This article discusses the transnational dimensions of the Harlem Renaissance and Langston Hughes' engagement with Latin America. It notes that early black American anthologies and collections like The Book of American Negro Poetry and The New Negro included writings from the Caribbean and Latin America, recognizing a broader African diaspora. Figures like Alain Locke were aware of parallel movements in Mexico and Latin America. The article then focuses on Langston Hughes' travels to and writings about Latin America, which demonstrated his awareness of black cultural connections across the Americas.
Nathan Irvin Huggins was a historian born in 1927 who made significant contributions through his literary works and teaching focusing on illuminating important areas of Black American history. His most famous work, "Harlem Renaissance", examines the cultural movement of the 1920s and 1930s centered in Harlem that was a flowering of African American art and literature. Huggins saw the Harlem Renaissance as having a profound impact on both Black Americans and American culture as a whole by highlighting the contributions of African Americans and the emergence of jazz music.
Media Popular Culture, and the American CenturyKate Doronina
Edited by Kingsley Bolton and Jan Olsson,
Sweden, 2010
Introduction: Mediated America: Americana as Hollywoodiana
Part 1: Cinema and Americanization
Part 2: Americans at the Margins
Part 3: American Dreams/American Nightmares
Part 4: America Goes Digital
The Harlem Renaissance as PostcolonialPhenomenonWonder .docxrtodd33
The Harlem Renaissance was influenced by postcolonial perspectives brought by Black writers from the Caribbean. Many of the prominent writers of the era, such as Claude McKay and Eric Walrond, were from Jamaica and British Guiana respectively and incorporated postcolonial themes and analyses of life under imperial rule in their works. Their presence introduced postcolonial modes of thought that shaped the ideology of the Harlem Renaissance. Additionally, the US provided a platform for writing about conditions in colonies and extended postcolonial resistance to the American context, influencing subsequent postcolonial movements.
Ambiguously Articulating Americanism The Rhetoric Of Hiram Wesley Evans An...Brandi Gonzales
This document summarizes an academic journal article about the rhetoric of Hiram Wesley Evans, the leader of the 1920s Ku Klux Klan. The article argues that Evans strategically defined Americanism in an ambiguous way to associate the Klan's goals with the American civil religious tradition. Evans portrayed the Klan as defending a unified, moral vision of American life through this rhetoric. However, this ultimately undermined the virtues of the civil religious tradition by making Protestantism and xenophobia central tenets of Americanism. The document provides historical context on the rise of the 1920s Klan and its political successes under Evans' leadership.
Indigenous Revolts in Chiapas and the Andean HighlandsMarcos Luk'aña
This document summarizes an academic seminar that took place in 1994 to discuss historical precedents of indigenous rebellions in Chiapas, Mexico and comparable movements in the Andes region of South America. The seminar aimed to examine specific cases of revolt in their historical contexts in order to move beyond conventional paradigms for understanding indigenous resistance. Papers presented spanned over 470 years of history in Chiapas and the Andean countries. They highlighted the idiosyncrasies of different revolts and challenged popular perceptions. The diversity of experiences raised analytical challenges to generalizing about indigenous resistance. The volume provided comparative perspectives on the forms and causes of indigenous rebellions across time and regions in Latin America.
The Harlem Renaissance was an important cultural movement in the 1920s-1930s that allowed African American art, music, and literature to flourish. It gave black artists and intellectuals an opportunity to express themselves and be heard by both black and white audiences. Key figures like W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey helped establish organizations that advocated for civil rights and black empowerment. The Harlem Renaissance inspired pride in African American culture and helped legitimize black artistic expression through mediums such as jazz, poetry, novels, and visual art.
American multiculturalism emerged in 1964 with the passing of the Civil Rights Act. It began as a philosophy movement in Europe and the US in the late 19th century. American multiculturalism encompasses the literature and writings of various ethnic groups in the US, including African American writers, Latina/o writers, Asian American writers, and American Indian literature. It values maintaining separate cultural identities within a diverse society, represented by the "salad bowl" theory, rather than full assimilation under the "melting pot" theory.
Nathan Irvin Huggins was a historian born in 1927 who made significant contributions through his literary works and teaching focusing on illuminating important areas of Black American history. His most famous work, "Harlem Renaissance", examines the cultural movement of the 1920s and 1930s centered in Harlem that was a flowering of African American art and literature. Huggins saw the Harlem Renaissance as having a profound impact on both Black Americans and American culture as a whole by highlighting the contributions of African Americans and the emergence of jazz music.
Media Popular Culture, and the American CenturyKate Doronina
Edited by Kingsley Bolton and Jan Olsson,
Sweden, 2010
Introduction: Mediated America: Americana as Hollywoodiana
Part 1: Cinema and Americanization
Part 2: Americans at the Margins
Part 3: American Dreams/American Nightmares
Part 4: America Goes Digital
The Harlem Renaissance as PostcolonialPhenomenonWonder .docxrtodd33
The Harlem Renaissance was influenced by postcolonial perspectives brought by Black writers from the Caribbean. Many of the prominent writers of the era, such as Claude McKay and Eric Walrond, were from Jamaica and British Guiana respectively and incorporated postcolonial themes and analyses of life under imperial rule in their works. Their presence introduced postcolonial modes of thought that shaped the ideology of the Harlem Renaissance. Additionally, the US provided a platform for writing about conditions in colonies and extended postcolonial resistance to the American context, influencing subsequent postcolonial movements.
Ambiguously Articulating Americanism The Rhetoric Of Hiram Wesley Evans An...Brandi Gonzales
This document summarizes an academic journal article about the rhetoric of Hiram Wesley Evans, the leader of the 1920s Ku Klux Klan. The article argues that Evans strategically defined Americanism in an ambiguous way to associate the Klan's goals with the American civil religious tradition. Evans portrayed the Klan as defending a unified, moral vision of American life through this rhetoric. However, this ultimately undermined the virtues of the civil religious tradition by making Protestantism and xenophobia central tenets of Americanism. The document provides historical context on the rise of the 1920s Klan and its political successes under Evans' leadership.
Indigenous Revolts in Chiapas and the Andean HighlandsMarcos Luk'aña
This document summarizes an academic seminar that took place in 1994 to discuss historical precedents of indigenous rebellions in Chiapas, Mexico and comparable movements in the Andes region of South America. The seminar aimed to examine specific cases of revolt in their historical contexts in order to move beyond conventional paradigms for understanding indigenous resistance. Papers presented spanned over 470 years of history in Chiapas and the Andean countries. They highlighted the idiosyncrasies of different revolts and challenged popular perceptions. The diversity of experiences raised analytical challenges to generalizing about indigenous resistance. The volume provided comparative perspectives on the forms and causes of indigenous rebellions across time and regions in Latin America.
The Harlem Renaissance was an important cultural movement in the 1920s-1930s that allowed African American art, music, and literature to flourish. It gave black artists and intellectuals an opportunity to express themselves and be heard by both black and white audiences. Key figures like W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey helped establish organizations that advocated for civil rights and black empowerment. The Harlem Renaissance inspired pride in African American culture and helped legitimize black artistic expression through mediums such as jazz, poetry, novels, and visual art.
American multiculturalism emerged in 1964 with the passing of the Civil Rights Act. It began as a philosophy movement in Europe and the US in the late 19th century. American multiculturalism encompasses the literature and writings of various ethnic groups in the US, including African American writers, Latina/o writers, Asian American writers, and American Indian literature. It values maintaining separate cultural identities within a diverse society, represented by the "salad bowl" theory, rather than full assimilation under the "melting pot" theory.
The document discusses different types of culture, including British cultural materialism, American multiculturalism, and Asian American writers. British cultural materialism began in the 1950s and examines how culture reproduces social relations. American multiculturalism emerged in the 1960s to recognize distinct immigrant identities and celebrate racial/ethnic heritages. It includes African American, Latinx, American Indian, and Asian American writers.
1. The document provides context about Tampa Bay, Florida prior to Spanish contact, including that the Taino people had a vibrant civilization, economic systems, and governance structures that allowed sustainable living.
