This document discusses using a genre-based approach to teach report writing to students learning English for specific purposes. It describes analyzing the structure of report genres to identify the key components and rules. The document outlines how a program was developed to provide structured feedback on student reports based on these genre conventions. The program standardized the feedback and ensured it addressed all necessary elements. This approach aimed to both teach students report writing structures and facilitate scientific thinking.
In this paper, there are three articles that concentrate on the analysis of genres should be reviewed.
Particularly so, these three articles shed light on the contribution of the corpus linguistics methodology to the
analysis and application of academic genres. For easy reference, I have to label Article 1 on From Text To Corpus-
A Genre-based Approach to Academic Literacy Instruction by C Tribble and U. Wingate, Article 2 on Using Corpusbased
research and Online Academic Corpora to Inform Writing of the Discussion Section of a Thesis, by L. Flower
dew and Article 3 on An Integration of Corpus-Based and Genre-Based Approaches to Text Analysis in EAP/ESP:
Countering Criticisms Against Corpus-Based Methodologies, also by L. Flower dew.
In this paper, there are three articles that concentrate on the analysis of genres should be reviewed.
Particularly so, these three articles shed light on the contribution of the corpus linguistics methodology to the
analysis and application of academic genres. For easy reference, I have to label Article 1 on From Text To Corpus-
A Genre-based Approach to Academic Literacy Instruction by C Tribble and U. Wingate, Article 2 on Using Corpusbased
research and Online Academic Corpora to Inform Writing of the Discussion Section of a Thesis, by L. Flower
dew and Article 3 on An Integration of Corpus-Based and Genre-Based Approaches to Text Analysis in EAP/ESP:
Countering Criticisms Against Corpus-Based Methodologies, also by L. Flower dew.
This paper aims at taking university-level EFL students with an intermediate ability in English as a foreign language from paragraph writing to essay writing. The main idea in this paper is to propose the essay writing skills of EFL students. It proposes writing component that provides a complete picture of developing an essay writing process for EFL students at tertiary level. It also, reveals the objectives of essay writing, the contents, the theoretical aspects, practical aspects, the academic writing layout, and finally, the suggested writing textbooks.
Teaching learning skills at post secondary level - from critique to pedagogic...The Free School
This paper summarises the rationale that underpins the curriculum design for a unit of study
that I have authored titled ‘Teaching learning skills at post-secondary level’. This paper
comprises part of a series by this author that shows how academics may use detailed practical
examples to supplement their scholarship that offers a critique of pedagogical practices.
The project requires that you research a topic that is connected to .docxstandfordabbot
The project requires that you research a topic that is connected to the content that we have studied in the class. Using five resources (journal, academic website, google scholar, etc.) published from 2011-2017, you will create an annotated bibliography that includes an introduction to the topic and a conclusion.
o Introduction: Discuss the topic, why it is of interest to you, and how it relates to this class.
o Annotated Bibliography: Include one per resource. You may use the following structure for each. If a website or online journal entry include the link. Use APA style when creating the reference.
o Conclusion: Summarize the articles and discuss what you learned through the articles. How will you use this information in the future.
Introduction
Annotated Bibliography for EDFN 645 Paper
Reference (Resource) 1:
Summary of the Article (Not the Abstract):
How does this reference relate to the topic of your paper?
Reference (Resource) 2:
Summary of the Article (Not the Abstract):
How does this reference relate to the topic of your paper?
Reference (Resource) 3:
Summary of the Article (Not the Abstract):
How does this reference relate to the topic of your paper?
Reference (Resource) 4:
Summary of the Article (Not the Abstract):
How does this reference relate to the topic of your paper?
Reference (Resource) 5:
Summary of the Article (Not the Abstract):
How does this reference relate to the topic of your paper?
Conclusion
subjects.
WHAT STUDY STRATEGIES HELP
STUDENTS LEARN?
How are you reading this book? Are you underlining or highlighting key sentences? Are you taking
notes or summarizing? Are you discussing the main ideas with a classmate? Are you putting
the book under your pillow at night and hoping the information will somehow seep into your
mind? Students have used these and many other strategies ever since the invention of reading, and
such strategies have been studied almost as long. Even Aristotle wrote on the topic. Yet educational
psychologists are still debating which study strategies are most effective.
Research on effective study strategies is confusing at best. Few forms of studying are found
to be always effective, and fewer still are never effective. Clearly, the value of study strategies depends
on their specifics and on the uses to which they are put (Schunk, 2012). A generalization
about effective study strategies is that effective methods involve learners in reshaping the information,
not just rereading (Callender & McDaniel, 2009) or highlighting without consciously choosing
the most important information to highlight. Research on the most common study strategies
is summarized in the following sections.
