This document presents a new approach for paraphrasing and rewording challenging texts. It discusses intralingual translation (rewording or paraphrasing) and aims to show how to simplify complex English texts. The approach follows Noam Chomsky's generative–transformational model and Larson's methodology to analyze texts at various levels. It examines concepts like deep structure, surface structure, kernels/propositions, and skewing between grammar and semantics. Specific techniques for rewording are also outlined, including using synonyms, substitute words, and reciprocal words. An example analysis of rewording a passage from "Taj Mahal" is provided to demonstrate applying the paraphrasing steps.
This document provides an overview of theories related to translation studies. It discusses Vinay and Darbelnet's model of direct and oblique translation, Catford's model of translation shifts including level and category shifts, and Roman Jakobson's model of equivalence. The document also outlines the structure of a research project analyzing the translation of Gone With the Wind from English to Urdu using these theoretical frameworks.
translation Animal Farm according to Viney and Darbelnet theorymona samadi
This document provides an overview of a thesis analyzing the translation of George Orwell's novel Animal Farm into Persian. It discusses the theoretical framework, including Vinay and Darbelnet's translation model, which identifies direct and oblique translation strategies. The document presents the research hypothesis that Vinay and Darbelnet's model can be applied to analyze the Persian translation. It then provides introductions to the source and target texts, which are Animal Farm in English and its Persian translation Qale-ye-heyvanat.
This document outlines the key elements that should be included in the main text of a thesis or dissertation. It recommends including an introduction that discusses background information and research questions, a literature review that summarizes relevant theories and frameworks, a methodology section that describes the research design and data sources, a results section that presents findings and discussions, and a conclusions section that discusses implications. It also recommends an hourglass structure with a funnel-shaped introduction and reverse funnel-shaped conclusion bookending chapters that discuss topics in more detail. Finally, it provides examples of how to structure paragraphs in an introduction from broad opening statements to more specific discussions of the research topic and questions.
Cultural Decomposition: How To Distinguish Figurative From Non-Figurative.pdfFadilElmenfi1
If interpretation is so essential to the translator's work, some will argue, the entire process of translation will fall outside the realm of Semantics proper, which is the branch of linguistics most relevant to translation.
Relative clause with their equivalence from English into Indonesianimadejuliarta
This document provides an introduction and background to a study on translating relative clauses from English to Indonesian. It discusses translation theory and defines translation as transferring meaning from the source language to the target language. The document reviews previous studies on analyzing relative clauses and nominal clauses. It establishes the problems of this study, which are to identify types of relative clauses, analyze their syntactic functions, and investigate translation equivalence between the source and target languages. The significance of the study is its theoretical contribution to translation and linguistics, as well as its practical application for language learners. The scope is focused on analyzing relative clause types and translation procedures from English to Indonesian.
Applying metaphor in writing English scientific textsRusdi Noor Rosa
Most of English texts written by Indonesian students do not reflect the characteristics of English written text, even their texts resemble spoken texts conveyed through writing. A written text should be different from a spoken text for their different characteristics. The complexity of grammar in clause constructions of written texts may serve as the core distinguishing factor between the two kinds of texts. However, the question arises about how complex or how complicated the written text grammar is. This article is aimed at applying the concept of systemic functional linguistics-based metaphor (SFL-based metaphor) to distinguish a written text from a spoken text. In particular, this article applies the SFL-based metaphor concept in improving the dissertation proposal texts of the students. The application of the SFL-based metaphor concept is related to the lexical density of a clause through which a characteristic of a written text is generated. The realization of lexical density should give a credit to nominalization as a technique of reducing the number of clauses in a written text. Furthermore, a written text is closely related to a scientific text taking academicians including students, teachers, and lecturers as the readers. The data were 10 dissertation proposals written by the students of Linguistics Doctoral Program at the University of Sumtera Utara some of which are presented in this article to demonstrate the process of applying the SFL-based metaphor in improving the texts. Applying this concept is particularly helpful for those in the writing process of their final projects at universities.
This document provides an overview of grammatical contrastive analysis, focusing on inflectional morphology. It discusses key grammatical categories such as aspect, case, gender, mood, number, and tense, and how they are conveyed through inflectional morphemes in some languages versus lexical means in others. The document uses examples from English and Chinese to illustrate differences in how these categories are expressed grammatically or lexically across languages. It aims to lay the groundwork for contrasting the morphological and lexical devices languages employ to convey grammatical meanings.
This document discusses the key concepts of generative grammar including:
- Generative grammar defines syntactic structures and generates all grammatical sentences of a language using a finite set of rules.
- Syntax is the study of how words are combined into phrases and sentences. Phrases are groupings of words headed by a lexical category.
- Sentences contain lexical categories like nouns, verbs, adjectives as well as functional categories like determiners and auxiliaries.
- Verbs select complements like objects, predicates, and clauses that are required, while adjuncts provide optional details like time and manner.
- Recursion allows categories to embed within each other, generating infinitely long phrases.
This document provides an overview of theories related to translation studies. It discusses Vinay and Darbelnet's model of direct and oblique translation, Catford's model of translation shifts including level and category shifts, and Roman Jakobson's model of equivalence. The document also outlines the structure of a research project analyzing the translation of Gone With the Wind from English to Urdu using these theoretical frameworks.
translation Animal Farm according to Viney and Darbelnet theorymona samadi
This document provides an overview of a thesis analyzing the translation of George Orwell's novel Animal Farm into Persian. It discusses the theoretical framework, including Vinay and Darbelnet's translation model, which identifies direct and oblique translation strategies. The document presents the research hypothesis that Vinay and Darbelnet's model can be applied to analyze the Persian translation. It then provides introductions to the source and target texts, which are Animal Farm in English and its Persian translation Qale-ye-heyvanat.
This document outlines the key elements that should be included in the main text of a thesis or dissertation. It recommends including an introduction that discusses background information and research questions, a literature review that summarizes relevant theories and frameworks, a methodology section that describes the research design and data sources, a results section that presents findings and discussions, and a conclusions section that discusses implications. It also recommends an hourglass structure with a funnel-shaped introduction and reverse funnel-shaped conclusion bookending chapters that discuss topics in more detail. Finally, it provides examples of how to structure paragraphs in an introduction from broad opening statements to more specific discussions of the research topic and questions.
Cultural Decomposition: How To Distinguish Figurative From Non-Figurative.pdfFadilElmenfi1
If interpretation is so essential to the translator's work, some will argue, the entire process of translation will fall outside the realm of Semantics proper, which is the branch of linguistics most relevant to translation.