2. It discusses definitions of "civilization" and challenges Eurocentric views that defined civilization based on standards like writing, instead recognizing multiple civilizations.
3. It cautions against Eurocentric propaganda in some slides and provides context for indigenous peoples in the Americas and religious practices sometimes misunderstood by Europeans.
The document provides information about various Spanish-speaking regions and countries around the world, including their capitals, cultures, histories, and notable artists, writers, and political figures. Specific details are given about the communities and autonomous regions of Spain, their locations, defining characteristics, and important cultural contributions. Literature, art, music, and other cultural aspects of different Latin American countries are also outlined.
The document provides information on art forms and notable artists from various Latin American countries, including painters, sculptors, poets, novelists, and other literary figures. Some highlights mentioned are Nobel Prize winning authors Gabriela Mistral, Pablo Neruda, and Octavio Paz from Chile, as well as Miguel Angel Asturias and Rigoberta Menchu from Guatemala. The document also briefly outlines art movements and styles that emerged in different periods in these countries.
CommentaryMotivated by politics, a group of African-American au.docxpickersgillkayne
Commentary:
Motivated by politics, a group of African-American authors became known as the
Black Arts Movement
. Preeminent in this movement was the poet Imamu Amiri Baraka. The movement stemmed from the strife following the assassination of Malcom X in 1965, and then the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in 1968. Those involved in the changes spreading across America, known as Black Nationalism or the
Black Power Movement
, broke into two primary branches--Revolutionary Nationalists, which included such groups as the Black Panther Party, and Cultural Nationalists, which includes the Black Arts Movement.
The expression of the Black Power Movement was evident in several ways: changes in clothing styles (dashikis, for example) adopted among several black groups, more vocal involvement in politics, and more outspoken tones in and topics of writing, speeches, and the plastic arts (sculpture and painting).
Though the Black Arts Movement began in Harlem, it quickly spread to many cities around the country. Numerous African-American magazines, publishing houses, and journals flourished during this time, such as
Negro Digest, Black World
, Third World Press,
The Black Scholar
, and Lotus Press, among others. Poetry was the predominant form of writing within this movement, but not exclusively--short stories, drama, essay, plays, and music were also key to the content of this era.
The Black Arts Movement was not without controversy. The content of its works is often cited as homophobic, exclusive, misogynistic, and anti-Semitic in favor of black identity.
The Black Arts Movement’s influence began to fade as the result of an unlikely source--success. As members such as James Baldwin, Maya Angelou, and Nikki Giovanni, among others, became popular and even wealthy as the result of the works they also became mainstream, which was an unforeseen consequence counter to the basis of the movement itself.
Recovering the History of African Americans
Attempts to recover and recognize the history of African Americans was part of the Black Power Movement. This is seen in African Americans who changed their birth names to African names. Born as Leroi Jones, Amiri Baraka, for example, changed his name in 1964. Stokely Carmichael became Kwame Ture. In Alice Walker's short story "Everyday Use," Dee returns home with the name Wangero.
Attitudes and actions that before the 1960s might have been kept private became more overt, which is evident in the essays defining the Black Arts Movement. Richard Wright's comments about African-American writers in his 1937 essay "Blueprint for Negro Writing" were no longer true. In that essay, Wright discussed black writers who "dressed in the knee-pants of servility" as they went "abegging to white America" for approval. He notes, "Negro writing was something external to the lives of educated Negroes themselves."
Instead, the arts in the 1960s were more aligned with what Du Bois wrote in 1926, when he call.
Renaissance : The Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance Essay
The Harlem Renaissance Essay
Harlem Renaissance Essay
The Harlem Renaissance Essay
Harlem Renaissance Essay
Harlem Renaissance Research Paper
Essay On Harlem Renaissance
Literary Analysis: The Harlem Renaissance
Essay On Harlem Renaissance
Essay on The Harlem Renaissance
Life During The Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance Essay
Essay On Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance Essay
Essay about The Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance Essay
Harlem Renaissance Essay
The document provides information about the Harlem Renaissance period between World War I and the Great Depression when black artists and writers flourished. It discusses how Harlem became the epicenter of black culture during this time due to the large population of African Americans who migrated north for work opportunities. White intellectuals embraced black artists and their works that educated people about black heritage and culture. However, financial backing declined in the early 1930s due to the economic depression, bringing an end to the Renaissance. The document also introduces the poet Langston Hughes and author Zora Neale Hurston, discussing some of their notable works.
1 Chicana Expression—Later 20th Century Public AVannaJoy20
1
Chicana Expression—Later 20th Century
Public Art and the Public Interest1 [Since the 1960s, a number of artists have engaged in
debates] over the nature of public space and the art that is to be placed within this space. In the
past in the United States, public art works often functioned as representations of civic virtues
meant to instill valuable moral lessons. They were also intended to mark the common values of a
diverse community and nation: heroic military efforts in defense of one’s country or one’s
freedoms, respect for the laws of the land. The 1960s changed all that. As people began to march
for civil rights and against the involvement of the United States in the war in Vietnam, many
began to look at public art and ask: “Whose values are being represented? Whose traditions and
beliefs? To whom are these works supposed to speak?” Certainly artists in the 1930s had created
images of working-class Americans in government buildings throughout the country, but those
murals omitted much—the racism directed at African Americans, Native Americans, Latinos and
Asian Americans, the struggles to unionize, the labor of women outside the home. Calls were
issued for a new kind of public art, one that was truly, in the words of the art historian Arlene
Raven, “in the public interest.”
Walls of Pride: Chicano/a Murals These calls were met most effectively by a new generation
of muralists, who began covering walls throughout the country with images of local history or of
the less celebratory side of national history. These artists argued that a public art could only be
truly public if those who shared space with it were consulted about its ultimate form and use. In
California in particular, a new and dynamic movement evolved that took inspiration from both the
murals of Mexico and the struggles of farm workers in the United States, led by Cesar Chavez
and Luisa Moreno, to unionize under the United Farm Workers of America (UFW).
The growing political activism of individuals of Mexican descent around this unionization drive, which
ultimately grew into a full-blown civil rights movement, led to the adoption by many of the name Chicano,
derived from Mexicano. While it had circulated as an informal term for several decades within
communities whose members described themselves as Mexican Americans, it was now used publicly
as a form of positive self-identification, indicative of a new political consciousness and a commitment
to social change. One of the first Chicano murals was produced in 1968 by Antonio Bernal on the side of
the UFW Center in Del Ray, California. The piece celebrates modern revolutionary leaders, including
Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata (key figures in the Mexican Revolution of 1910-20), Cesar Chavez, ,
Malcolm X, and Martin Luther King. A companion piece depicted Pre-Columbian leaders.
Chicana Muralist Judith Baca and The Great Wall of Los An ...
81Book Reviewsin the drama that was played out in New Mexi.docxransayo
81Book Reviews
in the drama that was played out in New Mexico during his life.
Miera y Pacheco comes across as a sycophant who–because he was a Peninsular and a
paisano of several of the governors–was given opportunities that were beyond his abilities.
Although he had no experience for the position, he self-promoted himself with King Carlos
III, asking to be made “commandant general” (130). He begged Commandant Teodoro de
Croix to find him a position, “resorting to flattery that today seems excessive” (132). His
neighbors soon got his number, complaining that he had “undue influence…” (138).
A renaissance man possesses knowledge and skills in a variety of fields. Aside from art
and cartography, in which he was capable, Miera y Pacheco had no other proficiencies. This
conclusion is clearly drawn from Kessell’s own account.
Early in his career Miera y Pacheco tried his luck at being a miner but the silver mine
he purchased proved unproductive (12). He tried farming and failed. He tried being a debt
collector but “could not deliver” (30). He proved better as a debtor, having to spend a number
of days in jail for non-payment of merchandise (31-32). He volunteered to repair some can-
nons but “had to admit…the cannons wouldn’t work” (45). His experience as a municipal
administrator (alcalde mayor) met with disfavor with his constituents who complained “every
day he is planning things, all of them of great harm to the kingdom.” He volunteered as a
dam builder but the dam was washed away (147).
