1) Aluminum alloy 6061 chips were recycled through solid-state recycling involving hot extrusion followed by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) without remelting.
2) The extruded rods were ECAP processed at room temperature up to different numbers of passes.
3) The microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated for variations in extrusion temperature and number of ECAP passes. Grain refinement and higher strength properties were observed with increasing ECAP passes.
Study of the Tribological behavior of as cast Al-4.2%Cu-Al2O3 compositeIOSR Journals
The research work is carried out on the study of tribological property of aluminium based metal matrix composite material, which is fabricated by using sol-gel technique. The composite material is prepared through liquid metallurgy method by using varying percentage of Alumina and aluminium and fixed percentage of copper 4.2%. Test sample billet is fabricated through casting method and has been examined the different mechanical behaviour such as Vickers Hardness Number, Ultimate Tensile Strength, 0.2% Proof Stress, etc.
From the study, it has been observed that with increase in the alumina content in matrix the ductility of composite show a contrary effect. The Pin-On-Disc test is used to evaluate the tribological property wear for composite material and it is observered that tendency of wear rate has improved. The weight losses of the specimen are measured and wear and friction characteristics are calculated with respect to time. Depth of wear track, sliding speed, bearing load friction coefficient and wear volume have been shown large sensitivity to the applied normal load and the testing time (or sliding distance). The XRD and SEM analysis are used to analyse the wear debris and track; and silent conclusion has been drawn
. One of the methods used to surface hardening of ductile iron is chilled cast iron. Chill as the fast cooling rate in the mold during solidification and chill thickness greatly affects the thickness of the hardness layer. The main material used is ductile iron, and the chill material is SS 304. Casting uses the sand casting method. Before pouring, the chill plate has been inserted onto the surface of the pattern that has been formed in the mold, then the chill plate is preheated at 700OC. Pouring was carried out at a melting temperature of 1400OC, and then cooled with argon and O2 sprays into the mold in solidification conditions at exactly 700OC. The results analyzed were the microstructure, hardness value, and the hardness of the thickness layer. This chill coolant will absorb heat very quickly and the Cr and Ni alloy will diffuse to the specimen surface to stabilize the ferrite and austenite phases in the final solidification. The particles on the hard surface have Ferro carbide M7C3, which is in the form of cementite and martensitic phases so that to categorized as white cast iron structure formed on the surface with an area around 1.5-3mm has a hardness of 61-65HRC. But in the center area is 31-49HRC
Investigate Temperature Preheating on the Chill Plate to Identify Surface Cha...Natalino Fonseca
1. The document describes an investigation into the effect of temperature preheating on the chill plate to characterize the surface of ductile iron castings.
2. Samples of ductile iron were cast against chill plates that were preheated to different temperatures (500°C, 700°C, 900°C, and unheated) to study the microhardness, surface layer thickness, and elemental composition on the casting surface.
3. Preliminary results found that higher preheat temperatures produced a carbide structure on the casting surface, while no preheating resulted in a fully ferritic microstructure with uniform carbide formation and a pearlite-ferrite microstructure.
Performance of Composite Materials Using a Novel Techniqueinventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document discusses the effects of heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of gray cast iron. It finds that hardening gray cast iron through quenching increases its hardness significantly compared to the as-received material due to the formation of martensite. Hardening and tempering gray cast iron results in a slight decrease in hardness compared to just hardening, as tempering allows some graphite flakes to reform. Microstructural analysis shows hardened gray cast iron has a martensitic needle-like structure instead of graphite flakes, accounting for the increase in hardness.
This document discusses friction stir processing (FSP), a technique for modifying the microstructure of metals near the surface. FSP uses a rotating tool to generate heat and plasticize the metal. As the tool traverses the material, it leaves behind a fine-grained microstructure. The document outlines the working principle of FSP and its applications, including fabricating surface composites, refining cast alloys, and producing superplasticity. FSP effectively improves mechanical properties like strength and ductility compared to the as-cast condition.
This document summarizes a study on the hot corrosion behavior of friction stir processed C60 steel. Friction stir processing was performed on C60 steel samples at different rotational speeds to refine the grain structure. The samples were then subjected to hot corrosion testing by heating in molten salts at 900°C for 50 cycles. The friction stir processed samples showed higher corrosion resistance compared to the base steel as indicated by their lower weight gain and Kp values. Examination of the samples found a protective oxide scale formed on the processed steel due to its refined microstructure, whereas cracks were present on the base steel.
Study of the Tribological behavior of as cast Al-4.2%Cu-Al2O3 compositeIOSR Journals
The research work is carried out on the study of tribological property of aluminium based metal matrix composite material, which is fabricated by using sol-gel technique. The composite material is prepared through liquid metallurgy method by using varying percentage of Alumina and aluminium and fixed percentage of copper 4.2%. Test sample billet is fabricated through casting method and has been examined the different mechanical behaviour such as Vickers Hardness Number, Ultimate Tensile Strength, 0.2% Proof Stress, etc.
From the study, it has been observed that with increase in the alumina content in matrix the ductility of composite show a contrary effect. The Pin-On-Disc test is used to evaluate the tribological property wear for composite material and it is observered that tendency of wear rate has improved. The weight losses of the specimen are measured and wear and friction characteristics are calculated with respect to time. Depth of wear track, sliding speed, bearing load friction coefficient and wear volume have been shown large sensitivity to the applied normal load and the testing time (or sliding distance). The XRD and SEM analysis are used to analyse the wear debris and track; and silent conclusion has been drawn
. One of the methods used to surface hardening of ductile iron is chilled cast iron. Chill as the fast cooling rate in the mold during solidification and chill thickness greatly affects the thickness of the hardness layer. The main material used is ductile iron, and the chill material is SS 304. Casting uses the sand casting method. Before pouring, the chill plate has been inserted onto the surface of the pattern that has been formed in the mold, then the chill plate is preheated at 700OC. Pouring was carried out at a melting temperature of 1400OC, and then cooled with argon and O2 sprays into the mold in solidification conditions at exactly 700OC. The results analyzed were the microstructure, hardness value, and the hardness of the thickness layer. This chill coolant will absorb heat very quickly and the Cr and Ni alloy will diffuse to the specimen surface to stabilize the ferrite and austenite phases in the final solidification. The particles on the hard surface have Ferro carbide M7C3, which is in the form of cementite and martensitic phases so that to categorized as white cast iron structure formed on the surface with an area around 1.5-3mm has a hardness of 61-65HRC. But in the center area is 31-49HRC
Investigate Temperature Preheating on the Chill Plate to Identify Surface Cha...Natalino Fonseca
1. The document describes an investigation into the effect of temperature preheating on the chill plate to characterize the surface of ductile iron castings.
2. Samples of ductile iron were cast against chill plates that were preheated to different temperatures (500°C, 700°C, 900°C, and unheated) to study the microhardness, surface layer thickness, and elemental composition on the casting surface.