Relative clause with their equivalence from English into Indonesianimadejuliarta
This document provides an introduction and background to a study on translating relative clauses from English to Indonesian. It discusses translation theory and defines translation as transferring meaning from the source language to the target language. The document reviews previous studies on analyzing relative clauses and nominal clauses. It establishes the problems of this study, which are to identify types of relative clauses, analyze their syntactic functions, and investigate translation equivalence between the source and target languages. The significance of the study is its theoretical contribution to translation and linguistics, as well as its practical application for language learners. The scope is focused on analyzing relative clause types and translation procedures from English to Indonesian.
Applying metaphor in writing English scientific textsRusdi Noor Rosa
Most of English texts written by Indonesian students do not reflect the characteristics of English written text, even their texts resemble spoken texts conveyed through writing. A written text should be different from a spoken text for their different characteristics. The complexity of grammar in clause constructions of written texts may serve as the core distinguishing factor between the two kinds of texts. However, the question arises about how complex or how complicated the written text grammar is. This article is aimed at applying the concept of systemic functional linguistics-based metaphor (SFL-based metaphor) to distinguish a written text from a spoken text. In particular, this article applies the SFL-based metaphor concept in improving the dissertation proposal texts of the students. The application of the SFL-based metaphor concept is related to the lexical density of a clause through which a characteristic of a written text is generated. The realization of lexical density should give a credit to nominalization as a technique of reducing the number of clauses in a written text. Furthermore, a written text is closely related to a scientific text taking academicians including students, teachers, and lecturers as the readers. The data were 10 dissertation proposals written by the students of Linguistics Doctoral Program at the University of Sumtera Utara some of which are presented in this article to demonstrate the process of applying the SFL-based metaphor in improving the texts. Applying this concept is particularly helpful for those in the writing process of their final projects at universities.
This document provides an overview of grammatical contrastive analysis, focusing on inflectional morphology. It discusses key grammatical categories such as aspect, case, gender, mood, number, and tense, and how they are conveyed through inflectional morphemes in some languages versus lexical means in others. The document uses examples from English and Chinese to illustrate differences in how these categories are expressed grammatically or lexically across languages. It aims to lay the groundwork for contrasting the morphological and lexical devices languages employ to convey grammatical meanings.
This document discusses the key concepts of generative grammar including:
- Generative grammar defines syntactic structures and generates all grammatical sentences of a language using a finite set of rules.
- Syntax is the study of how words are combined into phrases and sentences. Phrases are groupings of words headed by a lexical category.
- Sentences contain lexical categories like nouns, verbs, adjectives as well as functional categories like determiners and auxiliaries.
- Verbs select complements like objects, predicates, and clauses that are required, while adjuncts provide optional details like time and manner.
- Recursion allows categories to embed within each other, generating infinitely long phrases.
Analysis Of The Quot Gone With The Wind Quot And Its Simplified Version In ...Renee Lewis
This document analyzes and compares the original novel "Gone with the Wind" and its simplified version in terms of their lexical structures. It finds that the simplified version has a lower percentage of similar words, content words, and key words compared to the original. It also has a higher density and lower consistency ratio, indicating it is more compact but may decrease its pedagogical value for vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. The document used a software program called Wordsmith 4.0 to digitize and analyze the word lists and frequencies in the two versions.
The document discusses the principles and parameters framework for language acquisition proposed by Chomsky and Lasnik. It explains that universal grammar consists of a finite set of principles common to all languages and a finite set of parameters that determine variation between languages. Children acquire language by learning the parameter settings of their native language based on innate linguistic principles. The document provides examples of parameters like head directionality and the pro-drop parameter. It also discusses how phrase structure rules and lexical subcategorization frames realize principles within syntactic structure.
UNIVERSALITY IN TRANSLATION: AN ANALYSIS OF TRANSLATION INTERFERENCE IN MULTI...John1Lorcan
Universality in translation has been a research focus in translation studies since the publication of Mona
Baker’s seminal paper in 1990s. The relevant studies mainly explore the various universality rules
governing translation in written texts, however, little attention has been devoted to translation universality
in translating multi-modal texts. This study, with Systemic Functional Grammar and Visual Grammar as
theoretical framework, verifies the validity of Law of Interference, one of the universal translation rules, in
multimodal texts. By statistically comparing transitivity, theme choice, thematic progression and
information value of two magazine articles and their translations, the paper finds that most make-up of the
source text is transferred into the target text or rendered into existing patterns, and that more negative
transfers are observed in transitivity, split theme TP and information value when translating from a major
language. The paper concludes that the Law of Interference is stronger in visual mode while weaker in
verbal mode. The present study shows that the law of interference can be observed in translating
multimodal texts. It also implies that the translation of multimodal texts makes more visible the power of
English, and it helps to perpetuate the hegemony of English in the global world.
Natural language processing (NLP) aims to help computers understand human language. Ambiguity is a major challenge for NLP as words and sentences can have multiple meanings depending on context. There are different types of ambiguity including lexical ambiguity where a word has multiple meanings, syntactic ambiguity where sentence structure is unclear, and semantic ambiguity where meaning depends on broader context. NLP techniques like part-of-speech tagging and word sense disambiguation aim to resolve ambiguity by analyzing context.
The document discusses the syntactic features of mother tongue languages. It covers topics like syntax, constituents, tree diagrams, linear word order, and hierarchical structure. It also discusses transformational generative grammar and Noam Chomsky's theory of deep and surface structures. According to this theory, underlying deep structures are transformed into surface structures via rules, allowing for generation of varied sentences from simple structures.
This document provides an overview of translation theory, including its basic assumptions and objectives. It discusses translation as a means of interlingual communication that produces a target text with an identical communicative value to the source text. While not identical in form or content due to linguistic differences, the target text is functionally, structurally, and semantically identified with the source text by its users. The document also outlines the general goals of achieving maximum structural parallelism and semantic identity between the source and target texts. It presents translation both as an intuitive practical activity and as an object of scientific study within the framework of linguistics and translatology.
The document discusses various theories of translation equivalence from the 20th century:
- Vinay and Darbelnet defined equivalence as replicating the same situation with different wording, maintaining stylistic impact. Equivalence is ideal for idioms, clichés, etc.
- Jakobson introduced "equivalence in difference", noting translators use synonyms and there is no full equivalence between codes. Languages differ grammatically but translation is still possible.
- Nida distinguished formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence, which seeks equivalent effect on the target audience rather than form.
- Catford introduced translation shifts like level shifts and category shifts involving changes in structure, class, rank or system between languages.