While Kessell credits Miera y Pacheco with “unrivaled knowledge of the kingdom’s human
and physical geography,” he at the same time cites numerous instances where this knowledge
was lacking. On one occasion Pacheco had to apologize to Croix for “failing to discover a
more direct route” between El Paso and Sonora (152). On a number of occasions his maps
were several degrees off in longitude or latitude. His artwork was certainly noteworthy but he
was hardly the only artist in the province and Fray Andrés García was “best known and most
prolific” (75). In sum, Kessell’s central theme is unsupported by his own research.
Still this work is an important contribution to the study of the Spanish influence in the
American Southwest. The author’s descriptions of the contributions of the various governors
and provincial leaders are both extensive and significant. His accounts of the various native
tribes and their activities vis-à-vis the Spanish interlopers is also a valuable addition to the
growing scholarship in this area of historical research. Finally, Kessell provides a worthwhile
narrative on the role the Church played in Spain’s efforts to colonize and convert the native
populations.
Alfredo E. Cardenas
Corpus Christi, Texas
Matthew Liebmann. Revolt: An Archaeological History of Pueblo Resistance and Revitalization
in 17th Century New Mexico. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2012. Pp. xv, 287. $30.00
paper.
In Revolt .
1.Discussion postFor the AlbionsSeed, you will find a chapter.docxpaynetawnya
1.
Discussion post:
For the AlbionsSeed, you will find a chapter of David Hackett Fisher's landmark study of colonial America, Albion's Seed. Fisher . . . "traces the migration of cultures from four distinct regions of the British Isles and explains how each imparted its own distinctive character to the portion of America they made their own."
The AlbionsSeed excerpt focuses on the ways that these four different waves have influenced America's multi-varied cultural concept of "liberty," certainly a necessary path of inquiry to anyone interested in American culture then and now.
Discussion Board Post:
Looking at the different explanations of the idea of "liberty," which one do you think was most important to early European settlers of the colonies? Explain why.
Which category do you think is closest to your own idea of liberty? Do you think that your definition of the word is one still commonly held in our culture? Describe how it is differs from Fisher's categories.
250 words.
2. (make sure write where is this quote from into beginning of explanation) (you can find a quote from reading in first assignment).
Students will choose a short excerpt / quote from one of the readings of that week, type it in, then add a short (150 words or so) explanation for your choice. Was your selection important because it:
1. is an example of beautiful or striking language?
1. exemplifies a particular theme or character?
1. makes the reader think about something in a new way?
1. reflects a particular aspect of French culture?
1. was just something that you liked?
For example:
"Whoever gets knowledge from God, science,
and a talent for speech, eloquence,
Shouldn't shut up or hide away;
No, that person should gladly display." Marie de France
explanation:
In the opening lines to the Prologue to the Lays, Marie de France is providing her readers with an explanation for writing these stories down. This is a very common and traditional rhetorical move informing readers about the ethos or qualifications of the speaker. In this case, Marie is claiming that she is knowledgeable and eloquent and that these gifts come from God and therefore should be used. I think it goes further than that; Marie, like most women of her day,* would have been expected to "shut up" and "hide away" as a matter of course, since women's voices were not welcomed in the public sphere. By opening her work in this way, she preempts criticism about the appropriateness of her authorship.
PURITAN LIBERTY MASSACHUSSETTS
ordered liberty
· Collective liberty w/close restraints on individuals
· Liberties – specific exemptions from prior restraints
· Soul (Christian) liberty – freedom to serve God in the world (= obligation) Freedom of the “true” faith; consistent w/persecution of other faiths
· Freedom from circumstance – want, fear
ANGLICAN LIBERTY VIRGINIA
hegemonic liberty
· Dominion over others
· Dominion over self
· Power to rule
· Hierarchical /aristocratic ...
American writers have a long and illustrious with some.docxwrite12
American literature has evolved through four periods: realism, naturalism, modernism, and postmodernism. Writers during each period displayed certain defining characteristics. Realism writers like Mark Twain and Booker T. Washington wrote about accurate representations of American life and social issues like racism. Naturalist writers such as Edith Wharton and Jack London were influenced by Darwin and wrote about environmental and hereditary determinism. Modernist writers experimented with form and perspective and addressed themes like the burden of history. Postmodern writers depicted contemporary issues and technologies and expressed confusion about social changes through works like Allen Ginsberg's poem "Howl."
Mla Format Citation For Website With No Author - FoAllison Thompson
1. The document discusses building effective service learning programs in local communities to help change attitudes about teenagers and encourage their personal development.
2. Through participating in service learning programs, students can learn group dynamics, diversity their peer groups, and begin feeling a sense of civic responsibility.
3. Proper facilitation to discuss social issues and designing content around student development are important for maximizing the benefits of community service programs.
Free Images Writing, Word, Keyboard, Vintage, Antique, RetroAllison Thompson
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied. The service promises original, high-quality work or a full refund.
How To Do Quotes On An Argumentative Essay In MLA Format SynonymAllison Thompson
This document provides instructions for writing a research paper on the fictional Cocheta tribe. It describes four neighboring tribes - the Suquamish tribe of earth, the Nayeli tribe of water, the Quidel tribe of fire, and the Kaska tribe of air. These tribes are enemies at war with each other. The passage then focuses on the Kaska tribe of air, stating that on the 10th day of war, something unexpected happened to a tribe member named Cocheta during the 9th night, leading to an attempt at peace between the tribes.
This document provides instructions for how to change the oil in a car's engine. It outlines the 5 key steps: 1) jack the car up and place jack stands for support, 2) locate and remove the oil drain plug to drain the old oil into a pan, 3) remove and replace the oil filter, 4) pour in the recommended amount of new oil, 5) start the car and check for leaks before disposing of the used oil properly. Changing oil regularly is important for maintaining the engine.
This document discusses the steps to request a paper writing service from HelpWriting.net. It outlines 5 steps: 1) Create an account with valid email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Receive the paper and ensure it meets expectations, then pay the writer. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, and know plagiarized work results in a refund. The document promotes HelpWriting.net's writing service by emphasizing original, high-quality work and commitment to customer satisfaction.
The document provides instructions for requesting and obtaining writing assistance from the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with the option of a full refund for plagiarized work.
The document provides information about East Midlands Ambulance Service NHS Trust (EMAS), including its main products and services, customers, and goals. EMAS provides emergency and urgent care services to 4.8 million people across several counties. Its main customers are members of the public calling 999. The organization aims to respond to 75% of emergency calls within 8 minutes. The document also discusses external factors influencing EMAS, such as changes in healthcare provision, mergers of previous ambulance services, and pursuing NHS Foundation Trust status for more autonomy.
Wordvice Ranked Best College Essay Editing Service In Essay EditorAllison Thompson
Financial planning skills can help you save money to purchase important assets like a house or car. Saving for large purchases is important because it allows you to achieve major life goals and build wealth over time. Financial planning also helps you prepare for unexpected expenses and save for retirement, which are important for long-term security and quality of life.
The document provides instructions for students to get writing help from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account, 2) Complete an order form with instructions and deadline, 3) Review writer bids and choose one, 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment, 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction. The service promises original, high-quality content and refunds for plagiarized work.
Help Me Write My Paper, I Need Writing Assistance To Help Me With AAllison Thompson
1) Democracy, which is defined as government by the people, aligns with the founding principles of the United States that the country should be ruled by citizens, not a select few.
2) Broad participation in government through democratic processes is necessary now more than ever for the United States to overcome challenges and emerge as a stronger nation.
3) While decisions in a democracy may not always be perfect, it finds a balance where different groups get some of what they want, unlike authoritarian systems where a small group controls the country.
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The document discusses different types of culture, including British cultural materialism, American multiculturalism, and Asian American writers. British cultural materialism began in the 1950s and examines how culture reproduces social relations. American multiculturalism emerged in the 1960s to recognize distinct immigrant identities and celebrate racial/ethnic heritages. It includes African American, Latinx, American Indian, and Asian American writers.
