular place. At one
end of a spectrum, some societies expect people who make music to
1
2 = THINKING MUSICALLY
be specialists, born into the role or endowed with a special capacity.
At the other end of that spectrum, in some societies it is assumed that
the practice of music is a human capacity and that all people will
express themselves musically as a normal part of life. Particularly in
situations where orality is a viable mode for transmission of knowl-
edge (teaching by sounding), being a musician-or reciter, as in figure
1.1-is an option for visually impaired individuals. in figure 1.1 a
sighted sheikh, in company with two blind reciters, participates in a
performance of Qur'anic recitation in Egypt. There, where the aurality
of the tradition (learning by hearing) has been culturally affirmed,
becoming a reciter -has been a potential profession for blind men.
Through a long period of premodem Japanese history, blind players
of shamisen and koto (Fig. 1.2) held a governmentally sanctioned
monopology on performing and teaching of orally transmitted reper-
tories for their instruments.
FIGURE 1.1 Egyptian reciter. Multiple reciters of the Qur' an, accompanied by
friends and relatives, participate in a performance at a gathering in Egypt-possibly
the opening of a conference. That the illustrious Sheikh Mustafa Ismail ...
New Age music aims to create tranquil and meditative atmospheres through instrumental and vocal styles. It emerged in the 1970s alongside counterculture movements and incorporated elements of meditation, Eastern religions, nature worship, and channeling. New Age music emphasizes anonymity and erasing distinctions between artists and listeners to foster a sense of communal spirituality and oneness with nature. However, it also commercializes and domesticates nature through its analogies between music and the natural world.
The document discusses Helen Keller's quotes about how avoiding danger and pessimism limits human potential and progress. It then summarizes a framework called Synergy Arts Mosaic that utilizes various art forms like music, art, drama and dance to help with personal transformation, understanding, hope and health. The framework is designed to help individuals progress to higher levels of consciousness and enlightenment through experiencing different art forms in a synergistic way.
This document discusses the relationship between creativity, music, and psychotherapy. It explores creativity from philosophical, psychological, and mythological perspectives. Creativity is seen as an encounter that demands courage and risk-taking. Music is said to bypass cognition and access repressed emotions and memories. Listening to music can provide a therapeutic container and induce altered states similar to meditation. The document also examines how creating and listening to music may parallel intimate relationships and invoke psychological processes like projection and introjection. Overall, the document analyzes how creativity and music can impact mental health and the therapeutic process.
The document discusses several aspects of how music is cognitively represented and understood by people. It argues that music is structured internally in people's minds in at least three ways: 1) A notational representation similar to what is written on sheet music, 2) An acoustic representation of the sounds as an undifferentiated stream or as meaningfully segmented into musical representations, and 3) A motor representation involved in instrumental performance. It also discusses how the acoustic representation is parsed into meaningful groups and how underlying progressions or "good linkages" between notes in a melody are identified. Understanding music involves recognizing these structural aspects as well as more content-based understanding by relating patterns in the music to familiar abstracted scripts or archetypes.
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A Nonrepresentationalist Argument For Music
1. A Nonrepresentationalist Argument for Music
Patrick Hinds*1
*
Music Dept., University of Surrey, United Kingdom
1
patrick_hinds@hotmail.co.uk
ABSTRACT
Music is a universally accessible phenomenon that resists
understanding. These conditions have prompted a
considerable discourse on music’s transcendental properties,
tied up with the notion of an exclusively musical meaning.
Following a literature review, I reject this notion, favouring a
leaner theory that takes music’s lack of objective meaning just
as a lack of objective meaning.
I argue that music is a self-directed practice, contingent on a
perceiver’s prerogative to block the perceived objective
significance of an object and engage with it for the sake of
engaging itself. This subversion of meaning is, I suggest, a
mechanism in virtue of which we may have consciousness of
sound tout court: when the world is separated from the aspect
of self that is affording the means of perception and the latter
is taken as a subject of experience. Such an argument can
make intelligible the concept of intrinsically cognitive
operations- those that do not refer outwardly
Emerging research in music psychology gives empirical
grounding to this concept, accounting for music experience
with psychological structures that are nonrepresentational and
thus lack extrinsic content.
The upshot is that music can exemplify nonrepresentational
experience, where a ‘representation’ is an individuated
(mental) object with semantic properties. There may be no
specifiable object true to the experience because music is
partly constituted by that which is intrinsically cognitive. This
framework could thus be wielded in a discussion of qualia,
potentially elucidating the intuition that some qualities of
experience are irreducibly mental in nature.