Practice Tests
Perhaps the most effective study strategy is taking practice tests aligned with the real test to come.
Test taking, especially when tests require construc.
Name QC#7Date Question of the WeekPositive Asp.docxgilpinleeanna
Name: QC#7Date:
Question of the Week:
Positive Aspects:
Interesting Aspects:
Negative Aspects:
Teaching in Higher Education, Vol. 7, No. 3, 2002
Re� ecting on Practice: using
learning journals in higher and
continuing education
ARTHUR M. LANGER
Teachers College, Columbia University in the City of New York, 203 Lewisohn Hall,
Mail Code 4114, 2970 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA
ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to report on the use of learning journals as vehicles for
encouraging critical re� ection among non-traditional students and to compare variances with
studies among traditional students. An objective of the study was to understand how adult
students in a ‘technical’ computer class responded to the requirement for learning journals.
Qualitative research focused on whether learning journals prove to be an effective teaching tool
in science-based, adult learning. The study was conducted at Columbia University’s Computer
Technology programme in Continuing Education. Results suggest that non-traditional students
are more skeptical than traditional students about using learning journals and more likely to use
them as study tools. An implication of this study is that student perception and skepticism of the
assignment can affect the objective of developing re� ective thinking. This implication stresses the
need to account for student perception in studies on learning journals and critical re� ection.
Introduction
The use of learning journals as a method for engaging traditional students in critical
re� ection has been widely discussed in the literature. However, their use in assisting
adult non-traditional students, particularly those who are engaged in profession-ori-
entated educational programmes of continuing higher education has received com-
paratively little attention. This paper focuses on the question of how the use of
journals impacted the learning process of adult students of the latter category and
how this impact compared to that of students of the former category. Speci� cally,
the study focused on students attending a computer technology class. The class,
Computer Architecture, is a required course in an 18-month computer technology
certi� cation programme at Columbia University. The courses in this certi� cation
programme are designed for adult students interested in changing their careers. The
curriculum focuses on real-world topics that are essential to the effective technology
practitioner in the workplace. The instructor for the course required the submission
of a weekly learning journal from each student during the 15-week course. Students
were asked to be re� ective about new career opportunities and how to apply
technology to the workplace.
ISSN 1356-2517 (print)/ISSN 1470-1294 (online)/02/030337-15 Ó 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/13562510220144824
338 A. M. Langer
For the purposes of the study, a select number of journals were reviewed from
three successive semesters of the same ...
Development and Evaluation of Concept Maps as Viable Educational Technology t...paperpublications3
Abstract: This study had developed and evaluated concept maps as viable educational technology to facilitate learning and assessment. The development process concluded upon establishing validity and reliability. These maps were classified into two: concept maps to facilitate learning; and, fill-in-the-maps to facilitate assessment. A one group pre-test-posttest pre-experimental design was employed. Fill-in-the-maps were utilized for unit pre-tests and posttests. Complete concept maps were used to facilitate learning. For midterm examination, students were given composition as basis for constructing concept map. For final examination, students were provided concept maps to write their own composition. Rubrics were used to assess students’ outputs. z-test for correlated means showed significant increases of Mean Percentage Score (MPS) from pre-test to posttest. The overall posttest result was correlated with those of objective, fill-in-the-map, map construction and composition writing. Significant correlations were observed. Results accentuated that concept maps can be developed and evaluated to facilitate learning and assessment.
This paper aims at taking university-level EFL students with an intermediate ability in English as a foreign language from paragraph writing to essay writing. The main idea in this paper is to propose the essay writing skills of EFL students. It proposes writing component that provides a complete picture of developing an essay writing process for EFL students at tertiary level. It also, reveals the objectives of essay writing, the contents, the theoretical aspects, practical aspects, the academic writing layout, and finally, the suggested writing textbooks.
Teaching learning skills at post secondary level - from critique to pedagogic...The Free School
This paper summarises the rationale that underpins the curriculum design for a unit of study
that I have authored titled ‘Teaching learning skills at post-secondary level’. This paper
comprises part of a series by this author that shows how academics may use detailed practical
examples to supplement their scholarship that offers a critique of pedagogical practices.