1. The document provides context about Tampa Bay, Florida prior to Spanish contact, including that the Taino people had a vibrant civilization, economic systems, and governance structures that allowed sustainable living.
2. It discusses definitions of "civilization" and challenges Eurocentric views that defined civilization based on standards like writing, instead recognizing multiple civilizations.
3. It cautions against Eurocentric propaganda in some slides and provides context for indigenous peoples in the Americas and religious practices sometimes misunderstood by Europeans.
The document provides information about various Spanish-speaking regions and countries around the world, including their capitals, cultures, histories, and notable artists, writers, and political figures. Specific details are given about the communities and autonomous regions of Spain, their locations, defining characteristics, and important cultural contributions. Literature, art, music, and other cultural aspects of different Latin American countries are also outlined.
The document provides information on art forms and notable artists from various Latin American countries, including painters, sculptors, poets, novelists, and other literary figures. Some highlights mentioned are Nobel Prize winning authors Gabriela Mistral, Pablo Neruda, and Octavio Paz from Chile, as well as Miguel Angel Asturias and Rigoberta Menchu from Guatemala. The document also briefly outlines art movements and styles that emerged in different periods in these countries.
CommentaryMotivated by politics, a group of African-American au.docxpickersgillkayne
Commentary:
Motivated by politics, a group of African-American authors became known as the
Black Arts Movement
. Preeminent in this movement was the poet Imamu Amiri Baraka. The movement stemmed from the strife following the assassination of Malcom X in 1965, and then the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in 1968. Those involved in the changes spreading across America, known as Black Nationalism or the
Black Power Movement
, broke into two primary branches--Revolutionary Nationalists, which included such groups as the Black Panther Party, and Cultural Nationalists, which includes the Black Arts Movement.
The expression of the Black Power Movement was evident in several ways: changes in clothing styles (dashikis, for example) adopted among several black groups, more vocal involvement in politics, and more outspoken tones in and topics of writing, speeches, and the plastic arts (sculpture and painting).
Though the Black Arts Movement began in Harlem, it quickly spread to many cities around the country. Numerous African-American magazines, publishing houses, and journals flourished during this time, such as
Negro Digest, Black World
, Third World Press,
The Black Scholar
, and Lotus Press, among others. Poetry was the predominant form of writing within this movement, but not exclusively--short stories, drama, essay, plays, and music were also key to the content of this era.
The Black Arts Movement was not without controversy. The content of its works is often cited as homophobic, exclusive, misogynistic, and anti-Semitic in favor of black identity.
The Black Arts Movement’s influence began to fade as the result of an unlikely source--success. As members such as James Baldwin, Maya Angelou, and Nikki Giovanni, among others, became popular and even wealthy as the result of the works they also became mainstream, which was an unforeseen consequence counter to the basis of the movement itself.
Recovering the History of African Americans
Attempts to recover and recognize the history of African Americans was part of the Black Power Movement. This is seen in African Americans who changed their birth names to African names. Born as Leroi Jones, Amiri Baraka, for example, changed his name in 1964. Stokely Carmichael became Kwame Ture. In Alice Walker's short story "Everyday Use," Dee returns home with the name Wangero.
Attitudes and actions that before the 1960s might have been kept private became more overt, which is evident in the essays defining the Black Arts Movement. Richard Wright's comments about African-American writers in his 1937 essay "Blueprint for Negro Writing" were no longer true. In that essay, Wright discussed black writers who "dressed in the knee-pants of servility" as they went "abegging to white America" for approval. He notes, "Negro writing was something external to the lives of educated Negroes themselves."
Instead, the arts in the 1960s were more aligned with what Du Bois wrote in 1926, when he call.
Renaissance : The Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance Essay
The Harlem Renaissance Essay
Harlem Renaissance Essay
The Harlem Renaissance Essay
Harlem Renaissance Essay
Harlem Renaissance Research Paper
Essay On Harlem Renaissance
Literary Analysis: The Harlem Renaissance
Essay On Harlem Renaissance
Essay on The Harlem Renaissance
Life During The Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance Essay
Essay On Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance Essay
Essay about The Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance Essay
Harlem Renaissance Essay
The document provides information about the Harlem Renaissance period between World War I and the Great Depression when black artists and writers flourished. It discusses how Harlem became the epicenter of black culture during this time due to the large population of African Americans who migrated north for work opportunities. White intellectuals embraced black artists and their works that educated people about black heritage and culture. However, financial backing declined in the early 1930s due to the economic depression, bringing an end to the Renaissance. The document also introduces the poet Langston Hughes and author Zora Neale Hurston, discussing some of their notable works.
1 Chicana Expression—Later 20th Century Public AVannaJoy20
1
Chicana Expression—Later 20th Century
Public Art and the Public Interest1 [Since the 1960s, a number of artists have engaged in
debates] over the nature of public space and the art that is to be placed within this space. In the
past in the United States, public art works often functioned as representations of civic virtues
meant to instill valuable moral lessons. They were also intended to mark the common values of a
diverse community and nation: heroic military efforts in defense of one’s country or one’s
freedoms, respect for the laws of the land. The 1960s changed all that. As people began to march
for civil rights and against the involvement of the United States in the war in Vietnam, many
began to look at public art and ask: “Whose values are being represented? Whose traditions and
beliefs? To whom are these works supposed to speak?” Certainly artists in the 1930s had created
images of working-class Americans in government buildings throughout the country, but those
murals omitted much—the racism directed at African Americans, Native Americans, Latinos and
Asian Americans, the struggles to unionize, the labor of women outside the home. Calls were
issued for a new kind of public art, one that was truly, in the words of the art historian Arlene
Raven, “in the public interest.”
Walls of Pride: Chicano/a Murals These calls were met most effectively by a new generation
of muralists, who began covering walls throughout the country with images of local history or of
the less celebratory side of national history. These artists argued that a public art could only be
truly public if those who shared space with it were consulted about its ultimate form and use. In
California in particular, a new and dynamic movement evolved that took inspiration from both the
murals of Mexico and the struggles of farm workers in the United States, led by Cesar Chavez
and Luisa Moreno, to unionize under the United Farm Workers of America (UFW).
The growing political activism of individuals of Mexican descent around this unionization drive, which
ultimately grew into a full-blown civil rights movement, led to the adoption by many of the name Chicano,
derived from Mexicano. While it had circulated as an informal term for several decades within
communities whose members described themselves as Mexican Americans, it was now used publicly
as a form of positive self-identification, indicative of a new political consciousness and a commitment
to social change. One of the first Chicano murals was produced in 1968 by Antonio Bernal on the side of
the UFW Center in Del Ray, California. The piece celebrates modern revolutionary leaders, including
Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata (key figures in the Mexican Revolution of 1910-20), Cesar Chavez, ,
Malcolm X, and Martin Luther King. A companion piece depicted Pre-Columbian leaders.
Chicana Muralist Judith Baca and The Great Wall of Los An ...
81Book Reviewsin the drama that was played out in New Mexi.docxransayo
81Book Reviews
in the drama that was played out in New Mexico during his life.
Miera y Pacheco comes across as a sycophant who–because he was a Peninsular and a
paisano of several of the governors–was given opportunities that were beyond his abilities.
Although he had no experience for the position, he self-promoted himself with King Carlos
III, asking to be made “commandant general” (130). He begged Commandant Teodoro de
Croix to find him a position, “resorting to flattery that today seems excessive” (132). His
neighbors soon got his number, complaining that he had “undue influence…” (138).
A renaissance man possesses knowledge and skills in a variety of fields. Aside from art
and cartography, in which he was capable, Miera y Pacheco had no other proficiencies. This
conclusion is clearly drawn from Kessell’s own account.