3. Preliminary results found that higher preheat temperatures produced a carbide structure on the casting surface, while no preheating resulted in a fully ferritic microstructure with uniform carbide formation and a pearlite-ferrite microstructure.
Performance of Composite Materials Using a Novel Techniqueinventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document discusses the effects of heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of gray cast iron. It finds that hardening gray cast iron through quenching increases its hardness significantly compared to the as-received material due to the formation of martensite. Hardening and tempering gray cast iron results in a slight decrease in hardness compared to just hardening, as tempering allows some graphite flakes to reform. Microstructural analysis shows hardened gray cast iron has a martensitic needle-like structure instead of graphite flakes, accounting for the increase in hardness.
This document discusses friction stir processing (FSP), a technique for modifying the microstructure of metals near the surface. FSP uses a rotating tool to generate heat and plasticize the metal. As the tool traverses the material, it leaves behind a fine-grained microstructure. The document outlines the working principle of FSP and its applications, including fabricating surface composites, refining cast alloys, and producing superplasticity. FSP effectively improves mechanical properties like strength and ductility compared to the as-cast condition.
This document summarizes a study on the hot corrosion behavior of friction stir processed C60 steel. Friction stir processing was performed on C60 steel samples at different rotational speeds to refine the grain structure. The samples were then subjected to hot corrosion testing by heating in molten salts at 900°C for 50 cycles. The friction stir processed samples showed higher corrosion resistance compared to the base steel as indicated by their lower weight gain and Kp values. Examination of the samples found a protective oxide scale formed on the processed steel due to its refined microstructure, whereas cracks were present on the base steel.
Wear Properties of Thixoformed Al-5.7Si-2Cu-0.3Mg Aluminium AlloyDr. Manal Abdullatif
Earlier work has shown that Al-5.7Si-2Cu-0.3Mg aluminium alloy is suitable for
thixoforming process. Here, the dry sliding wear behaviour of the alloy, in the as-cast and
thixoformed conditions were investigated. The cooling slope technique was used to produce the alloy
with globular microstructure for the thixoforming process. Both the thixoformed and cast samples
were subjected to T6 heat treatments prior to the wear tests. The tests were carried out using a
pin-on-disc tribometer, against a hardened M2 tool steel disc of 62 HRC at different loads, under dry
sliding conditions at fixed sliding speed and sliding distance of 1 m.s–1 and 5 km respectively. The
microstructural response, worn surfaces was thoroughly and carefully examined using various
methods such as scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and differential
scanning calorimetry. The density of the heat treated thixoformed alloys showed significant increase
in the hardness property, among others, due to its reduced porosity. Their wear test results also
observed that the weight loss of materials increase with an increase in the input load and the sliding
distance for all samples. However, the as-cast alloy displayed higher wear rate compared with the
thixoformed alloys. In general, the wear mechanisms showed a mixture of abrasive, oxidative and
delamination wear (mild wear) at low applied loads and mainly an adhesive (severe wear) at high
applied loads.
Crimson Publishers-Micro Structural Features Induced by Sheet Hydroforming of...CrimsonPublishersRDMS
Micro Structural Features Induced by Sheet Hydroforming of Non- Ferrous Metals and Alloys by Forouhandeh F in Research & Development in Material Science
Mechanical property assessment of austempered and conventionally hardened aisiIAEME Publication
The document summarizes a study that assessed the mechanical properties of AISI 4340 steel that underwent austempering heat treatment versus conventional hardening. Specimens were subjected to tensile, torsion, hardness, impact, and microstructure tests in the as-bought, austempered, and conventionally hardened conditions. Austempering improved tensile, torsional, and impact strength compared to conventional hardening, though it showed a slight decrease in hardness. Lower bainitic and martensitic microstructures were observed after austempering and conventional hardening, respectively.
Chapter 3: Metal Works, Casting & Heat Treatmentsyar 2604
This topic explains the processes of metal works and casting. It also describes the types and purpose of heat treatment for steels and the effects of heat treatment on mechanical properties of steels.
The document summarizes an investigation into the mechanical properties of AISI 420 martensitic stainless steel after undergoing a quenching and partitioning (Q&P) heat treatment process. The study examined the microstructure, hardness, tensile strength, and fracture behavior of samples treated with different Q&P temperatures and times. Key findings include a significant increase in hardness and tensile strength compared to annealed samples, evidence of retained austenite contributing to ductility, and development of a temperature regulator for the salt bath Q&P process.
This document discusses research on using extrusion honing (EH) to improve the surface finish of Inconel 625 fabricated by electric discharge machining (EDM). EH involves flowing an abrasive-laden polymer media over a material's surface to deburr, polish, and remove defects. The study investigated the effect of EH process parameters on the surface roughness of square Inconel 625 samples. Results showed that EH significantly improved surface finish by removing microcracks and recast layers from EDM. Surface roughness decreased dramatically in the first few EH passes then continued to gradually improve up to the 11th pass. Scanning electron microscope images confirmed that EH successfully removed defects from EDM.
Effect of artificial aging temper t6 on tensile properties of aluminum alloy ...FreddyTaebenu
Penjelasan mengenai efek dari proses artificial aging untuk melihat perilaku dari properti material paduan aluminium pada pengujian uji tarik, ditujukan untuk teman-teman yang mengambil bidang atau konsentrasi serupa dalam ilmu material engineering guna untuk menghasilkan produk dengan kualitas terbaik
A New Surface Modification Technique and Their Characterisation: Friction Sti...IJERA Editor
This document summarizes research on using friction stir processing (FSP) to modify the microstructure and improve the mechanical properties of an Al-Zn-Mg alloy. FSP is a solid-state technique that uses a rotating tool to plasticize and refine the microstructure of metal surfaces. The study used FSP on an Al-Zn-Mg-Sc alloy with various processing parameters. Microstructural analysis found the stir zone had the finest recrystallized grains of 400-500 nm due to severe plastic deformation. Tensile testing found that FSP significantly improved the alloy's strength and ductility by reducing porosity and refining precipitates through grain refinement. The combined effects of FSP and age-hardening
This document discusses several research papers related to mechanical engineering experiments involving high strength steels. It summarizes papers on topics like the role of forming technology for high strength steels in automotive manufacturing, tribology of hot forming tools and steels, evaluating stamping lubricants at different temperatures, and predicting springback in sheet metal forming of high strength steels. The document outlines the objectives, methods, materials, results and conclusions of these research papers in order to review fundamentals of mechanical engineering experiments for graduate study.
The document summarizes a study on increasing the salt fog corrosion resistance of plasma nitrided AISI 4340 steel through a pulsed plasma post-oxidation process. Key findings:
1) Post-oxidation treatment produces an oxidized layer on the nitrided surface that fills and seals pores, improving corrosion resistance.