The project requires that you research a topic that is connected to .docxstandfordabbot
The project requires that you research a topic that is connected to the content that we have studied in the class. Using five resources (journal, academic website, google scholar, etc.) published from 2011-2017, you will create an annotated bibliography that includes an introduction to the topic and a conclusion.
o Introduction: Discuss the topic, why it is of interest to you, and how it relates to this class.
o Annotated Bibliography: Include one per resource. You may use the following structure for each. If a website or online journal entry include the link. Use APA style when creating the reference.
o Conclusion: Summarize the articles and discuss what you learned through the articles. How will you use this information in the future.
Introduction
Annotated Bibliography for EDFN 645 Paper
Reference (Resource) 1:
Summary of the Article (Not the Abstract):
How does this reference relate to the topic of your paper?
Reference (Resource) 2:
Summary of the Article (Not the Abstract):
How does this reference relate to the topic of your paper?
Reference (Resource) 3:
Summary of the Article (Not the Abstract):
How does this reference relate to the topic of your paper?
Reference (Resource) 4:
Summary of the Article (Not the Abstract):
How does this reference relate to the topic of your paper?
Reference (Resource) 5:
Summary of the Article (Not the Abstract):
How does this reference relate to the topic of your paper?
Conclusion
subjects.
WHAT STUDY STRATEGIES HELP
STUDENTS LEARN?
How are you reading this book? Are you underlining or highlighting key sentences? Are you taking
notes or summarizing? Are you discussing the main ideas with a classmate? Are you putting
the book under your pillow at night and hoping the information will somehow seep into your
mind? Students have used these and many other strategies ever since the invention of reading, and
such strategies have been studied almost as long. Even Aristotle wrote on the topic. Yet educational
psychologists are still debating which study strategies are most effective.
Research on effective study strategies is confusing at best. Few forms of studying are found
to be always effective, and fewer still are never effective. Clearly, the value of study strategies depends
on their specifics and on the uses to which they are put (Schunk, 2012). A generalization
about effective study strategies is that effective methods involve learners in reshaping the information,
not just rereading (Callender & McDaniel, 2009) or highlighting without consciously choosing
the most important information to highlight. Research on the most common study strategies
is summarized in the following sections.
Practice Tests
Perhaps the most effective study strategy is taking practice tests aligned with the real test to come.
Test taking, especially when tests require construc.
Name QC#7Date Question of the WeekPositive Asp.docxgilpinleeanna
Name: QC#7Date:
Question of the Week:
Positive Aspects:
Interesting Aspects:
Negative Aspects:
Teaching in Higher Education, Vol. 7, No. 3, 2002
Re� ecting on Practice: using
learning journals in higher and
continuing education
ARTHUR M. LANGER
Teachers College, Columbia University in the City of New York, 203 Lewisohn Hall,
Mail Code 4114, 2970 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA
ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to report on the use of learning journals as vehicles for
encouraging critical re� ection among non-traditional students and to compare variances with
studies among traditional students. An objective of the study was to understand how adult
students in a ‘technical’ computer class responded to the requirement for learning journals.
Qualitative research focused on whether learning journals prove to be an effective teaching tool
in science-based, adult learning. The study was conducted at Columbia University’s Computer
Technology programme in Continuing Education. Results suggest that non-traditional students
are more skeptical than traditional students about using learning journals and more likely to use
them as study tools. An implication of this study is that student perception and skepticism of the
assignment can affect the objective of developing re� ective thinking. This implication stresses the
need to account for student perception in studies on learning journals and critical re� ection.
Introduction
The use of learning journals as a method for engaging traditional students in critical
re� ection has been widely discussed in the literature. However, their use in assisting
adult non-traditional students, particularly those who are engaged in profession-ori-
entated educational programmes of continuing higher education has received com-
paratively little attention. This paper focuses on the question of how the use of
journals impacted the learning process of adult students of the latter category and
how this impact compared to that of students of the former category. Speci� cally,
the study focused on students attending a computer technology class. The class,
Computer Architecture, is a required course in an 18-month computer technology
certi� cation programme at Columbia University. The courses in this certi� cation
programme are designed for adult students interested in changing their careers. The
curriculum focuses on real-world topics that are essential to the effective technology
practitioner in the workplace. The instructor for the course required the submission
of a weekly learning journal from each student during the 15-week course. Students
were asked to be re� ective about new career opportunities and how to apply
technology to the workplace.
ISSN 1356-2517 (print)/ISSN 1470-1294 (online)/02/030337-15 Ó 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/13562510220144824
338 A. M. Langer
For the purposes of the study, a select number of journals were reviewed from
three successive semesters of the same ...