I. Music’s Intrinsic Value
Scholars of music have often made the claim that music’s
meaning is closed from the world. This position is intimately
related to ideals concerning music’s autonomy- the idea that
music’s meaning is inherent or intrinsic. As Eduard Hanslick-
the progenitor of such a view- put it, music’s meaning
‘inheres in the combinations of musical sounds and is
independent of all alien, extra-musical notions.’ i
While
Hanslick may have set the tone in the 19th
century, there have
been numerous variants on music’s closure in recent years.
Perhaps most strikingly, John Cage, known for
polemicizing the Western Art music tradition through both
writing and composition, seems to share Hanslick’s view that
music’s meaning is intrinsic rather than extrinsic: ‘Music
means nothing as a thing’ii
he argues; for Cage, ‘sounds
should be just sounds.’iii
Note the uncanny resemblance of the
latter comment to something that his ideological opponent
Hanslick wrote: ‘music speaks not only by means of sounds, it
speaks nothing but sounds.’iv
What both Cage and Hanslick
agree on is that music is segregated from meaning. For Cage
this is the separation of music from ideas, ideologies,
conventions and human control. For Hanslick this is the
separation of music from all worldly concepts: from lyrics,
narrative, emotions and culture.
However, Cage was radical in his rejection of meaning tout
court, and it seems that a common stance in musicology and
aesthetics has rather been to appeal to ideals of an exclusively
musical meaning, and in so doing propagate the
transcendentalist conception of music structure. Hanslick
helped instigate this line of thought by suggesting that
‘[m]usic’s kingdom is, indeed, “not of this world”’ (p.70.)
Although more recent examples are not hard to come by: Jim
Samson, while implicitly opposing himself to the likes of
Hanslick in places, nonetheless seems to concede to the
inaccessible musical meaning:
‘Music, it might be argued, is so utterly and irreducibly
specific, its meaning so embedded in its essence, that we are
forced to borrow from other systems of thought in order to
attempt any kind of description at all.’v
Samson may stop short of explicitly advocating a
transcendentalist discourse here, although he does imply that
music is special in its isolation from the world. Conversely,
Roger Scruton, exhibiting far more ardor and conviction,
vehemently affirms music’s closure from the world, holding
that not only should it be conceded that music is beyond
rational enterprise but also that it should be protected from it:
‘It is obviously the case that advances in the neurosciences
have begun to impinge upon what for me was a sacred and
protected territory [music] and one has to, as it were, herd the
call to rush to the boundary to defend it.’vi
However, a particularly succinct and explicit expression of
this transcendentalist position comes from Lawrence
Zbikowski who, writing on music-cognition, states that
“Musical concepts are of another world, another order,
because they extend into a domain that is beyond words.”vii
The postulate that musical sound has its own meaning, that
does not refer to extra-musical properties, is a pervasive one
then, seemingly persisting in various quite disparate
approaches. In this paper I adopt what I see as the premises of
the above arguments- that music is an intense experience, and
is not reducible to objective properties- but argue against the
notion of a musical kind of meaning that is central to
transcendent views. Such views may be rather heavily
ideology-laden, and as such likely constrain understanding of
music by promoting a particular bias. Certainly, a
transcendent view does glorify music, which musicologists
438
2. would presumably be keen to do, and yet I think the notion of
there being something unique, or even peculiar about music’s
content seems to be at odds with certain cultural realities. For
example:
Juslin notes that the most typical listening attitude is one of
indifference, where music is not the focus of attention;viii
musical experience has been observed, in the form of a
favourable response to consonance, in children in the early
stages of infancy (Trehub: 2009; 231); music is practiced by
all known peoples of the world (Agawu 1999); music is
highly heterogeneous both in its production and its
interpretation.
Also, the reliance of this view on the opacity of the
ineffable is in danger of dissolving into fallacy- the
transcendentalist argument equates, I think, to the assertion
that absence of an observable musical meaning does not
indicate an absence of meaning but rather the existence of an
unobservable meaning. A leaner theory would posit the
absence of musical meaning just as an absence of musical
meaning. To take this line would be to accept that music is
only sound. This obviously opens a gaping explanatory gap to
the order of: what is the nature of music’s apparent
meaningfulness? To close the gap I propose that the
experiential intensity of music can be accounted for by
intrinsically value-laden cognitive operations. The effect of
this concept is to endorse experiential autonomy by bestowing
a constitutive role on cognition itself. I later argue that the
lack of referential meaning in music is in fact necessary for
the intensity of experience to obtain, since conceptual
constraint would do violence to the freedom of cognitive
engagement characteristic of musical intercourse. On this
view, much of the explanatory burden is on music psychology
to account for music experience in terms of intrinsically
cognitive phenomena; I will discuss several studies but only
one in any real detail.