2) Samples post-oxidized for 15 minutes showed the best corrosion performance when exposed to salt fog, with only 1/16 as much red rust as nitrided samples alone.
3) X-ray diffraction analysis found the oxidized layer consisted mainly of magnetite iron oxide, which provides high corrosion resistance.
The document discusses metallography of cold-worked and annealed alpha brass samples. Micrographs revealed that the annealed sample showed distinct grains with annealing twins, while the cold-rolled sample showed elongated grains resulting from plastic deformation during cold rolling. The experiment demonstrated how microstructure is influenced by different heat treatments.
The document discusses various polymer properties including:
- A table listing the tensile strength, elastic modulus, elongation, and Poisson's ratio ranges for various engineering plastics.
- Descriptions of polymer molecular structures, the relationship between molecular weight and properties, and how crystallinity and cross-linking affect properties.
- Explanations of glass transition temperature, the various modes of polymer deformation, and how temperature impacts properties like stress-strain behavior and impact strength.
- Information on viscosity for melted polymers and how it is affected by temperature and shear rate.
This document discusses heat treatment of steel, including:
- The iron-carbon phase diagram which shows the different phases of steel at various temperatures and carbon levels.
- Common constituents in steel like ferrite, austenite, cementite, and pearlite.
- Heat treatment processes like hardening, quenching, and tempering which are used to change the microstructure and properties of steel.
- Quenching involves rapidly cooling steel from high temperatures to form martensite and involves considerations like quenching media and cooling rates.
- Tempering is used after quenching to reduce brittleness and relieve stresses by reheating steel to lower temperatures.
- Furnaces like batch and
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development is an international premier peer reviewed open access engineering and technology journal promoting the discovery, innovation, advancement and dissemination of basic and transitional knowledge in engineering, technology and related disciplines.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Studies on aluminium silicon eutectic alloy casting and design approach of it...IAEME Publication
This document discusses a study on casting and gating system design of an aluminum-silicon eutectic alloy (LM-6 alloy). It aims to improve the mechanical properties of LM-6 alloy through modification treatment, grain refinement, and degassing. The study involves casting test bars of LM-6 alloy both with and without modification to compare their tensile strength, hardness, and elongation. It also covers the design of gating systems and risers for castings using modulus method and developing flowcharts for computer programming of the casting design. Experimental results show that modification treatment improves the mechanical properties of LM-6 alloy.
Conventional heat treatment of low carbon steelAyush Chaurasia
Heat treatment of Low Carbon Steel via heat treatment processes of annealing, quenching and normalising and observing the structural changes affecting the hardness property of material.
Surface layer alterations in aisi 4140 steel from turn assisted deep cold rol...IAEME Publication
This document summarizes a study on using turn-assisted deep cold rolling (TADCR) to improve the surface integrity of AISI 4140 steel. TADCR was performed using tungsten carbide balls of varying diameters at different rolling forces and numbers of passes. Microhardness measurements found that TADCR increased hardness in the surface layer by about 36% compared to the bulk material. Microstructure analysis found alteration to a depth of around 300μm, reflecting an increase in residual compressive stress from the initial turned state. Overall, the results indicate that TADCR is an effective method for modifying the surface properties of AISI 4140 steel.
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Enquiry 9818185286,7840013157
interior decorator in delhi,interior decorator in noida,interior decorator in ghaziabad,interior home design in delhi/ncr,innov interior home design in delhi/ncr,best interior decorator in delhi/ncr
http://innovinteriors.net.in
Sethuraman Balasubramanian is applying for a project manager position and provides his contact details, career objective, personal details, educational qualifications, software proficiency, employment history in Singapore and India, project references from his current employer Mactech Engineering and Trading Pte Ltd, key responsibilities, and languages and personal skills. He has over 5 years of experience in ACMV engineering and project management in Singapore and is seeking a new opportunity to apply his skills.
Wear Properties of Thixoformed Al-5.7Si-2Cu-0.3Mg Aluminium AlloyDr. Manal Abdullatif
Earlier work has shown that Al-5.7Si-2Cu-0.3Mg aluminium alloy is suitable for
thixoforming process. Here, the dry sliding wear behaviour of the alloy, in the as-cast and
thixoformed conditions were investigated. The cooling slope technique was used to produce the alloy
with globular microstructure for the thixoforming process. Both the thixoformed and cast samples
were subjected to T6 heat treatments prior to the wear tests. The tests were carried out using a
pin-on-disc tribometer, against a hardened M2 tool steel disc of 62 HRC at different loads, under dry
sliding conditions at fixed sliding speed and sliding distance of 1 m.s–1 and 5 km respectively. The
microstructural response, worn surfaces was thoroughly and carefully examined using various
methods such as scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and differential
scanning calorimetry. The density of the heat treated thixoformed alloys showed significant increase
in the hardness property, among others, due to its reduced porosity. Their wear test results also
observed that the weight loss of materials increase with an increase in the input load and the sliding
distance for all samples. However, the as-cast alloy displayed higher wear rate compared with the
thixoformed alloys. In general, the wear mechanisms showed a mixture of abrasive, oxidative and
delamination wear (mild wear) at low applied loads and mainly an adhesive (severe wear) at high
applied loads.
Crimson Publishers-Micro Structural Features Induced by Sheet Hydroforming of...CrimsonPublishersRDMS
Micro Structural Features Induced by Sheet Hydroforming of Non- Ferrous Metals and Alloys by Forouhandeh F in Research & Development in Material Science
Mechanical property assessment of austempered and conventionally hardened aisiIAEME Publication
The document summarizes a study that assessed the mechanical properties of AISI 4340 steel that underwent austempering heat treatment versus conventional hardening. Specimens were subjected to tensile, torsion, hardness, impact, and microstructure tests in the as-bought, austempered, and conventionally hardened conditions. Austempering improved tensile, torsional, and impact strength compared to conventional hardening, though it showed a slight decrease in hardness. Lower bainitic and martensitic microstructures were observed after austempering and conventional hardening, respectively.
Chapter 3: Metal Works, Casting & Heat Treatmentsyar 2604
This topic explains the processes of metal works and casting. It also describes the types and purpose of heat treatment for steels and the effects of heat treatment on mechanical properties of steels.
The document summarizes an investigation into the mechanical properties of AISI 420 martensitic stainless steel after undergoing a quenching and partitioning (Q&P) heat treatment process. The study examined the microstructure, hardness, tensile strength, and fracture behavior of samples treated with different Q&P temperatures and times. Key findings include a significant increase in hardness and tensile strength compared to annealed samples, evidence of retained austenite contributing to ductility, and development of a temperature regulator for the salt bath Q&P process.