Development and Evaluation of Concept Maps as Viable Educational Technology t...paperpublications3
Abstract: This study had developed and evaluated concept maps as viable educational technology to facilitate learning and assessment. The development process concluded upon establishing validity and reliability. These maps were classified into two: concept maps to facilitate learning; and, fill-in-the-maps to facilitate assessment. A one group pre-test-posttest pre-experimental design was employed. Fill-in-the-maps were utilized for unit pre-tests and posttests. Complete concept maps were used to facilitate learning. For midterm examination, students were given composition as basis for constructing concept map. For final examination, students were provided concept maps to write their own composition. Rubrics were used to assess students’ outputs. z-test for correlated means showed significant increases of Mean Percentage Score (MPS) from pre-test to posttest. The overall posttest result was correlated with those of objective, fill-in-the-map, map construction and composition writing. Significant correlations were observed. Results accentuated that concept maps can be developed and evaluated to facilitate learning and assessment.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
A Genre-Based Approach To The Teaching Of Report-Writing
1. Englrsh for Specijic
Purposes, Vol. 10, pp. 3-13. 1991 0889.4%6/91$3.00 + .cMl
Pergamon Press plc. Pnnted m the USA Copynght Q 1991 The Amencan University zyxwvutsrqp
A Genre-Based Approach to the Teaching
of Report-Writing
Stewart Marshall zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWV
Abstract - Part of the EST/ESP teacher’s task is to help students acquire the
formal schemata required to produce scientific texts. But the teaching of
explicitly structured writing (e.g., report-writing) is important not only as a
means of teaching students how to express and present information effectively.
It is also a means of facilitating the development of scientific thinking. When
marking a technical report, the teacher must examine the extent to which the
student is able to utilize schematic structures to communicate his or her
scientific/engineering thinking. This article investigates the application of the
genre-based approach in the teaching of scientific and technical writing to L2
students, and also demonstrates how a genre for feedback on written reports
can be “created” and implemented with the aid of a “smak expert system.” zyxwvutsrqponmlk
Introduction
Science learning is a process of initiation into a new culture-making the
transition from the culture of “everyday thinking” to that of formal science
(Hawkins & Pea, 1987). This initiation is not just a matter of learning new
concepts and facts. The aspiring scientist has to acquire the linguistic and
communicative competence which will enable him or her to read, write, talk,
and think as a scientist. Clearly, EST/ESP teachers have an important role to
play in facilitating the development of this competence in science and technol-
ogy students.
A significant part of the scientist’s linguistic competence is the ability to
utilize his or her knowledge of the structure of scientific text so as to be able
to comprehend it effectively. Selinker et al. (1976) saw this as a major problem
for L2 students and many other researchers have commented on the need for
the explicit teaching of rhetorical structure so as to aid reading comprehension
(Carrell, 1983; Crookes, 1986; Swales, 1981; Widdowson, 1983).
There have been similar calls from those involved in the teaching of writing.
Explicit knowledge of genres (including knowledge of their rhetorical struc-
tures) enables teachers and students to be clear about the learning required
(Hammond, 1987). In Australia, a “genre-based” approach to the teaching of
writing to children has emerged to challenge the influential “process” and
“growth” approaches (Hammond, 1986; Moore, 1987).
In this article I investigate the application of the genre-based approach in the
teaching of scientific and technical writing to L2 students, and also demonstrate
how a “curriculum genre” (Christie, 1984) for feedback on written reports can
be “created” and implemented with the aid of a “small expert system.”
Address correspondence to: Stewart Marshall, Department of Language and Communication Studies, University
of Technology, Private Mail Bag, LAJZ,Papua New Guinea.
3
2. 4 S. Marshall zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVU
Schemata and the Comprehension of Scientific Texts
In the processing of a text the skilled reader actively organises his or her
experience of the text, using his or her knowledge of the world and of
previously encountered structurally similar texts to facilitate comprehension.
This organization of the text is achieved by means of memory structures called
“schemata.” Dosher and Corbett (1982, p. 84) describe a schema as:
a memory structure that represents abstract knowledge of an activity or
situation, components of the activity, and relations between the components.