-
Article - An Annotated Translation of How to Succeed as a Freelance Translato...Cynthia Velynne
This document summarizes an annotated translation research study conducted by Wahyu Budi. The study translated a document on how to succeed as a freelance translator from English to Indonesian. The researcher identified 167 difficulties during translation and analyzed the 25 most difficult examples. Thirteen of 30 translation strategies and 5 of 13 translation principles were used in the analysis. The study concluded that not all strategies and principles could be employed due to analyzing a limited number of examples, but analyzing more examples may have identified use of additional strategies and principles. The implications were that translation requires mastery of both source and target languages as well as translation theories and computer software.
Though sharing some commonalities, English and Chinese do hold their own characteristics. Hypotaxis and parataxis are generally considered to be among the most significant differences between English and Chinese. Though previous studies have analyzed hypotaxis and parataxis from different perspectives, a few of them have applied them to prose translation. If I Were King, a typical essay written by Nie Gannu, is translated by Zhang Peiji (2012) and compiled in his Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1 . This paper is in an attempt to make a contrastive analysis between the Chinese and English versions of If I Were King from the perspective of hypotaxis and parataxis. The first part gives a brief introduction to the previous studies on hypotaxis and parataxis and If I Were King. The second part clarifies the meaning of hypotaxis and parataxis. Methodology is discussed in the third part. As the main part of this paper, the fourth part is the case studies on three levels: the lexical level, syntactic level and discourse level. The final part makes a summary and provides some practical suggestions. Through analysis, this paper aims to make other language learners have a better grasp of hypotaxis and parataxis so as to facilitate translation, especially prose translation. Besides, this paper may also provide enlightenment for scholars of contrastive linguistics.
This document discusses the use of corpus linguistics in lexicography. It defines lexicography as compiling, writing, or editing dictionaries and divides it into practical and theoretical lexicography. Practical lexicography focuses on writing dictionaries while theoretical analyzes vocabulary and word meanings. Corpora used for lexicography include newspapers, academic texts, conversations, and more. Examples of corpora mentioned are the British National Corpus and American National Corpus. The document also discusses two studies on how corpus linguistics can inform lexicography and generate cognitive profiles of words. It concludes by mentioning dictionary production software like TLex that aids in compiling dictionaries from corpora.
STRESS TEST FOR BERT AND DEEP MODELS: PREDICTING WORDS FROM ITALIAN POETRYkevig
In this paper we present a set of experiments carried out with BERT on a number of Italian sentences taken
from poetry domain. The experiments are organized on the hypothesis of a very high level of difficulty in
predictability at the three levels of linguistic complexity that we intend to monitor: lexical, syntactic and
semantic level. To test this hypothesis we ran the Italian version of BERT with 80 sentences - for a total of
900 tokens – mostly extracted from Italian poetry of the first half of last century. Then we alternated
canonical and non-canonical versions of the same sentence before processing them with the same DL
model. We used then sentences from the newswire domain containing similar syntactic structures. The
results show that the DL model is highly sensitive to presence of non-canonical structures. However, DLs
are also very sensitive to word frequency and to local non-literal meaning compositional effect. This is also
apparent by the preference for predicting function vs content words, collocates vs infrequent word phrases.
In the paper, we focused our attention on the use of subword units done by BERT for out of vocabulary
words.
STRESS TEST FOR BERT AND DEEP MODELS: PREDICTING WORDS FROM ITALIAN POETRYkevig
In this paper we present a set of experiments carried out with BERT on a number of Italian sentences taken
from poetry domain. The experiments are organized on the hypothesis of a very high level of difficulty in
predictability at the three levels of linguistic complexity that we intend to monitor: lexical, syntactic and
semantic level. To test this hypothesis we ran the Italian version of BERT with 80 sentences - for a total of
900 tokens – mostly extracted from Italian poetry of the first half of last century. Then we alternated
canonical and non-canonical versions of the same sentence before processing them with the same DL
model. We used then sentences from the newswire domain containing similar syntactic structures. The
results show that the DL model is highly sensitive to presence of non-canonical structures. However, DLs
are also very sensitive to word frequency and to local non-literal meaning compositional effect. This is also
apparent by the preference for predicting function vs content words, collocates vs infrequent word phrases.
In the paper, we focused our attention on the use of subword units done by BERT for out of vocabulary
words.
This document provides an overview of generative grammar and transformational grammar as proposed by Noam Chomsky. It discusses key concepts in Chomsky's theory such as universal grammar, deep structure and surface structure, phrase structure rules, and transformational rules. The document also summarizes Chomsky's view that grammar is an innate, hard-wired component of human language ability that can generate an infinite number of sentences from a finite set of rules.
A comparative ana;ysis of Heart of Darkness.pdfFaiz Ullah
This present qualitative study aims at identifying the applied literal translation method in the
Urdu translation of Joseph Conrad's novel “Heart of Darkness” (Qalb-e-Zulmaat) to ensure
the accuracy/faithfulness of the translation. In this textual analysis, the researcher examines
excerpts from Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" and its Urdu translation, "Qalb-eZulmaat," with a concentration on the application of the literal translation method. The aim
is to assess how well this method captures the essence of the original work and how it
addresses linguistic and cultural challenges. The researchers concluded that the Literal
translation by using Newmark theory (1988) is the source language grammatical forms that
are converted to their nearest target language equivalent. In addition, the method
compromises on an appropriate meaning. So, that no assonance, or repetition jars in the
translation. Translation shift helps the researchers to get easier to describe how the process
of translation can occur in both of source language (English) and the target language
(Urdu). The result found that level shifts usually used by translators to translate the novel
can be substantiated with the literal translation method. This research implies that students
or researchers can know well about literal translation when used in novels, and can also be
applied when the communication process needs to be translated.
This document provides an overview of coherence and cohesion in language. It defines coherence as the reasonable connections between ideas, and cohesion as the grammatical and semantic relations between different elements in a text. The document discusses the different types of cohesion, including reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction, as well as lexical cohesion. It also explains Halliday and Hasan's taxonomy of cohesive devices and the different types of reference like exophoric, endophoric, anaphoric and cataphoric reference.
This document provides an overview of coherence and cohesion in language. It defines coherence as the reasonable connections between ideas, and cohesion as the grammatical and semantic relations between different elements in a text. The document discusses different types of cohesion relations including reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. It also outlines Halliday and Hasan's taxonomy of cohesive devices and the different types of reference relations like exophoric, endophoric, anaphoric and cataphoric.