This document discusses research on using extrusion honing (EH) to improve the surface finish of Inconel 625 fabricated by electric discharge machining (EDM). EH involves flowing an abrasive-laden polymer media over a material's surface to deburr, polish, and remove defects. The study investigated the effect of EH process parameters on the surface roughness of square Inconel 625 samples. Results showed that EH significantly improved surface finish by removing microcracks and recast layers from EDM. Surface roughness decreased dramatically in the first few EH passes then continued to gradually improve up to the 11th pass. Scanning electron microscope images confirmed that EH successfully removed defects from EDM.
Effect of artificial aging temper t6 on tensile properties of aluminum alloy ...FreddyTaebenu
Penjelasan mengenai efek dari proses artificial aging untuk melihat perilaku dari properti material paduan aluminium pada pengujian uji tarik, ditujukan untuk teman-teman yang mengambil bidang atau konsentrasi serupa dalam ilmu material engineering guna untuk menghasilkan produk dengan kualitas terbaik
A New Surface Modification Technique and Their Characterisation: Friction Sti...IJERA Editor
This document summarizes research on using friction stir processing (FSP) to modify the microstructure and improve the mechanical properties of an Al-Zn-Mg alloy. FSP is a solid-state technique that uses a rotating tool to plasticize and refine the microstructure of metal surfaces. The study used FSP on an Al-Zn-Mg-Sc alloy with various processing parameters. Microstructural analysis found the stir zone had the finest recrystallized grains of 400-500 nm due to severe plastic deformation. Tensile testing found that FSP significantly improved the alloy's strength and ductility by reducing porosity and refining precipitates through grain refinement. The combined effects of FSP and age-hardening
This document discusses several research papers related to mechanical engineering experiments involving high strength steels. It summarizes papers on topics like the role of forming technology for high strength steels in automotive manufacturing, tribology of hot forming tools and steels, evaluating stamping lubricants at different temperatures, and predicting springback in sheet metal forming of high strength steels. The document outlines the objectives, methods, materials, results and conclusions of these research papers in order to review fundamentals of mechanical engineering experiments for graduate study.
The document summarizes a study on increasing the salt fog corrosion resistance of plasma nitrided AISI 4340 steel through a pulsed plasma post-oxidation process. Key findings:
1) Post-oxidation treatment produces an oxidized layer on the nitrided surface that fills and seals pores, improving corrosion resistance.
2) Samples post-oxidized for 15 minutes showed the best corrosion performance when exposed to salt fog, with only 1/16 as much red rust as nitrided samples alone.
3) X-ray diffraction analysis found the oxidized layer consisted mainly of magnetite iron oxide, which provides high corrosion resistance.
The document discusses metallography of cold-worked and annealed alpha brass samples. Micrographs revealed that the annealed sample showed distinct grains with annealing twins, while the cold-rolled sample showed elongated grains resulting from plastic deformation during cold rolling. The experiment demonstrated how microstructure is influenced by different heat treatments.
The document discusses various polymer properties including:
- A table listing the tensile strength, elastic modulus, elongation, and Poisson's ratio ranges for various engineering plastics.
- Descriptions of polymer molecular structures, the relationship between molecular weight and properties, and how crystallinity and cross-linking affect properties.
- Explanations of glass transition temperature, the various modes of polymer deformation, and how temperature impacts properties like stress-strain behavior and impact strength.
- Information on viscosity for melted polymers and how it is affected by temperature and shear rate.
This document discusses heat treatment of steel, including:
- The iron-carbon phase diagram which shows the different phases of steel at various temperatures and carbon levels.
- Common constituents in steel like ferrite, austenite, cementite, and pearlite.
- Heat treatment processes like hardening, quenching, and tempering which are used to change the microstructure and properties of steel.
- Quenching involves rapidly cooling steel from high temperatures to form martensite and involves considerations like quenching media and cooling rates.
- Tempering is used after quenching to reduce brittleness and relieve stresses by reheating steel to lower temperatures.
- Furnaces like batch and
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development is an international premier peer reviewed open access engineering and technology journal promoting the discovery, innovation, advancement and dissemination of basic and transitional knowledge in engineering, technology and related disciplines.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Studies on aluminium silicon eutectic alloy casting and design approach of it...IAEME Publication
This document discusses a study on casting and gating system design of an aluminum-silicon eutectic alloy (LM-6 alloy). It aims to improve the mechanical properties of LM-6 alloy through modification treatment, grain refinement, and degassing. The study involves casting test bars of LM-6 alloy both with and without modification to compare their tensile strength, hardness, and elongation. It also covers the design of gating systems and risers for castings using modulus method and developing flowcharts for computer programming of the casting design. Experimental results show that modification treatment improves the mechanical properties of LM-6 alloy.
Conventional heat treatment of low carbon steelAyush Chaurasia
Heat treatment of Low Carbon Steel via heat treatment processes of annealing, quenching and normalising and observing the structural changes affecting the hardness property of material.
Surface layer alterations in aisi 4140 steel from turn assisted deep cold rol...IAEME Publication
This document summarizes a study on using turn-assisted deep cold rolling (TADCR) to improve the surface integrity of AISI 4140 steel. TADCR was performed using tungsten carbide balls of varying diameters at different rolling forces and numbers of passes. Microhardness measurements found that TADCR increased hardness in the surface layer by about 36% compared to the bulk material. Microstructure analysis found alteration to a depth of around 300μm, reflecting an increase in residual compressive stress from the initial turned state. Overall, the results indicate that TADCR is an effective method for modifying the surface properties of AISI 4140 steel.
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Enquiry 9818185286,7840013157
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http://innovinteriors.net.in
Sethuraman Balasubramanian is applying for a project manager position and provides his contact details, career objective, personal details, educational qualifications, software proficiency, employment history in Singapore and India, project references from his current employer Mactech Engineering and Trading Pte Ltd, key responsibilities, and languages and personal skills. He has over 5 years of experience in ACMV engineering and project management in Singapore and is seeking a new opportunity to apply his skills.
E financing and settlement with my sap.comRichard Page
Orbian is a joint venture between Citigroup, DCE, and SAP to launch an electronic payment system for online business purchases called Orbian Credits. Orbian Credits allow buyers to defer payment to suppliers by issuing the suppliers an Orbian Credit, which can be redeemed for cash from Orbian at a later maturity date. This fulfills the conflicting needs of buyers to defer payment and suppliers to quickly access funds. SAP has integrated the Orbian payment process into its mySAP Financials solution to allow automatic payment processing using Orbian Credits. The Orbian system provides benefits to both buyers and suppliers through reduced financing costs, increased liquidity, and streamlined payment processing.
Este documento describe las redes de área metropolitana (MAN) y las redes de área local (LAN). Las MAN cubren ciudades enteras o partes de ellas y se usan principalmente en bancos y servicios públicos. Las LAN conectan computadoras en un edificio o área cercana a través de cables, tarjetas de red y programas instalados. Existen tres topologías principales de LAN: anillo, bus y estrella.