Carrel1 (1983) distinguishes between content schemata, which deal with
general background knowledge, and formal schemata, which deal with the
rhetorical structure of language. The formal schemata are the:
genre-specific problem solving strategies which identify, locate and organize the
incoming information in accordance with our general knowledge about the
structure of the particular genre. (Hidi, Baird, and Hildyard, 1982. p. 71)
The work of Kintsch and van Dijk (1978, p. 375) suggests that if the reader
of a text does not have an appropriate formal schema then “the outcome of the
processing of the text will be haphazard” and comprehension and recall will be
impaired. With regard to EST/ESP students, Selinker et al. (1976) point out
that often it is not the lack of the vocabulary but the lack of knowledge of the
appropriate formal schemata which leads to poor comprehension. Part of the
EST/ESP teacher’s task is to help students acquire the appropriate formal
schemata.
To determine the formal schemata we need to analyse the particular genre
under consideration. Such studies of genre:
differ from traditional register or sub-register analysis in the importance they
attach to communicative purposes within a communicative setting. (Swales,
1981, p. 10).
For example, in his analysis of article introductions Swales (1981, 1984)
identifies four “moves”: establishing the field, summarising previous research,
preparing for the present research, and introducing the present research.
Crookes (1986) argues that if we are to use such analyses as a basis for
teaching, we must ensure that they reflect the actual discourse structure of the
target texts.
If we inculcate an inaccurate schema into our ESL/EST students concerning the
expectations they should have of a text, we are making their task harder, not
easier. (Crookes, 1986. p. 67)
He goes on to outline how we might validate the genre analysis on which we
base our teaching.
Crookes (1986) is, of course, referring to the teaching of reading, that is, of
providing strategies to aid comprehension. But what of the production of texts
in the particular gem-e? For example, will the teaching of the schemata
3. The Teaching of Report Writing zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYX
5
determined by a “validated analysis” of article introductions actually assist
students in the writing of article introductions? And will such teaching produce
“good” articles and introductions?
Genre Analysis and the Teaching of Scientific Writing
Genre analysis of actual texts presents us with a synchronic representation
of the genre as if it were homogeneous. This representation (whether validated
or not) does not reveal the variety of examples one finds in the genre-ones
which exemplify the representation, others which are totally dissimilar,
examples which are clear, others confused. It does not capture the fact that
participants in the genre have varying degrees of linguistic and communicative
competence. The representation also fails to capture the dynamic nature of a
genre. As teachers of the next generation of professionals, what and how we
teach will affect the way in which a particular genre changes. In a sense ESL
teachers and communication skills teachers of Ll learners have a role to play
in the creation of genres which are communicatively efictive.
Swales (1984) has applied the results of his analysis of article introductions
in his teaching of academic writing. His students reported that the work made
them “more critical and more perceptive readers of both their own work and
of articles in journals” @wales, 1984, p. 84). And this is what we want our
students to be-more critical and perceptive as readers and writers.
In recent years there has been considerable interest in the genre-based
approach to the teaching of English. As Hammond (1987, p. 164) explains:
One of the main concerns of this approach is to make explicit, to teachers and
students, knowledge about how the type of text (or genre) will vary according
to purpose, topic, audience and channel of communication.
This knowledge is not of formulaic structures but of the underlying mechanisms
which enable effective communication to take place. Genre-based teaching is
not a descriptive or prescriptive enterprise-it is a critical and evaluative
exercise in the creation of more effective structures. It necessarily involves
the teacher and students in making value judgements but then surely all
teaching involves this?
A Genre-based Approach to the Teaching of Structured Writing
The “four move pattern” of Swales (1981,1984) is used by Hall et al. (1987,
p. 153) as a means of “getting students to consider the fact that information can
be consciously structured.” Their course on writing research reports makes
explicit links between the formal schemata and the patterns of thought in
scientific writing. A similar approach has been adopted at the Papua New
Guinea University of Technology. On the Foundation Year in Engineering
(FYE), the teaching of explicitly structured writing is important not only as a
means of teaching students how to present information effectively but also as
a means of facilitating the development of scientific thinking.
4. 6 S. Marshall
In order to make the written assignments relevant to the rest of the FYE
students’ course, they are based on the “engineering practice” project work.
Each student spends approximately seven weeks on a project in each of the
three engineering areas, namely, Mechanical (making a kitchen-tools hanger),
Electrical (making a radio receiver), and Civil (making a model bridge)
(Marshall, 1988). The three assignments are written so as to exemplify three
important genres of engineering writing, namely, a work experience report, an
instruction manual, and a design, testing, and evaluation report.
The English course is designed and taught in a way which encourages
students to use basic principles of communication to decide how to write their
reports. Although there is some essential teacher input about language,
effective communication and the nature of the genre, wherever possible the
students discuss examples and arrive at a consensus on the principles to be
used in their writing. When the time arrives for work to commence on the
report, the students work cooperatively in small groups in the planning and
drafting stages. Although the final reports are presented individually, the
emphasis on cooperative work and peer group learning continues throughout
the writing process. Thus, before the final draft is produced students exchange
and comment on their reports.