II. Music Psychology
A. Cognitive Categorisation
Zbikowskiix
applied a number of cognitive models to music;
the model I am concerned with pertains to cognitive
categorization:
‘[Our] recognition of… things reflects the categories
through which we structure our thought: to recognise a book
is to identify it as a member of the category book; to recognise
a tree is to identify it as a member of the category tree.
Categorization occurs in all sensory modalities and
throughout the range of mental activities: we categorize
smells and sounds, thoughts and emotions, skin sensations and
physical movement. Categories are…basic to thought.’
(p.13)
It was Zbikowski’s insight to demonstrate how this
fundamental cognitive process is essential to music listening.
He did this in the form of a motivic analysis- explicating the
musical motif, and the reported phenomenology of a musical
motif (ascriptions of value etc. in discourse), as a cognitive
category- although, as he puts it, while this ‘is a good example
of a musical category, categories can be much more various
and structured around whatever set of musical relationships
seems best to account for what is salient about a particular
repertoire’ (p.59.) Indeed, the principle themes for a cognitive
category analysis are the establishment of a prototypic form
and then the manifestation of further forms that can be
observed to hold some relationship with the prototype, such
that a range of musical elements, e.g. rhythm, phrase structure,
harmony, key and melody, ought all to be well-suited to such
analysis.
The conclusion that one of the most pervasive and essential
human characteristics- that of the ability to categorise- can be
linked to one of the most pervasive and essential
characteristics of music- that of structural relationships
between component parts- seems to me a fairly spectacular
one, in as far as it proffers a clear and tangible cognitive
account of a very significant means by which music has
experiential value. Zbikowski chooses the transcendentalist
position over this conclusion, however, as mentioned above,
although there seems nothing necessary about making this
move into mysticism. I am going to take his findings at face
value- the strong relation between cognitive categorisation,
music structure and music discourse seems sufficient to give
cognitive categorisation alone considerable explanative worth.
On this view then, it is not what is expressed with categorical
structure that makes music phenomenally salient, but rather
just that there is categorical structure.
B. Image Schemata
Image schematax
are embodied structures, so derive their
content from the body as opposed to mental representations;
and they are metaphorical in that they can apply to lots of
different experiences. This structural multiplicity helps us
‘carve up our world’xi
into manageable chunks. Hence image
schemata facilitate rather than constitute understanding, and
by the same token are intrinsically cognitive, having no reality
outside the bounds of the cognitive. That these structures have
proven explanative in music analyses by Alan Moore (2010)
and Larson and Van Handel (2005) is highly instructive, since
they are so explanative without having attendant concepts: it
is the operation of image schemata alone, and not their
functional role of explicating the world that is linked to
musical value.
C. Ecological Theory
Clarkexii
developed an approach to music based on James
Gibson’sxiii
work on ecological theory. This is the theory that
there is much inherent structure in the environment and in the
perceiver that thus affords the perceiver direct perception-
without mediation from abstract knowledge or representations.
This theory refers to- and is supported by- work in the field of
robotics and connectionism.xiv
Clarke describes an example of
how musical texture can specify volumetric space:
‘in bars 103 and 104 all four instruments play
semibreves… in unison and octave doublings, but at 105…
the four instruments break out into four-part harmony, and
then… six-part harmony at 106. The effect is of a narrow
space, or singularity, bursting open” (p.184).
439
3. The space of which Clarke speaks is, of course, illusory- or
‘virtual,’ as he prefers. These spatial properties are by no
means part of the music in any objective sense (part of
physical, or semantic content); they are products of, and
exclusive to, the cognition of the music. Again, the point here
is that myriad ecological meanings can be found in analysis in
lieu of high-order semantic or conceptual meaning, which
suggests that the perceptual function itself has experiential
efficacy, irrespective of its aim of gleaning salient
environmental information.