Este documento trata sobre la filosofía como racionalidad teórica y los conceptos de verdad y realidad. Explora diferentes perspectivas filosóficas sobre el origen de la realidad, incluyendo respuestas clásicas monoteístas y pluralistas, y las teorías materiales y formales de Tales de Mileto y Pitágoras. También discute problemas de interpretación de conceptos como el mundo interior y exterior, la cultura, la vida biológica y el conocimiento.
A refined energy-based model for friction stir processing of Al- Zn-Mg alloyIJERA Editor
Friction stir processing (FSP) is a promising solid state surface modification technique. Also, considered as an
innovative technique that the FSPwas employed to modify the surface layer of aluminium alloy. The FSP passes
of only two passes were applied on aluminium alloy samples. A rotating tool with a pin and shoulder is inserted
into a single piece of material and results in significant microstructural changes in the processed zone, due to
intense plastic deformation. It has been proved to be an effective way to refine the microstructure of aluminium
alloys, and thereby improve the mechanical properties. In procedural phenomenon there are different parameters
adjustment have been worked out to refine microstructure and several properties characterised to TEM, SEM,
FESEM and mechanical properties. In this study, a refined energy based model that estimates the energy
generated due to friction and plastic deformation is presented with the help ofexperimental and theoretical
results available in many literatures. The model is applied to 7xxx series of aluminium alloys.
A refined energy-based model for friction stir processing of AlZn-Mg alloy IJERA Editor
Friction stir processing (FSP) is a promising solid state surface modification technique. Also, considered as an
innovative technique that the FSPwas employed to modify the surface layer of aluminium alloy. The FSP passes
of only two passes were applied on aluminium alloy samples. A rotating tool with a pin and shoulder is inserted
into a single piece of material and results in significant microstructural changes in the processed zone, due to
intense plastic deformation. It has been proved to be an effective way to refine the microstructure of aluminium
alloys, and thereby improve the mechanical properties. In procedural phenomenon there are different parameters
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1. The Egyptian International Journal of
Engineering Sciences and Technology
Vol. 21 (October 2016) 33–42
http://www.eijest.zu.edu.eg
Solid-State Recycling of Aluminum Alloy (AA-6061) Chips via Hot
Extrusion Followed by Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP)
A. I. Selmy, M. I. Abd El Aal, A. M. El-Gohry, M. A.Taha*
Mechanical Design and Production Department, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Received: 27 April 2016
Received in revised form:
28 May 2016
Accepted: 1 June 2016
Available online: 22 July
2016
Aluminum alloy (AA-6061) chips were recycled using hot extrusion followed by
equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) process at room temperature. AA-
6061chips were cold compacted into billets, then extruded into rods under
extrusion ratio of 5.2 at different extrusion temperatures (ET). Finally, the rods
were processed through ECAP die with inner angle Φ of 90°, and outer arc angle Ψ
of 32.8°, which impose strain ɛ of 1 per each pass up to different number of passes.
The effects of the ECAP number of passes and extrusion temperature on the
microstructure and mechanical properties were fully investigated. Grain refinement
were noted after the ECAP process. Moreover, the ECAPed samples revealed
higher mechanical properties than those of the extruded samples. The extrusion
temperature (ET) and the number of the ECAP passes have an obvious effect on
both the microstructure and mechanical properties of the solid state recycled chips
samples.
Keywords:
AA-6061,
Solid state recycling
Hot extrusion
ECAP
Mechanical properties
Microstructure.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +2-010-0224-6490;
E-mail address: eng_mohamed_2017@yahoo.com.
1- Introduction
Aluminium alloy 6061 is one of the most extensively
used of the 6000 series aluminium alloys due to its
preferred properties, for example, medium to high
strength, good toughness ,excellent corrosion
resistance, and good workability. When aluminium
products are manufactured a considerable amounts of
scrap (chips and discards) are produced [1].
Recycling of scrap become a very economical
method for producing materials because of the low
cost of recycled materials [2] .There are two primary
methods of scrap recycling:- conventional and solid
state recycling [3]. The conventional technique
requires melting of the scrap to be recycled. It is
characterized by high energy consumption, high
operating cost, and a large number of operations [4].
The solid state recycling is the recycling of scrap
without re-melting to avoid the troubles of
conventional method. Compared with conventional
recycling, the solid state recycling of aluminium
scrap may result in 40% material, 26–31% energy
and16–60% labour savings [5]. In case of chips
produced from machining of semi-finished
aluminium products, it is very difficult to be recycled
by conventional methods due to their elongated spiral
shape, small size, surface contamination with oxides
and machining oil [6].
Stern [7] recycled aluminium chips by solid state
recycling through hot extrusion. Gronostajski et al.
[8-9] applied hot extrusion for the production of
composites based on Al and AlCu4 alloy chips and
tungsten powder. A major advantage of this process
is that up to 95% of the primary material can be used
by avoiding metal loss during the re-melting process.
33
2. A. I. Selmy et al. / Solid-state recycling of aluminum alloy (AA-6061) chips via hot extrusion followed by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP)
Furthermore, Gronostajski et al. [1] proposed a list of
factors contributing the mechanical properties of the
chip-based extruded profiles involving the size of
chip, the cold pressing parameters, extrusion
temperature, extrusion ratio and rate of extrusion.
The critical issues in the process of consolidation of
aluminium chips are sound bonding between chips
and elimination of porosity, which directly influence
the mechanical properties of the extruded profiles.
From the metallurgical point of view a certain level
of strain is needed in order to break oxide layers on
the chips’ surface and to achieve sound bonding
between chips. Fogagnolo et al. [6] investigated the
feasibility of recycling of AA-6061chips by cold and
hot compaction followed by hot extrusion. In case of
hot compaction, there was sufficient chip bonding at
extrusion ratio (ER) = 6.25. While, in case of cold
compaction the extrusion ratio must higher than 25 in
order to obtain sound bonding.
Suzuki et al. [10] compacted the AA-6061 chips and
followed by hot extrusion at various extrusion ratios
and temperatures. Nakanishi et al. [11] examined the
relationship between the extrusion ratio and
mechanical properties of hot extruded machining
chips of AZ91 magnesium alloy.
In order to meet the increasing demand of Al alloys
with high mechanical properties, it is necessary to
enhance the properties of recycled materials.
Recently, several studies on solid-state recycling of
machining chips using severe plastic deformation
(SPD) have been conducted. SPD processes introduce
ultra large plastic strain into bulk metals which
results in the formation of an ultra-fine grained
microstructure with grain sizes below 1μm and grain
boundaries of high misorientation angles [12] .SPD
processing methods that can introduce large strain
such as equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) [13],
high pressure torsion (HPT) [14], cyclic extrusion
compression (CEC) [15] and friction extrusion [16]
have been reported. ECAP is a novel technique able
to introduce heavy shear strain into the processed
material without changing the cross-section of the
workpiece during the multi-passes of deformation
through a special die [17]. It was introduced and
patented by Segal in 1977 [18].