The Genre of Feedback on Written Reports
A very important requirement of the report-writing programme is that the
students should receive extensive feedback from both language and engineer-
ing staff. Given the large number of reports (120+) to be assessed and the
necessity for many teachers to be involved in the marking, it is difficult to
ensure that feedback is extensive and consistent across the group. To
overcome this difficulty the four English teachers formulated a set of guidelines
regarding the content and structure of the feedback. In effect they created a
teaching genre or “curriculum genre” (Christie, 1984) of feedback.
The formal schema identified for the genre of feedback was as follows:
1.
2.
3. zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
4.
5.
giving a qualitative evaluation;
stating what the student did well;
suggesting what needs improvement;
explaining the improvements required;
reminding the student of why it is important for the report to be written in
this way;
6. giving a quantitative evaluation.
Also agreed was a set of criteria and associated comments for the “Bridge-
building Report.” This set formed the content schema of the genre, namely,
the background knowledge of effective report-writing.
It was then relatively simple for the author to use these explicitly agreed
schemata to create a computer program to assist the English teachers in their
production of feedback on the students’ reports (Marshall, 1986). The program
was, in effect, a “small expert system” a computer program which contains
5. The Teaching of Report Writing
TABLE 1
Assessing the Procedure of a Report
Requirements present?
Not
present?
Improvement
Required?
The bridge design J J
Reasons for the design J
The construction
The testing method J
expert knowledge, which it can convey to a user in the form of advice or
information. zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
An Expert in the Genre of Feedback
“BRIDGE” is a computer program designed to assist the FYE English
teachers in their marking of the reports about the design and testing of model
bridges. The program contains:
l a marking scheme comprising a list of the main features (title page, contents
page, summary, introduction, etc.) that should be present in the “Bridge-
building Report,” together with the possible marks to be allocated for those
features;
l a list of the items or qualities required for each main feature, together with
comments about each item or quality;
l a set of grade equivalences for deriving qualitative comments from quanti-
tative evaluations, e.g., 60% to 70% = “good”;
l a textual script for producing and formatting the lexical realizations of the
feedback.
The content of the feedback is created by the computer asking the teacher
if items (or qualities) are present in the particular report being marked. If an
item is present, the teacher is asked if it requires improvement. From this
information, lists are created and totals derived (see Table 1). Using this
information, the computer makes a quantitative evaluation for the section
under consideration. In the example given in Table 1, 50% of the marks would
be allocated, and thus using the grading equivalence this particular “procedure”
would receive the qualitative evaluation “average.”
During the “interrogation” the teacher is asked if he or she would like to
substitute his or her own comments for the ones already included in the
program, or to add any extra ones. These are then stored ready for inclusion
in the feedback. The program uses a “textual script” (see Figure 1) in order to
produce the actual printed feedback. Into this script are inserted the appro-
priate phrases as determined by the program after interrogating the teacher.
Thus, for the “Procedure” example given in Table 1, the actual comment
6. 8
( QUALITATIVE ) -
{ EVALUATION
S. Marshall
you included zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUT
r 7 1 4 PRESENT J
It would be better to zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTS
1 include also
:-
should also be zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXW
NOT } - { COMMENT 1 }
: COM%NT n ;
you could further improve this by looking
you could also look
I
again at
*
l
*
the following
the extent to which it is
[ jl:-
they are
IMPROVEMENT } - 4,COMMENT 1 t
LIST j COM%NT n f zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcba
Figure 1. Textual script for the feedback.
inserted into the “QUALITATIVE EVALUATION” slot in the script would be
randomly selected from six possible ways of saying “average.” The sentence
would then continue with “you included” followed by a list of the items present
in the “procedure” of this report, namely, “the bridge design, the construction
and the testing method.” Thus, the first paragraph might read:
“Proce6fwe
Could be better-you included the bridge design, the construction and the
testing method.”
The second paragraph of the feedback concerns those items not present in
the report. It starts with either “However” or “But” and continues with “it
would be better to” or “you should” followed by “include also: - .“ This is then
followed by a list of missing items together with a comment for each one. Thus,
our example might read:
“But it would be better to include also: -
l reasons for the design-you should give the specifications and say why you
chose your design.”