Early in his career Miera y Pacheco tried his luck at being a miner but the silver mine
he purchased proved unproductive (12). He tried farming and failed. He tried being a debt
collector but “could not deliver” (30). He proved better as a debtor, having to spend a number
of days in jail for non-payment of merchandise (31-32). He volunteered to repair some can-
nons but “had to admit…the cannons wouldn’t work” (45). His experience as a municipal
administrator (alcalde mayor) met with disfavor with his constituents who complained “every
day he is planning things, all of them of great harm to the kingdom.” He volunteered as a
dam builder but the dam was washed away (147).
While Kessell credits Miera y Pacheco with “unrivaled knowledge of the kingdom’s human
and physical geography,” he at the same time cites numerous instances where this knowledge
was lacking. On one occasion Pacheco had to apologize to Croix for “failing to discover a
more direct route” between El Paso and Sonora (152). On a number of occasions his maps
were several degrees off in longitude or latitude. His artwork was certainly noteworthy but he
was hardly the only artist in the province and Fray Andrés García was “best known and most
prolific” (75). In sum, Kessell’s central theme is unsupported by his own research.
Still this work is an important contribution to the study of the Spanish influence in the
American Southwest. The author’s descriptions of the contributions of the various governors
and provincial leaders are both extensive and significant. His accounts of the various native
tribes and their activities vis-à-vis the Spanish interlopers is also a valuable addition to the
growing scholarship in this area of historical research. Finally, Kessell provides a worthwhile
narrative on the role the Church played in Spain’s efforts to colonize and convert the native
populations.
Alfredo E. Cardenas
Corpus Christi, Texas
Matthew Liebmann. Revolt: An Archaeological History of Pueblo Resistance and Revitalization
in 17th Century New Mexico. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2012. Pp. xv, 287. $30.00
paper.
In Revolt .
1.Discussion postFor the AlbionsSeed, you will find a chapter.docxpaynetawnya
1.
Discussion post:
For the AlbionsSeed, you will find a chapter of David Hackett Fisher's landmark study of colonial America, Albion's Seed. Fisher . . . "traces the migration of cultures from four distinct regions of the British Isles and explains how each imparted its own distinctive character to the portion of America they made their own."
The AlbionsSeed excerpt focuses on the ways that these four different waves have influenced America's multi-varied cultural concept of "liberty," certainly a necessary path of inquiry to anyone interested in American culture then and now.
Discussion Board Post:
Looking at the different explanations of the idea of "liberty," which one do you think was most important to early European settlers of the colonies? Explain why.
Which category do you think is closest to your own idea of liberty? Do you think that your definition of the word is one still commonly held in our culture? Describe how it is differs from Fisher's categories.
250 words.
2. (make sure write where is this quote from into beginning of explanation) (you can find a quote from reading in first assignment).
Students will choose a short excerpt / quote from one of the readings of that week, type it in, then add a short (150 words or so) explanation for your choice. Was your selection important because it:
1. is an example of beautiful or striking language?
1. exemplifies a particular theme or character?
1. makes the reader think about something in a new way?
1. reflects a particular aspect of French culture?
1. was just something that you liked?
For example:
"Whoever gets knowledge from God, science,
and a talent for speech, eloquence,
Shouldn't shut up or hide away;
No, that person should gladly display." Marie de France
explanation:
In the opening lines to the Prologue to the Lays, Marie de France is providing her readers with an explanation for writing these stories down. This is a very common and traditional rhetorical move informing readers about the ethos or qualifications of the speaker. In this case, Marie is claiming that she is knowledgeable and eloquent and that these gifts come from God and therefore should be used. I think it goes further than that; Marie, like most women of her day,* would have been expected to "shut up" and "hide away" as a matter of course, since women's voices were not welcomed in the public sphere. By opening her work in this way, she preempts criticism about the appropriateness of her authorship.
PURITAN LIBERTY MASSACHUSSETTS
ordered liberty
· Collective liberty w/close restraints on individuals
· Liberties – specific exemptions from prior restraints
· Soul (Christian) liberty – freedom to serve God in the world (= obligation) Freedom of the “true” faith; consistent w/persecution of other faiths
· Freedom from circumstance – want, fear
ANGLICAN LIBERTY VIRGINIA
hegemonic liberty
· Dominion over others
· Dominion over self
· Power to rule
· Hierarchical /aristocratic ...
American writers have a long and illustrious with some.docxwrite12
American literature has evolved through four periods: realism, naturalism, modernism, and postmodernism. Writers during each period displayed certain defining characteristics. Realism writers like Mark Twain and Booker T. Washington wrote about accurate representations of American life and social issues like racism. Naturalist writers such as Edith Wharton and Jack London were influenced by Darwin and wrote about environmental and hereditary determinism. Modernist writers experimented with form and perspective and addressed themes like the burden of history. Postmodern writers depicted contemporary issues and technologies and expressed confusion about social changes through works like Allen Ginsberg's poem "Howl."
Similar to A Continent Of Color Langston Hughes And Spanish America (11)
Mla Format Citation For Website With No Author - FoAllison Thompson
1. The document discusses building effective service learning programs in local communities to help change attitudes about teenagers and encourage their personal development.
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3. Proper facilitation to discuss social issues and designing content around student development are important for maximizing the benefits of community service programs.
Free Images Writing, Word, Keyboard, Vintage, Antique, RetroAllison Thompson
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied. The service promises original, high-quality work or a full refund.
How To Do Quotes On An Argumentative Essay In MLA Format SynonymAllison Thompson
This document provides instructions for writing a research paper on the fictional Cocheta tribe. It describes four neighboring tribes - the Suquamish tribe of earth, the Nayeli tribe of water, the Quidel tribe of fire, and the Kaska tribe of air. These tribes are enemies at war with each other. The passage then focuses on the Kaska tribe of air, stating that on the 10th day of war, something unexpected happened to a tribe member named Cocheta during the 9th night, leading to an attempt at peace between the tribes.
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The document provides information about East Midlands Ambulance Service NHS Trust (EMAS), including its main products and services, customers, and goals. EMAS provides emergency and urgent care services to 4.8 million people across several counties. Its main customers are members of the public calling 999. The organization aims to respond to 75% of emergency calls within 8 minutes. The document also discusses external factors influencing EMAS, such as changes in healthcare provision, mergers of previous ambulance services, and pursuing NHS Foundation Trust status for more autonomy.
Wordvice Ranked Best College Essay Editing Service In Essay EditorAllison Thompson
Financial planning skills can help you save money to purchase important assets like a house or car. Saving for large purchases is important because it allows you to achieve major life goals and build wealth over time. Financial planning also helps you prepare for unexpected expenses and save for retirement, which are important for long-term security and quality of life.
The document provides instructions for students to get writing help from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account, 2) Complete an order form with instructions and deadline, 3) Review writer bids and choose one, 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment, 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction. The service promises original, high-quality content and refunds for plagiarized work.
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1) Democracy, which is defined as government by the people, aligns with the founding principles of the United States that the country should be ruled by citizens, not a select few.
2) Broad participation in government through democratic processes is necessary now more than ever for the United States to overcome challenges and emerge as a stronger nation.
3) While decisions in a democracy may not always be perfect, it finds a balance where different groups get some of what they want, unlike authoritarian systems where a small group controls the country.
The Five Steps Of Writing An Essay, Steps Of Essay Writing.Allison Thompson
The document outlines a 5-step process for writing an essay through the HelpWriting.net website. The steps are: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete an order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review writer bids and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Review the paper and authorize payment if pleased. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied. The site promises original, high-quality content with refunds for plagiarism.
Writing A College Paper Format. How To Make A PaAllison Thompson
The document provides instructions for writing a college paper by outlining a 5-step process on the website HelpWriting.net. The steps include 1) creating an account, 2) completing an order form with instructions and deadline, 3) reviewing writer bids and choosing one, 4) reviewing the completed paper and authorizing payment, and 5) requesting revisions until satisfied. The purpose is to guide students on how to request writing assistance and ensure quality papers through the bidding and revision process.
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The document provides information about conducting a visual qualitative research project using the photovoice method to examine women's social service needs related to domestic violence. Photovoice allows participants to identify and represent issues in their community through photographs. It gives voice to populations that have been silenced, shining light on experiences of domestic violence typically kept private. The method will help assess needs for financial support, counseling, and other social and emotional services to help women regain control over their lives after experiencing domestic violence and the trauma it causes.