It is capable of refining bulk materials with coarse
grain structures, so ECAP can be applied for solid
state recycling of Al machining chips to get materials
with high mechanical properties.
However, up to now, few studies have been
performed on improving the properties of recycled
products using ECAP. Ying et al. [19] investigated
the solid state recycling of AZ91 Mg alloy machining
chips through the process of cold compaction, hot
compaction, extrusion and single pass ECAP. The
average grain size was proven to be much smaller
compared to cast AZ91 alloy processed by extrusion
and ECAP. Results were attributed to the dispersion
of oxide contaminants. After hot extrusion, the
extruded cast workpiece showed superior strength
and ductility compared to the recycled ones. After
applying one pass ECAP, the recycled workpiece
showed higher strength but lower ductility compared
to the cast billet processed under the same conditions.
The objectives of this research are first, investigate
the feasibility of solid state recycling of AA-6061
chips through hot extrusion followed by cold ECAP.
Second, investigate the capability of ECAP process
in improvement of recycled material properties.
Third, investigate the influence of extrusion
temperature and number of ECAP passes on the
microstructures and mechanical properties of the AA-
6061 chips solid state recycled.
2- Experimental work
The material used in this work (as received) was
aluminium alloy AA6061 rod, provided by ALU
Misr Company. Table 1 presents the chemical
composition of the AA6061 rod analysed by optical
emission spectroscopy using a Thermo Scientific
ARL 3460 Metals Analyzer. The machined chips
with average dimensions L x W x T of 37 mm×2
mm×1 mm were prepared by dry turning of the as-
received rod under cutting conditions shown in Table
2. The chips were placed in a die with a diameter of
25 mm, cold compacted at room temperature, and
then hot extruded at three different temperatures
(350, 425 and 500 0
C) with extrusion ratio of 5.2.1׃
Cylindrical billets with diameter 11 mm and 90 mm
length were cut from the extruded rods for ECAP
process.
Table 1.Chemical composition of the AA6061 aluminum alloy.
Si Mg Fe Cu Mn others Al
0.8 0.85 0.48 0.26 0.051 0.329 Balance
Table 2. The cutting conditions used in chips production.
Cutting speed Feed Depth of cut
88 m/min 1mm/rev. 1mm
34
3. EIJEST Vol. 21 (October 2016) 33–42
The ECAP die had a channel angle of 90° and a
curvature angle of 32.8°. ECAP was carried out at
room temperature for multiple passes until the
specimen was cracked or broken. The solid state
recycling process stages are shown in Fig. 1 .The
extrusion and ECAP dies are shown in Fig. 2 and 3
respectively.
Fig. 1. Solid state recycling stages (a) initial AA-6061 chips (b)
cold compacted sample (c) hot extruded sample (d) ECAPed
samples.
Fig. 2. Hot extrusion die (a) complete assembly drawing (b) half
section assembly (c) out fitted.
Fig. 3. ECAP die (a) complete assembly drawing (b) out fitted.
Fig. 4. ECAPed sample at extrusion temp 350 0
C (a) After 1 pass
(b) After 2 passes.
Fig. 5. ECAPed sample (a) Extruded at 450 0
C and ECAPed up to
5 passes (b) Extruded at 500 0
C and ECAPed up to 7 passes.
The billets extruded at 350 0
C were hardly damaged
after 1 ECAP pass and totally broken after 2 passes
as shown in Fig.4.b. On the other side, the billets
extruded at 425 0
C and 500 0
C were cracked and
broken after 5 passes and 7 passes respectively as
shown in Fig. 5.
For experimental tests, samples with a length of 20
mm were cut off from the middle part of the extruded
and ECAPed rods. The samples were further
mechanically ground using SiC emery papers (grit
500, 1000, and 2400 for 180 sec each) and finally
polished with Al2O3 suspensions.
The relative density of processed samples at different
conditions was measured experimentally using
Archimedes’ principle. The density measurement was
repeated 3 times for each condition and the average
density was calculated at each condition.
35
4. A. I. Selmy et al. / Solid-state recycling of aluminum alloy (AA-6061) chips via hot extrusion followed by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP)
The microstructures of extruded samples was
examined before ECAP using light optical
microscopy on Zeiss Axio Imager. While after
ECAP, it was examined using FEI INSPECT S50
scanning electron microscope (SEM). Specimens
were etched using killer’s reagent.
Vickers microhardness was measured under an
applied loading of 100 gf and a dwell time of 15 sec
at room temperature using Buehler Micromet 5100
device microhardness tester equipped with a Vickers
indenter.
The tensile test was carried out up to failure at
room temperature using LR300K (300 kN) universal
testing machine. Tensile tests were performed at an
initial strain rate of 8.33x10-4
s-1
at room temperature.
Tensile test specimens were fabricated parallel to
extrusion direction by turning in accordance with
ASTM-B557- 06. All tensile tests were repeated
three times for each condition and the average of
three measurements was reported.
3- Results and Discussion
3.1 Relative density measurements
The relative density of the compacted sample was
2.511 gm /cm3 which represents 93% of the
theoretical density (2.7 gm/cm3) and 7% are
porosities. Furthermore, the bonding between
individual chips is weak as it will be seen from
microstructure investigation. However, this value of
average density is higher as compared with the work
of other researchers [1,7-8, 20-21], specially, the
compaction process is conducted at room
temperature. High compacting pressure of 2000 MPa
used in this work is higher compared with previous
work. Similar observations were obtained by
Fogagnolo [6], in which maximum relative density
achieved after cold compaction is ~ 92% of the
theoretical density. The relative density of extruded
and ECAPed samples after different number of
passes are shown in Fig. 6. For hot extruded
specimens, the relative density increased with
increasing extrusion temperature (ET). The relative
density of the extruded samples increased to 96, 96.4,
99.8% at ET of 350,425 and 500 o
C respectively.
High extrusion temperature enables plastic flow of
material to fill voids and make the sample fully dense
[9].
Also, the results show that the relative density
increased on the initial ECAP passes until reaching a
maximum value and after that there isn’t any
improvement in relative density. For the sample
extruded at 500 o
C, the maximum relative density
(99.9%) was achieved after one pass. On the other
hand, the sample extruded at 425 o
C, the maximum
relative density (99.8%) was achieved after 2 passes.
In fact, large shear strain and hydrostatic pressure
imposed during ECAP improve the consolidation
process and increase the relative density [22]. After
the first ECAP pass, the size of porosities is
decreased to a great extent. More ECAP passes will
decrease the amount of porosities but, extensive
nucleation of voids is expected, which will limit the
improvement in relative density [23,24].
Fig. 6. Relative density of recycled samples.