D. Other Studies
I will note but not detail a few other points that indicate
music’s cognitive intrinsicality. Generic musical materials
have been explicated without referencing external processing
units or representations. For example, tonal hierarchy has
been modelled in connectionist architecture;xv
this research
demonstrates that human responses to (an aspect of) musical
sound can be modelled by a system that has no mediating
external processor. Also, rhythm has been theorised as
neurological entrainment, which suggests a conceptually
unmediated neural mechanism for the development of
rhythm-expectancies.xvi
Finally, Stevens and Byronxvii
have
indicated universal musical constraints, i.e. those that obtain
across all conceptual frameworks and so are not specific to
any particular epistemology.
E. Psychology in Sum
These cognitive operations lack extrinsic content then; they
do not give an account of how music is meaningful as part of
the world, and they suggest that a person listens not for what
music can express or communicate but rather for the
experience of being cognitively engaged.
There are most probably studies revealing intrinsic
cognitive contents that I have missed, and future
developments will undoubtedly proffer much to expand the
music-psychologists explanative repertoire in this regard. But,
I think the studies reviewed would afford sufficient ascribable
content to explicate a particularly intense experiential
phenomenon. Certainly, it is not at all clear that there would
be a need, or even room, for the addition of an exclusively
musical meaning. In fact, I think the absence of extrinsic
meaning is key to facilitating music’s intensity: the lack of
mediation by understanding implies a direct engagement with
the faculties for feeling; meaning can be regarded a constraint
that is lifted to allow freedom of cognitive structuring.
Consider the profusion of distinct categories that play out
simultaneously in a piece of music (rhythm, harmony, melody,
etc.), along with the ecological specification of numerous
dynamic sound sources and the operation of embodied
schemata; such structural complexity would not be possible in
a conceptual narrative, at least not in the same time-frame.
III. Elaborating a Nonrepresentationalist View
A concept of experiential autonomy trivially follows from
the concept of experience without extrinsic reference.
However, with this concept of autonomy I do not aim to
specialise music (viz. Hanslick and the rest.) Rather, I suggest
that music listeners enjoy a basic and completely general
human prerogative.
I argue that music is a self-directed practice. Consider that
music is a ‘species-specific trait’xviii
; it is one that ‘[a]ll
cultures regard… as at least minimally valuable’xix
and one
that non-human primates dislike- they prefer silence;xx
it is
trivially accessible.xxi
These points suggest music rests on a distinctively human
characteristic that is basic to humans generally, one such
characteristic being that of a sophisticated concept of self.
Suppose that a self-aware being might break its tie to
meaningful perception- the perception of what is held to be
significant as regards the aims and intentions of the organism-
by directing intentionality toward (aspects of) itself. It seems
like such behaviour would give nothing by way of extrinsic
referents. The formal experience of sound- as of a
psychological entity distinguishable from whatever
conceptual framework it might refer to- would, on this
account, be that which is facilitated by the turning inward of
consciousness. To have sound in itself, then, would be to have
the epistemic foundation to conceive of the perceiver, and to
comprehend the means by which the perceiver perceives. It is
the active ignorance of meaning and engagement with self
that affords this capacity- when the world is separated from
the means of perception and the latter is taken as a subject of
experience.
Far from specialising music, the thrust here is rather that
music is a specific employment of the most general and
fundamental of human abilities, that of conceiving oneself as
oneself. As such, this account of music as self-directed and
irreducibly phenomenological is easily situated in a discussion
of phenomenological experience generally.xxii
Levine outlines
the problem of the explanatory gap:
‘By appeal to the physical properties of the brain we seem
able to explain how we process information, how our bodies
react to the environment, and even- on analogy with
computers- how we reason. But why any of these processes
should give rise to consciousness, that there should be
something it’s like for creatures who have these processes
going on inside them, this seems mysterious to us.’xxiii
Problems pertaining to music seem germane: the
musicologist Nicholas Cookxxiv
cites a wealth of empirical,
theoretical and phenomenological evidence to argue that
forms of music representation and forms of music experience
are ‘two essentially different things,’ that there is a ‘disparity
between the experience of music and the way in which we
imagine or think about it’ (p.135,) and that formal
music-representations are ‘explanatory metaphors or fictions’
(p.241.) Music, it seems, forces the explanatory gap on us
powerfully, given that centuries of academic research seems
not to have revealed the nature of what is a trivially accessible
experience. But this separateness of experience and
understanding, whether pertaining to music or qualia
generally, is just what would be expected, where we to
endorse the notion of intrinsically value-laden cognitive
operations. On this view, qualia are elucidated by music.