015 Transitional Words For Resumes Professional ResAllison Thompson
The document provides information about the registration and order process for the writing assistance service HelpWriting.net. It outlines 5 steps: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one. 4) Receive the paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with a refund option for plagiarized work. The service uses a bidding system and promises original, high-quality content.
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The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete an order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied. It emphasizes that original, high-quality content is guaranteed or a full refund will be provided.
This document provides instructions for requesting an assignment writing service from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work. The service utilizes a bidding system from qualified writers.
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1. The document announces the winner of an online essay writing competition hosted on HelpWriting.net.
2. Participants were required to create an account, submit a paper request by completing an order form, and allow writers to bid on their request.
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The document discusses the origins and development of militancy in pre-independence Israel. It notes that in the beginning, Jewish defense forces were unorganized and aimed solely at protection. Over time, the Jewish militias evolved into different branches that eventually formed the foundation of the modern Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) and influenced Israeli politics. The militias played an important role in the development of Israel as a Jewish state prior to its independence.
010 How To Write Creativeay Report Example Sample CollAllison Thompson
The document discusses direct seedling methods for rice cultivation compared to traditional methods. It outlines the key steps in direct seedling which involves using a drum seeder to directly sow seeds into dry soil, eliminating the need for nursery preparation and transplanting. The document notes that direct seedling can help address labor shortages, reduce costs, and increase productivity compared to traditional methods. It also provides context on the agro-climatic conditions and soil fertility status of the local district where the drum seeder technology was tested on farm fields.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...TechSoup
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This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
3. CONTENTS
LUZ ANGÉLICA KIRSCHNER
Expanding Latinidad: An Introduction .......................................................................... 1
MARÍA-ISABEL MARTÍNEZ-MIRA
Spaniards in the U.S.A. and Hispanic Identity:
Where Heritage Comes Into Play ............................................................................... 57
REINALDO FRANCISCO SILVA
Madly in Love Outside the Church and the Nunnery:
The Portuguese Priest and Nun Revisited in Katherine Vaz’s Fiction ........................ 71
STEFANIA CHIARELLI
Images of Displacement in Brazilian Literature .......................................................... 87
LEILA LEHNEN
Global Sunset: Urban Itineraries and Globalized Identities in
O sol se põe em São Paulo............................................................................................ 95
ZELIDETH MARÍA RIVAS
Narrating Japaneseness through World War II: The Brazilianization,
Peruvianization, and U.S. Americanization of Immigrants ....................................... 109
DANIEL DE PAULA VALENTIM HUTCHINS
“Y el Cielo Como Bandera”: Tropicália, Immigration and
the Question of Brazilian Exceptionalism ................................................................. 123
LUZ ANGÉLICA KIRSCHNER
Samba Dreamers; or, The Tenuousness of a “Perfect Ending” ................................. 133
NICOLE L. SPARLING
Mothers of Afrolatinidad: Dislocating New World Identities
in Latino/a Studies and African American Studies .................................................... 153
ASTRID HAAS
A Continent of Color: Langston Hughes and Spanish America ................................ 177
LEONORA SIMONOVIS-BROWN
Witches, Virgins, Whores: Racial Exclusions and Gender Disruptions in
Our Lady of the Night and Who Slashed Celanire’s Throat? .................................... 195
4. MARÍA MORENO
Cecilia Valdés, the Endurance of a Cuban Myth ....................................................... 207
JULIA ANDRES
Chicana Falsa—Of Definitions, Role Expectations, and Honey Blonde Chicas ..... 221
CHRISTOPHER RIVERA
Revisiting Richard Rodriguez:
A Reconsideration of Rodriguez’s Inter-American Subjectivity ............................... 233
K. ANGELIQUE DWYER
Performing Chicanas in Cyberspace: www.almalopez.com ...................................... 247
OSCAR S. REYNAGA
Kikes on the Mic—Humor, Hip Hop, and the Performance of the Latino Jew ......... 265
CONTRIBUTORS .......................................................................................................... 279
6. Astrid Haas
178
issue of Survey Graphic entitled Mexico: A Promise (1924). The contributors to that
volume included, among others, the Mexican intellectual José Vasconcelos—who
would gain fame for his conceptualization of a “cosmic” mestizo race in his 1925
study La raza cósmica (Vasconcelos)—, the Mexican artist and key proponent of the
indigenismo movement, Diego Rivera, and the U.S.-based German artist Winold
Reiss, who created the graphic design for Locke’s The New Negro and contributed sig-
nificantly to the Harlem Renaissance (Porter; Mehring 237-39; Luis-Brown 147).
As these examples indicate, the Harlem Renaissance always had a transnational
dimension, a dimension to which black Caribbean immigration to Harlem contributed
as well as black U.S. American travels and travaux abroad or the interactions among
black(-concerned) artists and intellectuals of different nations and their affiliation with
the poor and ethnically/racially oppressed within and beyond their national borders
(Edwards; Guridy 120; Luis-Brown 148; Mills 112, 114, 118-20). Latin American (in-
cluding franco- and hispanophone Caribbean) writing from the same period further
attests to the integration of the Harlem Renaissance in an international array of socio-
aesthetic movements, for example when the Cuban journalist José Antonio Fernández
de Castro labels the Harlem-based Mexican caricaturist Miguel Covarrubias “the dis-
coverer of the Negroes of Harlem” (43, my translation; cf. Chrisman 813; Guridy 127).
That Latin Americans were critically aware of the differences that would remain
between black U.S. and (Afro-)Latin American cultures becomes evident most pro-
nouncedly in Nicolás Guillén’s essay “El camino de Harlem” (1929). Here, the Afro-
Cuban poet warns against the spread of the U.S. American system of racial segregation
in his native country due to the growing political, economic, and cultural influence of
the United States in the Caribbean. The titular “road to Harlem” signifies the path to
U.S.-style racial segregation and black ghettoization, despite the merits of Harlem for
transnational black culture.5
Nonetheless, as one result of these multiple exchanges
among the different black movements—the New Negro movement in the United
States, the different negrismo movements in hispano- and lusophone Latin America,
and the French Caribbean négritude (Guridy 118-19; Jackson 86, 92, 171; Kaup 102;
Lao-Montes 318; Leary 147-55)—, a black diasporic6
consciousness emerged that
“enabled black people to ‘feel’ part of the same ‘gente’ … irrespective of their cultural
and linguistic background.”7
Langston Hughes (1902-1967) was not only one of the most outstanding artists
of the Harlem Renaissance but also the one most closely engaging with Latin America.
According to Vera Kutzinski, he is widely regarded as one of “the best-known and
most admired US poet[s] in Latin America” and as one of “the most important ‘Negro
5
Guillén, “Camino” 6; cf. Jackson 94, 114; Kaup 97-100; for this and similar critiques by
Guillén and other (black) Cuban artists and intellectuals, cf. Leary 136, 140-41, 144-55.
6
For a detailed definition of the term “diaspora” and its particular meaning with regard to
the Black Diaspora, cf. Edwards 11-15; Lao-Montes 309-18.
7
Guridy 135, italics in the original. For a critique of this concept, especially of the marginal-
ization of black U.S. Latinos and Afro-Latin Americans, cf. Lao-Montes 318-23.