3.2 Bonding quality of recycled samples
Fig. 7. shows the optical microscopic
photomicrograph of the cold compacted chips
sample. The machined chips were consolidated after
compaction at room temperature. The surface of the
chips exhibited some breaking and bonding. The
boundaries between chips are distinguished from
each other indicating that sound bonding of the chips
is not yet complete, and there is a need for an
additional consolidation process. Furthermore, voids
can be observed between the boundaries of the chips.
These observations are in a good agreement with the
low relative density of the compacted sample.
Moreover, similar observations of voids and visible
chips boundaries in the case of compacted chips of
alumimium or magnesium chips were obtained by
Selmy et al. [25-29].
Aluminium has the capability of forming an oxide
layer on the surface. Two criteria must be fulfilled to
guarantee sound bonding between chips [29]. The
first, there must be a high plastic strain to break down
the oxide layer on the surface of the chips to obtain
the clean metal-to-metal contact. The second, suitable
conditions of high pressure and temperature to
achieve complete welding of the chips together. If the
oxide layer is partially broken, it will prevent the
chips from perfect welding [29].Hot extrusion,
involving high compressive and shear forces at high
temperature, therefore it was applied to obtain
complete consolidation of the recycled AA-6061
compacted chips [26].
36
5. EIJEST Vol. 21 (October 2016) 33–42
Fig. 7. Optical microscopic photomicrograph of cold compacted
sample (white arrows indicate chip boundaries and red arrows
indicate void between chips).
Figure.8 shows the optical microscopic
photomicrographs of the chip extruded and ECAPed
samples. It was noted that the extruded samples at ET
of 350 0
C contain unbounded chip boundaries and
micro size voids as shown in Fig. 8 (a). The plastic
strain and conditions of temperature and pressure
were not sufficient to break down the oxide layer
between chips. Therefore, the oxide layers prevented
sound bonding between chips [26]. With the increase
of the ET up to 500 0
C the quality of bonding
between the chips was improved and the micro voids
were completely disappeared as shown in Fig. 8 (b).
Fig. 8. Optical microscopic photomicrograph of recycled samples
(a) ET = 350 o
C, 0 passes, (b) ET = 500 o
C, 0 passes (c) ET =
425o
C, 4 passes and (d) ET = 500 o
C, 4 passes.
The bonding quality increased with increasing
temperature which confirms the results obtained by
Hasse et al. [20] and Ceretti et al. [30]. However, the
plastic strain was not enough to completely break
down the oxide layer and chips boundaries are still
observed. The observations of non-sufficient bonding
between chips at extrusion ratio lower than 25
confirms the results obtained in previous work [3,6].
During the ECAP process, the sample is subjected to
severe plastic deformation resulting in severe shear
strains when passing repeatedly through the die
corner. Therefore, more of chips boundaries were
broken and the bonding between chips was improved
as shown in Fig. 8(c) and (d). Similar observations
was obtained by P. Luo et al. [31].
3.3 Microstructure evaluation
The microstructure of the as-received sample is
composed of coarse-grained structure with grain size
of 48.2 µm. On the other hand, the recycled samples
consisted of finer grains as compared to as-received
specimen as shown in Fig. 9 (b), (c) . The grain size
is 10.9, 13.7 and 15.8 µm for samples extruded at
350, 425 and 500 o
C respectively as shown in Table.
3. The fine-grained microstructure is caused by
severe plastic strain imposed during machining,
compaction and extrusion processes [32]. In addition,
chip boundaries act as natural barriers between grains
and prevent grain growth so fine grains is obtained
[20]. Furthermore, it is noticed that grain size was
increased with increasing ET. These results are in
agree with other work [20].
Fig. 9. Optical microscopic photomicrographs of (a) as-received
and extruded samples (b) ET= 350o
C, (c) ET=500 o
C.
To study the effect of ECAP passes on the
microstructure of the extruded samples at 425 and
500 o
C, SEM micrographs of ECAPed samples after
2, 4 and 6 passes are shown in Fig. 10. It is noticed
that there is more grain refinement as compared to
extruded sample. Additionally, it is noticed that grain
size decreased with increasing the number of ECAP
37
6. A. I. Selmy et al. / Solid-state recycling of aluminum alloy (AA-6061) chips via hot extrusion followed by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP)
passes. The average grain size measurements are
shown in Table 3.The average grain size of samples
extruded at 425 o
C is always smaller than samples
extruded at 500 o
C at the same number of passes.
During the ECAP process, the sample is subjected to
severe shear strains.
Table 3. Effect of ECAP process on the grain size and mechanical
properties of recycled samples.
Properties
ET
(o
C)
Number of ECAP passes
0
(Hot
extrusion)
2 4 6
Quality of
bonding
350
Weak
bonding
Improvement of chips
welding
425
500
Grain size
(μm)
350 10.9 ---- ---- ----
425 13.7 4.02 2.66 ----
500 15.8 5.1 3.28 2.46
Microhardness
(HV)
350 49 ---- ---- ----
425 43 80.75 74.75 ----
500 41 94.5 103.5 110
UTS
(MPa)
350 85 ---- ---- ----
425 116 230.8 347.8 ----
500 133 288.5 349 403
Elongation to
failure%
350 4.4 ---- ---- ----
425 9.4 11.3 13.2 ----
500 13.6 11.9 13.7 14.6
Fig. 10. SEM photomicrographs of ECAPed samples (a) ET=425
o
C, after 2 passes (b) ET=500 o
C, after 2 passes (c) ET=425 o
C, after
4 passes (d) ET=500 o
C, after 4 passes and (e) ET=500 o
C, after 6
passes.
The amount of plastic strain introduced depends on
the number of ECAP passes. When applying more
ECAP passes, more plastic strain is imposed so the
sub-grains are generally divided into equiaxed fine
grains with high angle boundary, therefore grain
refinement is obtained [33-34]. It is found that the
initial grain size has significant effect on the final
grain size after ECAP processing, similar observation
was obtained with other works [33, 35-36].
3.4 Microhardness
The influence of ECAP number of passes and ET on
the microhardness of recycled samples were
evaluated and compared with Hasse et al. [20] as
shown in Fig. 11. The microhardness of the as
received sample and cold compacted chip was 59 HV
and 98.9 HV respectively. The higher hardness of
compacted chips relative to that of the as received
sample is due to imposed plastic strain during turning
and compaction processes [37].It is noticed that as
the ET increased from 350 to 500 o
C, the
microhardness of the extruded samples decreased
from 49 HV to 41 HV. This can explained by the
increase of the grain size and recovery due to
increase of ET. Similar trend of decreasing
microhardness with increasing ET was obtained in
other work [20].