This document provides an overview of Judit Vándor's thesis on adaptation and retranslation in Translation Studies. The thesis aims to define adaptation and retranslation, highlight their common features and functions in constructing cultural norms. It will analyze how norms have changed between first translations and retranslations of works, and whether retranslation theory is valid. The theoretical background discusses the "cultural turn" and how culture/ideology influence translation. It outlines research on adaptation and retranslation in various periods and contexts. The research questions focus on the connection between adaptation and retranslation, drawing conclusions from differences in retranslations, and assessing the validity of the retranslation hypothesis. Texts will be analyzed using sociological and translation studies methods to answer these
A corpus driven comparative analysis of modal verbs in pakistani and british ...Alexander Decker
This document discusses a corpus-driven comparative analysis of modal verbs in Pakistani and British English fiction. It begins by introducing the study, which compiled corpora of 1 million words each from Pakistani English fiction (PEF) and British English fiction (BEF). Part-of-speech tagging was performed on both corpora using CLAWS tagging, and concordance lines of modal verbs were manually explored using Antconc software. The study aims to identify differences in modal verb usage between PEF and BEF and provide stylistic interpretations. A literature review covers previous research on modal verb classification and analyses of modal verbs in different varieties of English. The methodology explains that both qualitative and quantitative methods are used, including corpus compilation, POS tagging, and concord
The document discusses lexical-syntactical analysis, which involves analyzing the meaning of individual words and how they are combined syntactically in order to accurately determine the author's intended meaning. It outlines 7 steps in lexical-syntactical analysis: 1) Analyzing the general literary form, 2) Developing the author's theme, 3) Identifying natural text divisions, 4) Connecting words within paragraphs/sentences, 5) Analyzing word meanings, 6) Using lexical tools like lexicons and concordances, 7) Discovering the intended denotation of a word within its specific context. The document emphasizes determining the meaning an author intended for a word based on its context rather than just its dictionary definitions.
Lexical cohesion in the translation of Pride and Prejudice by Hanan Nassar Hanan Nassar
This paper provides a general view of lexical cohesion which is about meaning in text. Halliday and Hasan in their book Cohesion in English said that it "achieved by the selection of vocabulary." There are some works concerned with lexical cohesion but the most one is found useful is Cohesion in English by Halliday and Hasan.
Writing Creative Nonfiction By Philip Gerard, PaperbacKate Campbell
The document discusses the shift from Fordism to post-Fordism and flexible production systems. It explains that Fordism involved mass production of standardized goods, while post-Fordism focuses on flexible specialization, rapid product changes, and customization. This allows companies to differentiate their products based on style and cater to niche markets. The transition resulted in more temporary and unstable jobs compared to the stable careers common under Fordism.
Free Lined Writing Paper Printable - PrinKate Campbell
1) Car seat installation is important for safety, as thousands are injured or killed each year due to improper installation.
2) When buying a car seat, parents should research which seats have high safety standards and how they scored on safety rating tests.
3) It is crucial to ensure the car seat is installed correctly according to the vehicle and that the child is properly strapped in snugly. Extra blankets or bulky clothing can cause improper fitting.
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Analysis Of The Quot Gone With The Wind Quot And Its Simplified Version In ...Renee Lewis
This document analyzes and compares the original novel "Gone with the Wind" and its simplified version in terms of their lexical structures. It finds that the simplified version has a lower percentage of similar words, content words, and key words compared to the original. It also has a higher density and lower consistency ratio, indicating it is more compact but may decrease its pedagogical value for vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. The document used a software program called Wordsmith 4.0 to digitize and analyze the word lists and frequencies in the two versions.
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UNIVERSALITY IN TRANSLATION: AN ANALYSIS OF TRANSLATION INTERFERENCE IN MULTI...John1Lorcan
Universality in translation has been a research focus in translation studies since the publication of Mona
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governing translation in written texts, however, little attention has been devoted to translation universality
in translating multi-modal texts. This study, with Systemic Functional Grammar and Visual Grammar as
theoretical framework, verifies the validity of Law of Interference, one of the universal translation rules, in
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source text is transferred into the target text or rendered into existing patterns, and that more negative
transfers are observed in transitivity, split theme TP and information value when translating from a major
language. The paper concludes that the Law of Interference is stronger in visual mode while weaker in
verbal mode. The present study shows that the law of interference can be observed in translating
multimodal texts. It also implies that the translation of multimodal texts makes more visible the power of
English, and it helps to perpetuate the hegemony of English in the global world.
Natural language processing (NLP) aims to help computers understand human language. Ambiguity is a major challenge for NLP as words and sentences can have multiple meanings depending on context. There are different types of ambiguity including lexical ambiguity where a word has multiple meanings, syntactic ambiguity where sentence structure is unclear, and semantic ambiguity where meaning depends on broader context. NLP techniques like part-of-speech tagging and word sense disambiguation aim to resolve ambiguity by analyzing context.
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This document provides an overview of translation theory, including its basic assumptions and objectives. It discusses translation as a means of interlingual communication that produces a target text with an identical communicative value to the source text. While not identical in form or content due to linguistic differences, the target text is functionally, structurally, and semantically identified with the source text by its users. The document also outlines the general goals of achieving maximum structural parallelism and semantic identity between the source and target texts. It presents translation both as an intuitive practical activity and as an object of scientific study within the framework of linguistics and translatology.
The document discusses various theories of translation equivalence from the 20th century:
- Vinay and Darbelnet defined equivalence as replicating the same situation with different wording, maintaining stylistic impact. Equivalence is ideal for idioms, clichés, etc.
- Jakobson introduced "equivalence in difference", noting translators use synonyms and there is no full equivalence between codes. Languages differ grammatically but translation is still possible.
- Nida distinguished formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence, which seeks equivalent effect on the target audience rather than form.
- Catford introduced translation shifts like level shifts and category shifts involving changes in structure, class, rank or system between languages.
-
Article - An Annotated Translation of How to Succeed as a Freelance Translato...Cynthia Velynne
This document summarizes an annotated translation research study conducted by Wahyu Budi. The study translated a document on how to succeed as a freelance translator from English to Indonesian. The researcher identified 167 difficulties during translation and analyzed the 25 most difficult examples. Thirteen of 30 translation strategies and 5 of 13 translation principles were used in the analysis. The study concluded that not all strategies and principles could be employed due to analyzing a limited number of examples, but analyzing more examples may have identified use of additional strategies and principles. The implications were that translation requires mastery of both source and target languages as well as translation theories and computer software.
Though sharing some commonalities, English and Chinese do hold their own characteristics. Hypotaxis and parataxis are generally considered to be among the most significant differences between English and Chinese. Though previous studies have analyzed hypotaxis and parataxis from different perspectives, a few of them have applied them to prose translation. If I Were King, a typical essay written by Nie Gannu, is translated by Zhang Peiji (2012) and compiled in his Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1 . This paper is in an attempt to make a contrastive analysis between the Chinese and English versions of If I Were King from the perspective of hypotaxis and parataxis. The first part gives a brief introduction to the previous studies on hypotaxis and parataxis and If I Were King. The second part clarifies the meaning of hypotaxis and parataxis. Methodology is discussed in the third part. As the main part of this paper, the fourth part is the case studies on three levels: the lexical level, syntactic level and discourse level. The final part makes a summary and provides some practical suggestions. Through analysis, this paper aims to make other language learners have a better grasp of hypotaxis and parataxis so as to facilitate translation, especially prose translation. Besides, this paper may also provide enlightenment for scholars of contrastive linguistics.