7. A Continent of Color 179
poet[s]’ of the 1920s in many parts of the Hispanic world,”8
whereas in the United
States his work met with hostility for a long time (Mullen, “Literary” 11, 15; Scott 46-
47, 51). In his autobiography, he confesses, “I have an affinity for Latin Americans,
and the Spanish language I have always loved” (I Wonder 291; cf. 288), and he com-
pares the thrill of his first New York metro ride to Harlem to the excitement of the
bullfights he had previously seen in Mexico City (Big Sea 81). Various of his literary
works appeared in Spanish or Portuguese translations as well as were reviewed in
Latin American periodicals, and Hughes himself also translated black Spanish Amer-
ican and French Caribbean literature and promoted it in the United States.9
Scholars
largely agree that his writing both informed (black) Latin American poets (Jackson 83-
94) and was itself influenced by Latin American cultures.10
Rather than dealing with Hughes’s translations, his reception in, influence on, or
his being informed by Latin American literatures and cultures, this essay examines his
thematic dealing with Spanish America,11
in particular Mexico and Cuba, in his
essays, fiction, poetry, and two volumes of autobiography. A particular focus will be
on Hughes’s depiction of the continent’s black experiences and the way his writings
articulate a vision of an Afro-diasporic as well as a leftist political consciousness. I
will argue that and how Latin America emerges from these texts as a “continent of col-
or,” a hemisphere especially shaped by the experiences of non-European populations
that forms part of the writer’s larger vision of a global “world of color” he sets against
the Eurocentrism of European and white U.S. American thought.
1. Mexico
Langston Hughes stayed in Mexico four times during different periods of his life: As a
small child, he briefly lived with his family in Mexico City but returned to the United
States with his mother shortly after the great earthquake of April 1905. After his pen-
8
Kutzinski, “Yo también” 550; cf. Jackson 82, 85-90, 93-94; Mullen, “Literary” 15. Marilyn
Miller (“Gypsy” 324) points out the uncertainty of this assessment.
9
I Wonder 8, 291; cf. Jackson 4, 82, 85-86; Kaup 93-96, 100-01; Kutzinski, “Fearful;”
Kutzinski, “Yo también;” Mullen, “Literary” 16, 19-25, 30; Rampersad, I, Too 47-48, 178,
202-03; Rampersad, I Dream 106, 113, 154-55, 159, 180, 204-05, 264, 270, 273, 281-82.
10
Guridy; Kutzinski, “Fearful” 114; Kutzinski, “Yo también” 568. Many Americanists
attribute a unidirectional direct influence of Hughes on Guillén (e.g. Jackson 7, 83-85;
Kaup 92; Mullen, “Langston” 26-27; Rampersad, I, Too 181), whereas Latin American
scholars tend(ed) to consider Guillén as an influence on Hughes (Miller, “Gypsy” 328).
Recent research suggests a mutual influence of the two poets, who first met and became
personal friends during Hughes’s 1930 visit to Cuba (e.g. Chrisman; Ellis 129-37, 147,
155; Kutzinski, “Fearful” 115; Kutzinski, “Yo también” 566-67; Leary 134-35; Miller,
“Gypsy” 324-25, 328).
11
Among Latin American countries besides Mexico and Cuba, Hughes had a particular rela-
tion to and wrote at length about Haiti, a subject which has already been the subject of
ample research, though (e.g. Berry and Lubin; Gardullo; Mullen, “Literary” 33-34).
8. Astrid Haas
180
ultimate year of high school, Hughes spent the summer with his father, a businessman
who had moved permanently to Mexico during the poet’s early childhood, in the central
Mexican city of Toluca. Even though he later described that visit as a rather unhappy
experience, Hughes, hoping to convince his father to pay for his college education in the
United States, would return to Toluca the following summer. He remained there for
more than a year, working as an English teacher for local language schools. On weekend
trips to Mexico City he further encountered several Mexican writers affiliated with the
aesthetically vanguard periodical Contemporáneos, contacts that would last through the
1930s. Hughes revisited Mexico during the winter of 1933-34 after his father’s death.
This time, he stayed in the capital, where he widely moved among artistic circles,
especially those vanguard artists affiliated with the Mexican indigenismo movement of
the 1920s and ‘30s (on this movement, cf. Chrisman 810; Gunn 79-81; Luis-Brown 6-
7, 31, 137, 148, 180-81). His ensuing association with the leftist Liga de Escritores y
Artistas Revolucionarios would inform his lasting popularity in Latin America.12
Throughout his career, Hughes wrote various pieces on Mexico and his personal
experiences there. In fact, some of these are among his very first publications: during
his second stay in Toluca in 1921, he published not only his renowned poem “The
Negro Speaks of Rivers”—penned down on his journey to Mexico (Big Sea 54-56; cf.
Mullen, “Langston” 24; Mullen, “Literary” 17; Rampersad, I, Too 39-40)—in the
NAACP’s Crisis magazine but also a series of contributions about life in Mexico for
The Brownies’ Book, a periodical for black children edited by Jessie Fauset and
W.E.B. Du Bois (Big Sea 72; cf. Johnson, “Introduction” 1-2; Mullen, “Langston” 25;
Rampersad, I, Too 45-46, 48). All of these—the collection of “Mexican Games,” an
essay about a market day in Toluca, “In a Mexican City,” and a travelogue about an
excursion Hughes undertook with a group of Toluca students, “Up to the Crater of an
Old Volcano”—can be regarded as “pieces of ethnographical writing” (Johnson,
“Introduction” 2). Even though they stake a claim for positively valuing cultural
difference, their “tourist view” (Mullen, “Literary” 19; cf. Gunn 84), with their focus
on the picturesque sights of Mexican towns, landscapes, and local customs, stress the
country’s otherness from the United States (“Mexican City”; “Mexican Games”; “Up
to the Crater”; cf. Gunn 84). Dealing with the friendship between a Native Mexican
and a U.S. American boy, the novella for children The Pasteboard Bandit (1935), co-
written with Arna Bontemps but never published during Hughes’s lifetime, offers a
more balanced representation. Here, images of cultural difference such as typically
Mexican cuisine or holiday traditions are integrated into a narrative that foregrounds
similarities—both boys, for instance, are from artisan or artist families—as well as the
importance of U.S. Americans meeting Mexicans as their peers and looking toward
their culture with respect (Pasteboard Bandit).
12
Big Sea 15-16, 34-49, 53-80; I Wonder 286-300; cf. Mullen, “Langston” 24-25; Mullen,
“Literary” 17-25; Rampersad, I, Too 11, 32-35, 40-49, 300-05. Hughes further paid a one-
day trip to Ciudad Juárez in 1953 (Gunn 84-85; Rampersad, I, Too 227). Mexican sources
also suggest a possible final visit to the country in 1962 (Mullen, “Literary” 25).
9. A Continent of Color 181
An emphasis on cultural difference between Mexico and the United States also
characterizes several of Hughes’s non-juvenile essays and short stories on Mexican
themes. His first essay publication in The Crisis, “The Virgin of Guadalupe” (1921),
retells the eponymous 16th-century legend (Gunn 84). While it mentions that the
Virgin Mary appeared to a poor native boy (rather than a Spaniard), this essay misses
the occasion to emphasize the second factor that renders this legend crucial to Mexican
culture—and would have befitted Hughes’s own socio-cultural agenda, as well—: that
the image of the Virgin preserved on the boy’s overcoat, in deviation from European
depictions, has brown skin and Amerindian features (“The Virgin”). Christopher De
Santis praises Hughes’s prize-winning essay “The Fascination of Cities” (1926) for its
“impressionistic” style that “beautifully evokes the childlike wonder of discovery …,
softening the harsher aspects of city life behind the veil of grandeur” but also ad-
dresses “brutal instances of racial injustice” (3). However, by representing Mexico
City exclusively through the depiction of a bullfight and its aftermath, the text reduces
modern life in the Mexican capital to an exotic traditional spectacle (“The Fascination”
28-30). The essay “Love in Mexico,” published in Opportunity magazine in 1940 and
integrated in Hughes’s autobiography The Big Sea (63-65, 67-69) of the same year, as
well as the short story “Tragedy at the Baths” (1952) provide keen observations of the
double standard characterizing Mexican intersecting class and gender roles in an
ethnographic manner that stresses the differences between Catholic Latin American
and Protestant United States cultures (“Love in Mexico”; “Tragedy”). These depic-
tions of Mexico contrast with the unpublished essay “Memories of Christmas” (1946),
which places Mexican customs alongside U.S. American Christmas traditions to
underline the shared cultural—rather than religious—importance of this holiday for
different societies (“Memories”).