The third paragraph deals with those items which are present but which
require improvement. A phrase meaning “Look again at: -” is followed by the
7. The Teaching of Report Writing zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZ
9
list of items together with their associated comments. Thus, for our “pro-
cedure” example this paragraph might read:
“I think you could also look again at the following:-
l the bridge design-you need good digrams to explain the design;
l the testing method-a complete description of the test.”
If the student obtains a particularly low mark on a section of the report, the
feedback for that section concludes with a “remedial paragraph,” that is, for the
“procedure”:
Please remember that this section describes the steps you took to build your
bridge and test it in other words, how you attempted to achieve the aims of the
project.
After all the sections have been dealt with in this way, the computer
suggests a mark for the report. The total amount of feedback provided is two
to three sides of A4 paper (see the example in the Appendix).
Conclusion
Henzell-Thomas (1986, p. 506) warns that an over-emphasis on “packaging
skills” might produce:
students who value form over content, who are able to reproduce models of
canonical discourse structure in writing analytical reports but who have little
grasp of the topic they are writing about.
This danger willbe increased if the genre-based teaching programme is overly
prescriptive with regard to the formal schemata dealt with in the course. The
schematic structure must not be regarded as:
an arbitrary formula to be imposed on students in their writing. Knowledge of
schematic structures simply provides students with information on how language
works. (Hammond, 1987, p. 176).
By using this information, the English teacher can develop the students’
competence in “the procedural aspect of language use and learning” (Widdow-
son, 1983, p. 102).
In teaching the schematic structures appropriate to technical report-writing,
the English teacher needs to emphasize the relationship between these
structures and the basic principles of thought and communication (Hall et al.,
1987). When marking a technical report, the teacher must examine the extent
to which the student is able to utilize these structures to communicate his or
her scientific/engineering thinking. The “small expert system” “BRIDGE” can
assist the teacher in this genre-specific task.
Using “BRIDGE” does not reduce the amount of time the teacher spends on
each report-this remains about the same-but it does increase the quality and
quantity of feedback produced. By using the same script to interrogate the
teacher, “BRIDGE” ensures that the same criteria are applied in the marking
8. 10 S. Marshall
and writing of feedback for each report. This is particularly useful for courses
which are taught by several teachers. Also, the computer provides two to
three pages of typed and well-presented feedback which the student can
actually read. This amount of feedback is much more than would normally be
provided by teachers marking “by hand.” zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQ
(Received J
une 1990) zyxwvutsrqp
REFERENCES
Carrell, P.L. (1983). Some issues in studying the role of schemata, or
background knowledge, in second language comprehension. Reading in a
Foreign Language, 1, 2, 81-92.
Christie, F. (1984). Young children’s writing development: The relationship of
written genres to curriculum genres. In B. Bartlett and J. Carr (Eds.),
Language in education conference: A report of proceedings. Brisbane, Bris-
bane C.A.E.
Crookes, G. (1986). Towards a validated analysis of scientific text structure.
Applied Linguistics, 7, 1, 57-70.
Dosher, B.A., & Corbett, A.T. (1982). Instrument inferences and verb
schemata. Memory and Cognition, 10, 6, 531-539.
Hall, D., Hawkey, R., Kenny, B., & Storer, G. (1987). Patterns of thought in
scientific writing: A course in information structuring for engineering
students. English for Specific Purposes, 5, 2, 147-160.
Hammond, J. (1987). An overview of the genre-based approach to the teaching
of writing in Australia. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 2,
163-181.
Hammond, J. (1986). Writing for different purposes with young ESL students.
In R. D. Walshe, P. March, and D. Jenson (Eds.). Writing and learning in
Australia. Melbourne, Dellasta Books.
Hawkins, J., & Pea, R.D. (1987). Tools for bridging the cultures of everyday
and scientific thinking. J
ournal of Research in Science Teaching, 24, 4,
291-307.
Henzell-Thomas, J. (1985). Learningfrom informative text: Prediction Protocols
As A Means Of Accessing The Interaction between top-down and bottom-up
processes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Lancaster.
Hidi, S., Baird, W., & Hildyard, A. (1982). That’s important but is it
interesting? Two factors in text processing. In: A. Flammer and W. Kintsch
(Eds.). Discourse processing. Amsterdam: North Holland.
Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T.A. (1978). Towards a model of discourse
comprehension and production. Psychological Review, 85, 5, 363-394.
Marshall, S. (1986). An intelligent marking assistant: An application of artificial
intelligence in teaching. Higher Education Research and Development, 5, 2,
201-211.