This document discusses the use of corpus linguistics in lexicography. It defines lexicography as compiling, writing, or editing dictionaries and divides it into practical and theoretical lexicography. Practical lexicography focuses on writing dictionaries while theoretical analyzes vocabulary and word meanings. Corpora used for lexicography include newspapers, academic texts, conversations, and more. Examples of corpora mentioned are the British National Corpus and American National Corpus. The document also discusses two studies on how corpus linguistics can inform lexicography and generate cognitive profiles of words. It concludes by mentioning dictionary production software like TLex that aids in compiling dictionaries from corpora.
STRESS TEST FOR BERT AND DEEP MODELS: PREDICTING WORDS FROM ITALIAN POETRYkevig
In this paper we present a set of experiments carried out with BERT on a number of Italian sentences taken
from poetry domain. The experiments are organized on the hypothesis of a very high level of difficulty in
predictability at the three levels of linguistic complexity that we intend to monitor: lexical, syntactic and
semantic level. To test this hypothesis we ran the Italian version of BERT with 80 sentences - for a total of
900 tokens – mostly extracted from Italian poetry of the first half of last century. Then we alternated
canonical and non-canonical versions of the same sentence before processing them with the same DL
model. We used then sentences from the newswire domain containing similar syntactic structures. The
results show that the DL model is highly sensitive to presence of non-canonical structures. However, DLs
are also very sensitive to word frequency and to local non-literal meaning compositional effect. This is also
apparent by the preference for predicting function vs content words, collocates vs infrequent word phrases.
In the paper, we focused our attention on the use of subword units done by BERT for out of vocabulary
words.
STRESS TEST FOR BERT AND DEEP MODELS: PREDICTING WORDS FROM ITALIAN POETRYkevig
In this paper we present a set of experiments carried out with BERT on a number of Italian sentences taken
from poetry domain. The experiments are organized on the hypothesis of a very high level of difficulty in
predictability at the three levels of linguistic complexity that we intend to monitor: lexical, syntactic and
semantic level. To test this hypothesis we ran the Italian version of BERT with 80 sentences - for a total of
900 tokens – mostly extracted from Italian poetry of the first half of last century. Then we alternated
canonical and non-canonical versions of the same sentence before processing them with the same DL
model. We used then sentences from the newswire domain containing similar syntactic structures. The
results show that the DL model is highly sensitive to presence of non-canonical structures. However, DLs
are also very sensitive to word frequency and to local non-literal meaning compositional effect. This is also
apparent by the preference for predicting function vs content words, collocates vs infrequent word phrases.
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A New Approach For Paraphrasing And Rewording A Challenging Text
1. 158
Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Volume 12. Number2 June 2021 Pp.158-168
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol12no2.11
A New Approach for Paraphrasing and Rewording a Challenging Text
Yahya Polat
Translation Studies Department, Faculty of Humanities, Ala-Too International University
Bishkek, 720048 Kyrgyzstan
Satylmysh Bajak
Turkish Studies Department, Faculty of Humanities, Ala-Too International University
Bishkek, 720048 Kyrgyzstan
Ainuska Zhumaeva
Translation Studies Department, Faculty of Humanities, Ala-Too International University
Bishkek, 720048 Kyrgyzstan
Received: 3/28/2021 Accepted: 5/10/2021 Published: 6/24/2021
Abstract
This article aims to propose a practical model for intra-lingual translation or paraphrase in
another term. Paraphrase is a restatement of a text, rewording something written or spoken,
especially to achieve greater clarity. This approach could help a troubled translator who is having
issues translating a complex text into a receptor language by assessing the source text and
reconstructing the contents in a simpler semantic structure. (Larson, 2012) Noam Chomsky's
generative–transformational model (1957, 1965) and Larson's (2012) methodology have been
followed to analyze sentences into a series of related levels governed by the help of several other
techniques. To achieve this, firstly, the concepts; Intralingual translation, rewording,
paraphrasing, and restatement are identified and explained. Secondly, methods of rewording are
unpacked, then other elements that play an essential role in paraphrasing are presented. Thirdly,
steps of paraphrasing are applied to the text Taj Mahal where skewings between semantic
structure and grammatical features are studied and unskewed. Lastly, a conclusion is drawn from
the findings to verify the hypothesis of the paraphrase. The findings and results of rewording are
also briefly discussed.
Keywords: antonyms, paraphrase, reciprocal words, restatement, skewing, synonyms, substitute
words
Cite as: Polat, Y. , Bajak, S. & Zhumaeva, S. (2021). A New Approach for Paraphrasing and
Rewording a Challenging Text. Arab World English Journal, 12 (2) 158-168.
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol12no2.11
2. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Volume 12. Number 2. June 2021
A New Approach for Paraphrasing and Rewording a Challenging Text Polat, Bajak & Zhumaeva
Arab World English Journal www.awej.org
ISSN: 2229-9327
159
Introduction:
We, easterners, are much different from Europeans in many ways. Most of us prefer short
poems over long, thick novels of the West. Two-hour symphonies bore some of us to death.
Many members in our parliaments have no more a function than what a chorus does in
Shakespeare's plays. Accordingly, as an Asian, I am for more practice and a little theory in
teaching translation studies. In the preface of the book "Meaning Based Translation" (Larson,
1998), Newmark emphasized the need for additional practical works in the subject of translation
studies, claiming that the books, which have primarily been authored by Germans, have been too
philosophical and abstract to relate to any of the translator's everyday issues. Nida was one of the
first researchers to deal practically with the cultural and the numerous linguistic issues of
translation. Larson has produced the first textbook designed to be used in the classroom.
Therefore, Larson’s Meaning Based Translation (2012) has been one of my favorites for a long
time. I and my students have studied and paraphrased complicated texts step by step following
the instructions in the book. With a little theory thrown in, we have created a sample model that
can serve as a guide for translators, linguists, and researchers.
Literature Review
Definition
The term translation itself has several meanings: Translation, according to Larson (2012), is
essentially the act of transferring the meaning of the source language into a receptor language.
Translation occurs when a form of the first language is transferred to a second language via a
semantic structure. The meaning of a word or set of words can be well understood because of its
role in the whole linguistic expression where they occur. The translation can refer to
- the general subject field,
- the product (the text that has been translated) or
- the process (the act of producing the translation, otherwise known as translating).