For the samples extruded at 425 o
C, the
microhardness increased from 43 HV before ECAP
to 76.25, 80.75 and 82.75 HV after 1, 2 and 3 passes
respectively. Then decreased to 74.75 HV after 4
passes. The drastic increase of microhardness after
ECAP up to 3 passes is due to the work hardening
that is caused by the formation of sub-micrometer
ordered grains and the increase of dislocation density
occurring with the shear deformation in the initial
grain interior [36] .However, the decrease in
microhardness can be related to any voids in the
investigated specimen. For the samples extruded at
500 o
C, the microhardness increased from 41 HV
before ECAP to 82, 94.5, 103.5 and 110 HV after 1,
2, 4 and 6 passes respectively. In previous work by
Haase [20], AA-6060 chips was recycled through hot
extrusion with ER of 8.7 followed by hot ECAP in
the same die. The process was conducted at
temperatures of 450 and 550 o
C. In contrast with the
trend observed in this work, the microhardness of
AA-6060 recycled samples was decreased with
increasing number of passes. Also in future work by
Haase et al. [38], hot ECAP process decreased the
microhardness of recycled samples through hot
extrusion from 42 to 41HV. The microhardness of
recycled samples through hot extrusion followed by
cold ECAP is significantly higher than samples
38
7. EIJEST Vol. 21 (October 2016) 33–42
recycled through hot extrusion followed by hot
ECAP.
Fig. 11. Influence of ET and ECAP number of passes on
microhardness of recycled samples.
3.5 Tensile test
The variation of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and
elongation to failure % of recycled samples with
number of ECAP passes are shown in Figs. 12. (a)
,(b). UTS and elongation to failure of the extruded
chip samples were significantly increased with
increasing ET. UTS increases from 85 to 133 MPa
with increasing ET from 350 to 500 o
C.
Fig. 12. Influence of ET and number of passes on (a) UTS (b)
elongation to failure.
Similar observation were also noted in the case of
elongation to failure increases from 4.4 % to 13.6 %
with increasing extrusion temperature (ET) from 350
to 500 o
C. Increasing ER, minimize the porosities in
recycled material as proved previously, and improve
the quality of bonding between individual chips and
consequently ultimate tensile strength and elongation
of the recycled specimen increases. Similar
observation were reached by other authors in
previous work [3,20, 25].
The UTS is found to increase with the increase of the
number of passes for both samples extruded at 425
and 500 o
C as shown in Fig.12 (a). The UTS values
are observed to increase from 116 MPa before the
ECAP process to 198, 230.8 and 347.8 MPa after 1, 2
and 4 passes respectively for sample extruded at 425
o
C. In case of sample extruded at 500 o
C, the UTS
values are observed to increase from 133 MPa to
263.9, 288.5, 349 and 403 MPa after 1, 2, 4 and 6
passes respectively. The increase of the UTS can be
attributed to the grain refinement and the work
hardening during the ECAP process. Same behaviour
of the increase of the UTS with the increase of the
number of passes was observed in the case of
processing AA-6061alloy through ECAP [33]. The
increase in UTS is more significant after the first
pass, reaches 71% and 98.4% for samples extruded at
425 and 500 o
C respectively. It has been established
that the strain imposed by the first ECAP pass has a
strong effect on the breakdown and refinement of the
initial microstructure [24]. In addition, the formation
of sub-grains during the first pass of the ECAP
process has an effect on increasing the strength [39].
It can be noted that the elongation to failure increased
from 9.4 % before the ECAP to 10.4 %, 11.3 %
12.4% and 13.2 % after 1, 2, 3 and 4 passes
respectively in the case of sample extruded at 425 o
C.
While in case of sample extruded at 500 o
C, the
elongation to failure is observed to decrease from
14.3 % before the ECAP to 8.6 % after 1 pass. Then
increased to 11.9%, 13.7% and 14.6% after 2, 4 and 6
passes.
The increase of elongation to failure can be related to
the improvement of bonding between the chips
during the ECAP process in which the extensive
shear deformation breaks up the oxide films on the
chips surfaces. So that it yields fresh and clean
surface of metal and ensures good contact and
bonding between individual chips [22]. Besides that,
it has a close relation to the annihilation kinetics of
extrinsic grain boundary dislocation introduced by
39
8. A. I. Selmy et al. / Solid-state recycling of aluminum alloy (AA-6061) chips via hot extrusion followed by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP)
severe plastic deformation and the number of
dislocations necessary to deform the ultra-fine grain
[40- 43].
Up to 3 passes, it is noticed that the UTS of samples
extruded at 500 o
C is always higher compared with
those of samples extruded at 425 o
C. While after 4
passes, the UTS is nearly the same. The difference
between the UTS values is 57.7 MPa after two
passes. Then, the difference is found to decreases
with the increase of the number of passes. Similar
trend was observed in case of elongation to failure.
Also after 4 passes, elongation to failure % of
samples extruded at 425 and 500 o
C is nearly the
same.
As compared with work of Hasse et al. [20], the UTS
values were observed to increase from 162.5 MPa
before the ECAP process to 173.6 MPa (6.8%) and
from 166.7 MPa to 194.2 MPa (16.5%) after 4 passes
for sample extruded at 450 and 550 o
C respectively.
Furthermore, elongation to failure increased from 14
% before the ECAP process to 23.8 % (70%) and
from 14.4 % to 24 % (40%) after 4 passes for sample
extruded at 450 and 550 o
C respectively. In the
present work, the UTS increased from 116 to 347.8
MPa (~200%) and 133 to 349 MPa (162.4%) at the
same number of passes for samples extruded at 425
and 500 o
C respectively. Furthermore, elongation to
failure increased from 9.4 % before the ECAP
process to 13.2 % (40.4 %) and decreased from 14.3
% to 13.7 % (- 4.2 %) after 4 passes for samples
extruded at 425 and 500 o
C respectively. the UTS of
recycled samples through cold ECAP is significantly
higher than those of recycled through hot ECAP.
According to these observations, Cold ECAP is more
efficient in recycling and producing high strength
materials. Cold ECAP is conducted at room
temperature, therefore the grain growth due to high
temperature applied in hot ECAP is eliminated and
fine microstructure is obtained. Furthermore, it saves
the energy required for heating. However, the
bonding quality achieved through hot ECAP is
significantly better than cold ECAP and the results of
elongation to failure confirmed this conclusion.
4- Conclusions
The investigations carried out on solid state recycling
of AA-6061 through hot extrusion followed by cold
ECAP, allowed to obtain the following conclusions.
(1) Hot extrusion is effective techniques to produce
recycled samples with high relative density. While
cold ECAP process slightly increased the relative
density.
(2) For the extrusion ratio ER = 5.2, the plastic stain
was not sufficient to break down the oxide layers
between individual chips. While the plastic strain
imposed through ECAP was sufficient to break the
oxide layers and guarantee sound bonding.
Furthermore, the quality of bonding was increased
with increasing number of ECAP passes.
(3) Recycling of aluminium machining chips through
hot extrusion followed by ECAP process instead of
using hot extrusion only, leads to improvement in
strength, ductility and hardness.
(4) The superior mechanical properties of the samples
extruded through the ECAP die were in accordance
with the microstructure characterization showing fine
uniform grains and improvement of chips welding.
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