Marshall, S. (1988). A bridge between cultures: Solving problems in engineer-
ing education in Papua New Guinea. International J
ournal of Applied
Engineering Education, 4, 2.
9. The Teaching of Report Writing zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXW
11
Moore, H. (1987). Process, outcome and language education: A discussion. zyxwvutsrqp
Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 2, 128-162.
Selinker, L., Todd, R.M., & Trimble, L. (1976). Presuppositional rhetorical
information in EST discourse. TESOL Quarterb, 10, 3.
Swales, J. (1981). Aspects of article introductions. Aston ESP Research
Reports No 1. Language Studies Unit, The University of Aston in Birming-
ham.
Swales, J. (1984). Research into the structure of introductions to journal
articles and its application to the teaching of academic writing. Common
Ground: Shared Interests in ESP and Communication Studies. ELT Docu-
ments 117. Pergamon Press, 77-86.
Widdowson, H. G. (1983). Learning Purpose and Language Use. OUP.
Appendix
John Smith
Below are typed some comments about the communicative effectiveness of
your BRIDGE REPORT. On your report, you will find red circles where
mistakes in English occur. Please correct these in order to obtain extra marks.
1. Title Page:
This is good-you included the title, who wrote it and when it was
completed.
But it would be better to also include:
l who it is for-this is a sort of distribution list.
2. Contents Page:
I think this is very good-you included the list of sections and page
numbers.
3. Summary:
Could be much improved-you included the important points and the
conclusions and recommendation.
But you should include also:
l the purpose(s)- what exactly are you seeking to do?
Maybe you could also look again at the following:
l the important points-should contain a brief description of what was
done and what was found;
l the conclusions and recommendation-what are the main ones that the
decision-maker needs to know quickly? They should be specific, i.e.,
mention loads, etc.
Don’t forget-the Summary allows readers to decide whether or not to
read the whole report, focuses their attention on the important points, and
enables decision-makers to obtain essential information quickly.
4. Introduction:
I think this is quite good-you included the background to the project and
the aims.
10. 12 S. Marshall
But you should include also:
l the plan of the report-create a “map” for the reader.
5. zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Aims:
I think this is not bad-they are satisfactorily expressed.
But they should also be:
l listed and numbered-include the most important aims and number
them for ease of reference.
Don’t forget-it is important to show that you understand the purpose of
the tests, so express the aims in your own clear words.
6. Equipment and Materials:
Very pleased to see you included the equipment used and the materials
used.
7. Procedure:
This is good-you included the bridge, design, reasons for the design, the
construction and the testing method.
Possibly you could further improve this by looking again at:
l reasons for the design-you should give the specifications and say why
you chose your design.
8. Test Results:
Not bad, you included observations and comparisons.
However, it would be better to include also:
l calculations -e.g., show your calculation of the bridge rating;
l interpretations and comments-how do you account for the difference in
performance of the bridges?
Please remember that this section describes what you observed and what
your interpretations are, i.e., the evidence for your conclusions and
recommendations. It should give credibility to your report.
9. Visual Aids:
I think this is quite good-they are well drawn, labelled, numbered and
captioned.
But they should also be:
l suitably placed in text -should be at a suitable point in the text and be
referred to.
Possibly you could also look again at the extent to which they are:
l labelled-your reader needs to see at a glance what each item in the
diagram is.
Note-diagrams placed in the relevant sections would help explain the
design, construction, testing, etc.
10. Conclusions:
Could be much improved-they are relative to the aims. However, they
should also be:
l expressed as a checklist-numbered sentences are best here;
l comprehensive-you should cover all the aims stated.
I think you could also look again at the extent to which they are:
l relative to the aims- what about the specific conclusions about this
bridge?
11. The Teaching of ReportWriting 13
Remember-this section should summarise the results obtained and so
focus the mind of the reader.
Il. zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Recommendations:
I like this-you included consideration of strength and consideration of
cost.
I think you could further improve this by looking again at:
0 consideration of cost -you should try to make sure that the redesigned
bridge is not “over-designed” as this could mean spending extra money
needlessly.
Overall mark out of 20 = 12
Stewart Marshall is Professor and Head of the Department of Language
and Communication Studies at the Papua New Guinea University of Technol-
ogy. Originally he was qualified as an electrical engineer and worked for the
Central Electricity Generating Board in the United Kingdom. He left engineer-
ing to study and then teach philosophy and communication studies. Coauthor of
the book Exercises in Teaching Communication, London: Kogan Page, (1986),
his main research interest is in communication skills teaching.