Types of Translation
A translator is expected to turn an original written text (the source text or ST) in the original
verbal language (the source language or SL) into a written text (the target text or TT) in a
different verbal language when translating two separate written languages (the target language or
TL). (Munday, 2016) This type corresponds to interlingual translation. Jakobson (1959/2004)
makes a significant distinction between three types of written translation:
- intralingual translation, or 'rewording': 'an interpretation of verbal signs through other
signs of the same language;
- interlingual translation, or 'translation proper': 'an interpretation of verbal signs
employing some other language;
- intersemiotic translation, or 'transmutation': 'an interpretation of verbal signs using signs
of non-verbal sign systems.
Paraphrase and Rewording
In this article, we will deal with intralingual translation, in other terms rewording or
paraphrasing, that holds important information about how meaning is created in texts. We will do
our best to show how to make a complicated English text or paragraph easier through
paraphrasing making a translator’s job easier.
3. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Volume 12. Number 2. June 2021
A New Approach for Paraphrasing and Rewording a Challenging Text Polat, Bajak & Zhumaeva
Arab World English Journal www.awej.org
ISSN: 2229-9327
160
The term paraphrase is explained by Oxford English Dictionary (2012) as a restatement of a
text, rewording of something written or spoken, especially to achieve greater clarity. Newmark
(1988) defines it as amplification or explanation of the meaning of a segment of the text used in
an 'anonymous' text when it is poorly written or has essential implications and omissions. For
example, a Spanish siesta may be restated by a phrase; ‘a rest or a nap, especially one taken in
the early afternoon during the hottest hours of the day in a hot climate.
Larson (2012) calls the process of paraphrasing "unpacking" the semantic structure of a word
which is sometimes called restatement” (p. 65)
Restatement technically means to say the same thing in another way. In this kind of restating;
- there should be no change in the semantic components;
- there should be no additions or deletions, but the exact meaning should be carried by the
restatement as much as possible
- there should be no skewing between the grammar and the semantics,
- each concept should be made explicit, and in this way, all of the meaning is brought out.
Paraphrase, from simple text analysis to machine translation, has a wide range of applications
in linguistics. In this article, we have followed the following procedure: We will
minimize the complex and compound sentences into simple kernel sentences (propositions) in
terms of syntax; turn complicated, abstract words into simple concrete words using
transformational rules; and replace the words mentioned above with synonyms, antonyms, and
reciprocal words where necessary.
Methods
In our work, we will follow Noam Chomsky's generative–transformational model (1957,
1965). He proposes; four groups of word classes; deep, surface structures and Kernel sentences
as the way of weighing any world language in the same scale. Larson (2012) has developed the
best methodology to apply the above-mentioned rules step by step to a complicated, presented
below clearly.
Four groups of Word Classes
Larson, benefitting from Chomsky's model, has developed a new methodology to analyze the
source text. According to Larson (2012), the smallest unit in the semantic structure is a meaning
component (morpheme). Meaning components group together to form concepts (words).
Concepts make semantic propositions (clauses) that exist in all languages.
Meaning components and concepts are classified semantically into four main groups; things,
events, attributes, and relations.
1- Events include all verbs; (actions, process, and experiences), e.g., run, fall, grow, think.
2- Things include all nouns; (animate beings, natural and supernatural, and all inanimate
entities), e.g. woman, horse, book, table.
3- Attributes include all adjectives and adverbs; (attributes of quality and quantity ascribed
to things or events), e.g. big, fast, hot, soft, rough, slowly, suddenly, few, all.
4. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Volume 12. Number 2. June 2021
A New Approach for Paraphrasing and Rewording a Challenging Text Polat, Bajak & Zhumaeva
Arab World English Journal www.awej.org
ISSN: 2229-9327
161
4- Relations in other terms, function words, include all affixes, prepositions, conjunctions,
and copulas posited between any two of the semantic units e.g., with, by, because, since,
and, therefore, after, pre-, into, of, and, be).
Kernels and Propositions
Chomsky states that the structural relations described in this model to be a universal feature of
human language. Kernels are simple, active, and declarative sentences that require minimum
transformation. E.g., the deer sucked her fawn. Murray (2016). They are the essential structural
elements out of which the language builds its elaborate surface structures. Larson (2012) prefers
to use the term propositions instead of kernels. Propositions are to be obtained from the ST
surface structure by a reductive process of back transformation.
Examples: “I cannot fly.” “She bought a dress.” “I am a teacher.”
Surface and Deep Structures
American linguist Noam Chomsky popularized the terms deep structure and surface structure
in the 1960s and 70s. The deep structure represents meaning, and the surface structure is the
actual sentence we see. Through an analysis of the surface structure, a language, so to speak, is
restored back to its factory settings, and become ready to translate. Behind the surface,
(grammatical, lexical, phonological) structure is the deep (semantic) structure, the meaning
(Larson, 2012).
The key features of this model, as explained by Murray (2016), can be summarized simply as
follows:
1. Phrase-structure rules generate the deep structure.
2. Getting help from transformational rules, the deep structure is transformed, relating one
underlying structure to another (e.g., active to passive),
3. A final surface structure is produced, which is subject to phonological and morphemic rules.
For example:
1. Surface Structure: Usman and John met in the restaurant to dine. When they finished eating,
Usman left first, and then John also went.
Deep Structure: Usman and John met in the restaurant. Usman and John dined. Usman left. John
left.
2. Surface Structure: When I came to the store, I bought ice cream.
Deep Structure: I came to the store. I bought ice cream.
Skewing in Translation
The skewing occurs between the grammar and the semantic categories. Larson (2012) warns
translators to be aware of skewing because they exist in all modes of surface structures. Skewing
is defined in the online Merriam-Webster Dictionary as deviation from a straight line. However,
in linguistic terms, "skewing" means the diversity or the lack of one-to-one correlation between
form and meaning. (Larson, 2012, p. 10) If a noun in one language corresponds to a noun in the
target language, that will create no problem. However, in contrasting languages, there is no
correlation between two different parts of speech. Where one language uses the verb with some
degree of frequency, another language may be expressing the same meanings using the verbal
noun.
5. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Volume 12. Number 2. June 2021
A New Approach for Paraphrasing and Rewording a Challenging Text Polat, Bajak & Zhumaeva
Arab World English Journal www.awej.org
ISSN: 2229-9327
162
The skewing frequently occurs between semantic classes and parts of speech. Many
languages can use an event concept as a noun in grammar. For example, in English, death is a
noun based on the event concept to die. Strength is a noun based on the attribute concept strong,
and a happy life is a noun phrase based on the concept to live happily. In some languages, some
forms modify nouns that refer to event concepts, as, for example, In the phrase rosy cheeks, the
adjective rosy refers to things, so the semantic structure would be the cheeks that look like roses.