440
4. Consider Jeffrey Gray, a neuroscientist, lamenting science’s
ineptitude in accounting for qualia:
‘given that there is a scientific story that goes seamlessly
from sensory input to behavioural output without reference to
consciousness then, when we try to add conscious experience
back into the story, we can’t find anything for consciousness
to do.’xxv
Music might be a good example of how a mind can have
experience without having anything ‘to do,’ in Gray’s sense.
Sounds or images may only manifest as distinct entities when
they are conceived as affording the functions that they do,
thus providing the cognitive utility to detach the subject from
the object and conduce to the exploration of the former. What
music can be observed ‘doing’ or what ‘behavioural output’ it
produces, are only sensible questions on the view that music’s
content is a property of objects that is represented by the mind.
When this view is rejected, and the mind is assumed to
contribute towards music’s content in virtue of its intrinsic
operations, that there is a scientifically inaccessible realm of
experience becomes intelligible. Perhaps Stravinsky
characterises this argument succinctly when he says: ‘I
haven’t understood a bar of music in my life, but I have felt
it.’xxvi
REFERENCES
i
Eduard Hanslick, The Beautiful in Music, trans. Gustav Cohen (Michigan:
the University of Michigan, 1891), 12.
ii
John Cage, Silence (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press 1961), 66.
iii
Cage 1961; 61
iv
Hanslick 1854/1891; 119
v
Jim Samson, ‘Analysis in Context,’ in Rethinking Music, ed. Nicholas Cook
and Mark Everest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 47
vi
Scruton, Rodger, ‘Can there be a Science of Musical Understanding?’ (2011)
url: http://www.themusicalbrain.org/events accessed 02/2012
vii
Lawrence Zbikowski, Conceptualising Music (Oxford: Oxford University
Press 2002,) 326
viii
Juslin, ‘Emotional Responses to Music’ in The Oxford Handbook of Music
Psychology: 2009 p.133
ix
Lawrence Zbikowski, Conceptualising Music (Oxford: Oxford University
Press 2002).
x
See Mark Johnson, The Body in the Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press 1987.)
xi
Johnson 1987
xii
Eric Clarke, Ways of Listening (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2005).
xiii
Gibson 1966, 1979
xiv
For a review of embodied and ecological cognitive content see Shapiro
2011
xv
Emmanuel Bigand and Benedict Poulin-Charronnat, ‘Tonal cognition,’ in
The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology, ed. Susan Hallam, Ian Cross and
Micheal Thaut (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 59-71.
xvi
Mari Riess Jones, ‘Musical time,’ in The Oxford Handbook of Music
Psychology, ed. Susan Hallam, Ian Cross and Micheal Thaut (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009), 81-92.
xvii
Catherine Stevens and Tim Byron, ‘Universals in music processing,’ in
The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology, ed. Susan Hallam, Ian Cross and
Micheal Thaut (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 14-23.
xviii
Kofi Agawa, ‘The Challenge of Semiotics,’ in Rethinking Music, ed.
Nicholas Cook and Mark Everest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999),
102-138
xix
Bruno Nettl, The Study of Ethnomusicology: thirty-one issues and concepts
(Illinois: University of Illinois 2005), 23.
xx
Josh McDermott and Marc D. Hauser, ‘Nonhuman primates prefer slow
tempos but dislike music overall,’ in Science Direct Cognition 104 (2007):
654–668 2006 accessed March 2012, URL:
http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~jhm/mcdermott_tempo.pdf
xxi
Nicholas Cook, Music Imagination and Culture, (Oxford: Oxford
University Press 1990), 218
xxii
Note that I am circumventing a thorough discussion of qualia here, as
space is limited: quite whether qualia are limited to perception, whether they
indicate dualism etc. is not strictly pertinent here. For a review see the Oxford
Handbook of the Philosophy of Mind (2009) esp. 223-313.
xxiii
Joseph Levine, ‘The Explanatory Gap,’ in The Oxford Handbook of the
Philosophy of Mind, ed. Brian P. McLaughlin, Ansgar Beckermann, Sven
Walter (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2009), 281-291
xxiv
Cook 1990
xxv
Jeffrey Gray, Consciousness: Creeping up on the Hard Problem (Oxford:
Oxford University Press 2004), 40, his emphasis
xxvi
Cited in Cook 1990; 186
441