There is a skewing between grammar and the semantic structure (Larson, 2012).
Example of Analysis
The words of a language on the surface structure are classified by distribution in the grammar.
The words in a sentence are categorized using word classes, such as subject, predicate, object,
and so on. For example, if we say, “The plan is nice,” the word plan would be classified as a
noun in English grammar. The plan here is used as the subject of grammatical construction.
However, it is an action that one does; it is an event. There is, therefore, a skewing between
semantic classes and grammatical classes at this point (Larson, 2012).
Table 1. Examples from (Nida 1964a: 64), (Larson 2012) in phrase-level:
Note 1. Adapted from Nida 1964, p. 64) and Larson (2012)
Surface
Structure
Skewing Comment Deep
Structure
Comment
will of
God
will Will is a thing in the
sentence. It is originally
an event
God wills Subject, God and
event, wills.
creation of
the world
Creation Creation is a thing in the
sentence. It is originally
an event
(God)
created the
world.
An agent (God) is
added. It was
implicit in the
surface structure
death of the
dancer
death,
dancer
The concept of death
and dancer are things
(nouns) in the surface
structure. They are
events & actions in the
deep structure.
(The man or
woman) that
danced, died.
The proposition gets
an agent, man or
woman. Dancer
became ‘a person
who dances.’
falling star
attribute
falling falling is an attribute
here but refers to an
event concept.
a star which
is falling
A star became an
agent, and falling
became an event.
Table 2. The sentence level
Surface
Structure
Skewing Comment Deep Structure Comment
Forgiveness is
important
Forgivenes
s
The thing forgiveness
becomes an event.
It is important to
forgive.
The sheep
were taken to
the slaughter.
slaughter The thing slaughter
becomes an event.
(They) took the
sheep
(somewhere).
They slaughtered
it.
A passive sentence
becomes an active one.
One sentence becomes two
simple propositions.
The agent of the
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proposition changes: Sheep
= They
She was told
of the death of
Hassan.
death The thing death becomes
an event.
Somebody told.
Hassan died.
The passive sentence
becomes active.
One sentence becomes two
simple sentences.
The agent shifts. She
becomes Hassan.
Suddenly there
was a great
earthquake.
Earthquake The thing earthquake
becomes a thing and an
event.
Suddenly the
earth began to
quake.
A compound word
becomes two separate
words.
Her singing is
too loud.
singing,
loud
A thing singing becomes
an event.
An adjective loud
becomes an adverb.
She sings very
loudly.
Possessive pronoun her
becomes, she.
Other Elements Playing an Important Role in Paraphrasing
There are several basic "elements" in creating paraphrases: synonyms, near-synonyms,
substitute words, and reciprocal words. They all play an essential role in paraphrasing.
Synonyms
Synonyms are one of the best sources of paraphrase. They are used to create more varied and
fluent text. The interchangeable character of words gives rise to paraphrases. For example, the
English words wage, salary, income, and pay can be used interchangeably to express a form of
periodic payment established between an employer and an employee (Haas, 2000).
Larson (2012) states that, although there are very similar words in any language, in meaning,
there are very few exact synonyms. Even if the words are identical in essence, they might not
have the same usage in sentence and paragraph structures. The terms often and frequently are
close synonyms. There are some groups of words that are equivalent in their basic meaning but
have additional positive or negative implications. One word may be appropriate in one situation
and the other appropriate in a different situation. One may be more formal and another less
formal.
The words speak, tell, and say all have an ordinary meaning. However, there are only
specific contexts in which they are interchangeable. Gülmek, (to laugh), tebessüm etmek (to
smile), and sırıtmak (to grin) in Turkish are also synonymous words but with a big difference in
usage. Even though cop, policeman, and police officer all refer to the same thing, police officer is
more formal than cop. A target language may have more words to choose from the source
language or not have any specific word for each synonym of the source language. The translator
must be aware of the very minute differences between words and near-synonyms to choose the
word with the right connotation.
Baker (1992) states that words that we might think of as synonyms or near-synonyms will
often have entirely different sets of collocates. English speakers typically break the rules, but
they do not break regulations; they typically waste time but not squandering time. (1986, p.
281). Despite the fact that the adjectives: unblemished, spotless, flawless, immaculate, and
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impeccable are synonyms or near-synonyms, they do not combine freely with the same set of
nouns.
Antonyms
The antonym of a term, according to Larson (1997), is the exact opposite or contrasts in some
parts of its meaning. All languages will have antonyms, but different languages will have other
pairs. For example, in English, we distinguish flesh and meat between humans and animals. In
Turkish, there is only one-word, et which is used for both animals and men.
It can sometimes be beneficial to a translator looking for an antonym, the word opposite in
meaning. He may simply construct a negative form of that antonym. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995)
call it the negation of opposite under the category of Modulation. For example, it does not seem
unusual, and it can also be said like it is very typical. It is said that in some Dagestani dialects,
they do not have a word for love. They have the phrase want instead. While others speak to the
girl they love, "I love you!" they simply say, “I want you!” In English, the words good and bad
are antonyms. However, in Kyrgyz, the distinction is made by the word beautiful, suluu,
contrasting with the same word beautiful linked to a negative suffix, not-beautiful, suluu emes.
That is, there are not two separate words; there is simply beautiful and not beautiful.
Substitute Words
In speaking and writing, we try to avoid repeating words, phrases, or clauses. We use
substitute forms to do this:
A: Pam always brings us back chocolates when she travels.
B: Oh, nice.
A: She brought some Belgian ones from her last trip, which were delicious.
B: Lucky you! (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/substitution)
Substitute words are utilized when receptor language natural patterns prefer various terms to
refer to the same thing or event, according to Larson (2012), and the reverse may also be true. It
would be more realistic to use substitute words in the receptor language if the original term has
been repeated several times. It is not necessary to interpret substitute words literally. Instead,
natural patterns of the receptor language for substitute words should be used. Example:
"My old Mercedes broke down again. It has been a good car. But it is time to get rid of the
old thing." In this paragraph, Mercedes has been referred to by it, car, and thing. These are all
substitute words for the antecedent Mercedes. A substitute word refers to something already
introduced to context. Sometimes the substitute word will be more generic. For example, car is a
more generic word than Plymouth, and thing is more generic than car. However, it is a pronoun,
a substitute word that may substitute for any noun
Reciprocal Words
Most languages have sets of words, which are reciprocal of one another. This changes the
semantics and point of view of the SL. As Larson (2012) suggested, this technique may
sometimes help translate where the receptor language has a specific word used in the same way
as the source language. It may be that the same meaning can be communicated by using a
reciprocal word. For example, the government gave a large grant to the miners, which might in
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some translation need to be translated conversely; the miners received a large grant from the
government. Style in some language may make one phrasing more correct than the other. In
Turkish, there is no word for being born. “I was born in 1995” can only be translated into
Turkish as; “my mother gave birth to me in 1995.”
Text Analysis and Paraphrase
The Text: Creation History of Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal is actually an integrated complex of structures, with the white-domed marble
mausoleum being its most significant component. Entrusted to a board-of-architects by Emperor
Shah Jahan, the construction of the Taj Complex began about 1631 AD. The principal
mausoleum was completed in 1648 AD by employing thousands of artisans and craftsmen,
whereas the outlying buildings and gardens were finished five years later in 1653 AD. The Taj,
the ultimate expression of love, speaks volumes of indulgence coming from an overflowing
treasury and political security of that era and much more by way of the finesse in art and science
of architecture.
Definitions of highlighted words
• Dome a large hemispherical roof or ceiling
• Marble something (such as a piece of sculpture) composed of or made from
• Mausoleum a large tomb, or a large gloomy building or room especially: a usually stone
building with places for the entombment of the dead above ground
Paraphrase and Analysis
In this part, the text Taj Mahal that has four sentences will be paraphrased and analyzed. First,
the original sentence in the surface structure is presented below. In the deep structure, it is
paraphrased, and lastly, in the commentary part, all the techniques used in the paraphrase are
explained.
Surface Structure
1. The Taj Mahal is actually an integrated complex of structures, with the white-domed
marble mausoleum being its most significant component.
Deep Structure
The Taj Mahal is actually a group of buildings joined together. It has a mausoleum with a
white dome made of marbles. It the most important part of the complex.
Commentary
- Advanced words and complex structures in the source text are replaced with more simple
synonyms and equivalent forms; significant to important, component to part,
construction to building, integrated to joined, complex to group.
- The word order of the surface structure has been slightly modified.
- Long propositional clusters (sentences) were divided into two or more propositions
(clauses).
- The phrase Taj Mahal is substituted with the terms: a building, and it.
- It substituted the mausoleum.
- Skewings are handled. For example, things (nouns) after the paraphrase became events
(verbs) which made the sentences easier to understand: The word marble was an attribute
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(adjective), but after paraphrasing, it became a thing. The dome in the source text was an
attribute, and it became a thing. This process is called nominalization.
Surface Structure
2. Entrusted to a board-of-architects by Emperor Shah Jahan, the construction of the Taj
Complex began about 1631 AD.
Deep Structure
Emperor Shah Jahan hired the best architects to build the complex Taj in 1631 AD
.
Commentary
- Complex words in the source text are replaced with more simple equivalents; entrusted to
hired, board-of-architects to best.
- The word order on the surface structure has been slightly adjusted, known as Modulation,
and Transposition.
- Shah Jahan became the agent in the deep structure: Reciprocal words & Modulation.
- Long propositional clusters (sentences) were divided into two or more propositions
(clauses).
- Skewings were eliminated. For example, things (nouns) after the paraphrase became
events (verbs), making the sentences easier to understand. The word construction was a
thing, but then it became an event; to build. This process is called verbalization.
Surface Structure
3. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 AD by employing thousands of artisans
and craftsmen, whereas the outlying buildings and gardens were finished five years later
in 1653 AD.
Deep Structure
In 1648 AD Shah Jahan employed thousands of artisans and craftsmen to complete the
central mausoleum. However, they finished the other buildings and gardens five years
later, in 1653 AD.
Commentary
- Complex words in the source text are replaced with more simple synonyms: principal to
central, outlying to other.
- The structure, the word order of the surface structure, has been slightly modified, called
transposition & Modulation.
- Shah Jahan became the agent in the deep structure: Reciprocal Words & Modulation.
- Long propositional clusters (sentences) were divided into two or more propositions
(clauses).
- The passive sentence became active. It is another type of Modulation.
- Skewings were eliminated. The word employing has become to employ. This process is
called verbalization.
Surface Structure
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4. The Taj, the ultimate expression of love, speaks volumes of indulgence coming from an
overflowing treasury and political security of that era and much more by way of the
finesse in art and science of architecture.
Deep Structure
The king wanted to express his deep love (for his late wife) through the most beautiful
building in the world, the Taj complex. He was able to achieve his goal because he
flowed his treasure. Secondly, there was no political threat to the country, much more by
way of the finesse in art and science of architecture.
Commentary
- In this part, complicated phrases in the surface structure are simplified. For example,
volumes of indulgence are modified to the most beautiful building in the world.
- The long propositional cluster is divided into four propositions. The word order and
structure of the propositions have slightly changed.
- Skewings are unskewed. The phrase expression of love became ‘to expresses a deep love’
after paraphrasing (verbalization). Overflowing treasury has been modified to flowed his
treasure. Overflowing was an attribute that became an event to flow. In the second part,
the treasury was a thing has been changed to the treasure.
Conclusion
This study provides a guide for puzzled translators, indicating clear steps of paraphrasing a
challenging text prepared to be translated. Having explained the terms, skewing, and restatement
as the initial steps of paraphrasing, we have shown how to handle skewings with examples.
Synonyms, antonyms, substitute words, and reciprocal words have been explained as
supplementary techniques of paraphrasing. We hope that this study might help a translator
identify the difference between the grammatical categories and the semantic categories. This
way, they can eliminate most of the skewing and make it easier to translate into a more verbal
language. The skewing and all the complexities between grammar and semantics are eliminated
in this method, and each concept is made obvious, bringing out the meaning.
About the Authors
Dr. Yahya Polat is an associate professor of linguistics and literature at Ala-Too International
University in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, where he teaches courses at the undergraduate and graduate
levels. Some of the courses are; Turkish-Kyrgyz-English translation, History of English and
American Literature, Introduction to Translation, and Machine Translation. His research interest
includes Kyrgyz, Turkish, and English Syntax and Proverbs, the title of his dissertation. Orcid
ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9938-8628
Dr. Satylmysh Bajak is an associate professor of Turkish Studies at Ala-Too International
University. He teaches courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels; some of the courses are
Translation, Syntax, Phonetics, and Etymology. His research interest includes etymology of
words, Phonetic changes in Kyrgyz, Mongol, Turkish words, and their translation.
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Ainuska Zhumaeva is a senior student at Ala-Too International University, Humanities Faculty,
Translation Studies Department. She assists her professors in their academic studies. She is
interested in Literary Translation, Computer Assisted Translation and Cultural Translation.
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