In his writing, Hughes time and again foregrounds Mexico’s role as an ethnically
mixed society that offers similar, if not equal, opportunities to all ethnic groups. A
diary entry from his journey to Toluca in July 1920 registers that in Mexico “nothing
is barred from me. I am among my own people, for … Mexico is a brown man’s
country. Do you blame them for fearing a ‘gringo’ invasion with its attendant horror of
color hatred?” (qtd. in Rampersad, I, Too 40). “Up to the Crater of an Old Volcano”
stresses the similarities of Mexico’s Native and mestizo children to his black U.S.
American readers, as Hughes writes here: “These dark faced, friendly school boys
were about like other dark skinned boys of my own race whom I had known in the
United States” (32; cf. Johnson, “Introduction” 2-3). “In a Mexican City” points out
the ethnic and class mixing on the weekly market in Toluca, where rich señoritas,
Native women, poor mestizo boys, and disabled beggars form a “crowd which is so
thick that nobody can hurry” (24).
At the same time as he praises post-revolutionary Mexico’s ideology of mestizaje
(on that ideology, cf. Luis-Brown 15-16), Hughes critically notes the country’s often
ethnicized social class stratification and conflicts. As early as 1920 he observes in his
diary that “the revolutions have made so many [people] poor, broken on the wheel of the
10. Astrid Haas
182
freedom they are seeking” (qtd. in Rampersad, I, Too 40). “In a Mexican City”
articulates the social inequality of Mexican society by pointing at the poverty that
forces people to go barefoot even in cold weather and the scarcity of furniture in their
homes (22-23; cf. Johnson, “Introduction” 2-3). Depicting how a couple’s donation of
money helps a poor woman in dire need, the short play “The Gold Piece” (1921) not
only addresses the impact of poverty but also shows a way out. As a work for children,
the piece’s fairy-tale style and moral emphasize individual generosity (Johnson,
“Introduction” 4) rather than call for structural social change, as Hughes would call for
in his non-juvenile writing. Hughes’s only poem with a Mexican theme (Rampersad, I,
Too 56-57), “Mexican Market Woman” (1922), points to the intersection of racial and
social class inequalities, as it depicts the harsh life of an old “brown”-skinned Native
retailer who “sits upon the ground/Selling her scanty wares/Day in, day round” (54; cf.
Gunn 83-84; Luis-Brown 163).
In his two volumes of autobiography, Hughes paints a more complex picture of
his encounters with Mexico between 1919 and 1934. Before his first contact with the
country, he had a romanticized vision of it that was deeply informed by his own,
lower-class black U.S. American experience: “a land where there were no white folks
to draw the color line, and no tenements with rent always due—just mountains and sun
and cacti” (Big Sea 36). His description of his first stay in Toluca is dominated by
growing conflicts with his father that ultimately caused him to have a breakdown (39-
49), whereas his accounts of his following visits to Mexico in 1920-21 and 1934
second stay largely offer a picturesque, almost ethnographic portrait of everyday and
extraordinary events in Toluca as well as of bohemian life and bullfights in Mexico
City (63-77; I Wonder 291-300).
Hughes’s father appears especially in the first volume of autobiography, The Big
Sea, as epitome of the stereotypically thrifty, money-driven U.S. American, who dis-
plays a strict Protestant work ethic and mingles almost exclusively with Europeans and
a few upper-class Mexicans (39-46, 57, 59). Despite being a black U.S. citizen him-
self, James Hughes—as depicted by his son—has internalized a deep contempt for
black people, whom he considers to be indolent and unable to deal with money. He
hates the United States for its color line that denies career opportunities to blacks,
praises Mexico for its absence, and is treated in a better way in post-revolutionary
Mexico than white U.S. Americans. Yet, he holds a similar contempt for Mexicans,
especially the poor and the indigenous population, as for people of color in the United
States, regarding them as ungrateful and prone to stealing and banditry, as “ignorant,
backward, and lazy” (Big Sea 40; cf. 39-44; I Wonder 294; Gunn 83; Luis-Brown 161-
62). Young Langston of The Big Sea, in contrast, shows “sensitivity and humanity”
(Miller, Art 22) in rejecting and falsifying his father’s beliefs about Mexican Natives,
as he shares a bed and cigarettes with his father’s Amerindian servant and is taught
useful practical skills in return (Big Sea 42-44; cf. Miller, Art 22). During his second
stay in Toluca, he stands up against his father and openly sympathizes with the Mexi-
can Revolution, defending Emiliano Zapata’s movement as poor people fighting for
11. A Continent of Color 183
land reform (Big Sea 59-60). The confrontations with his father further appear in the
autobiography as having crucially informed Hughes’s decision to become a writer and
work among and for the black people he loved rather than study engineering and settle
in Mexico, as James Hughes wished (61-63; cf. Jackson 43).
In his memoir, as in some of his Mexico-themed poetry and fiction, Hughes
establishes a series of links between the—especially indigenous—Mexican experience,
on the one hand, and black U.S. American life and culture, on the other. In The Big
Sea, he repeatedly mentions the “brown” skin color that made both him and his father
look like Mexicans (40, 78) and even enabled him to pass for Mexican to reserve a
Pullman berth in Texas on his journey home (50; cf. Luis-Brown 163). Looking back
at the racialized class structure that characterized Toluca society in 1920, he further
writes: “few Indian families [were] considered ‘aristocracy’ in Toluca, where Spanish
blood still prevailed in the best circles and the exaltation of things Indian had not yet
triumphed—for Diego Rivera was yet in Paris” (67). The reference to this Mexican
painter and major representative of the Mexican indigenismo movement establishes a
connection between this aesthetic-political endeavor to validate Mexico’s indigenous
heritage and the parallelely developing New Negro movement in the United States.
This link becomes more evident in Hughes’s description of Rivera in his second
volume of autobiography, I Wonder as I Wander. Here, he calls the painter “that
mountain of a man, darker than I am in complexion. When I told Diego he looked
more like an American Negro than a Mexican Indian, Rivera said: ‘One of my grand-
mothers was a Negro’” (294). Later, it is Rivera who, along with Miguel Covarrubias,
whom Hughes knew from his early Harlem years, informs Hughes about the black
presence in Mexico and its historical contribution to a “brown” ethnoracial identity
(294) that, in Hughes’s eyes, clearly represents a source of ethnic pride. This romanti-
cizing subsuming black U.S. American and Native Mexican cultures under a single
rubric of “brown” offers a transnational identity political potential that has been
largely ignored in scholarship on either the Harlem or the Mexican Renaissance. How-
ever, what remains problematic about this conflation is that it disregards the at times
crucial (historical) differences between distinct peoples as well as somewhat naively
assumes that “color” alone already functions as an “emancipatory signifier” (Gayatri
Spivak, qtd. in Luis-Brown 163; cf. 164, 170).
2. Cuba
In contrast to his stays in Mexico, Langston Hughes never lived in Cuba for an ex-
tended period of time. Yet, the island was probably on his mind since his youth, as his
father had moved there shortly after Langston’s birth (Big Sea 16; cf. Guridy 125). In a
letter composed to his New York patron, Charlotte Mason, during his first, brief visit
to Havana in 1927, he writes: “So here I am at [Hotel] ‘Las Villas,’ Avenida Bélgica
20—which is certainly native enough. … I don’t suppose another American has ever
stopped here (unless it was my father 25 years ago)” (qtd. in Guridy 125). Hughes
12. Astrid Haas
184
returned to Cuba twice, in 1930 and 1931, for a two-week stay each time. In both
instances, the Cuban press received him well and noted the relationship between his
writing and black Caribbean literature. Hughes was introduced to and made friends
with various Cuban artists and intellectuals, especially those affiliated with the afro-
cubanismo movement of the 1920s and ‘30s (on this movement, cf. Guridy 118-19;
Leary 147-55; Kaup 102). During his 1930 visit, he further attempted—in vain—to
find a black Cuban composer to collaborate on an opera project commissioned by his
patron. Both in 1930 and 1931, he also sought to experience black life and popular cul-
ture on the island (I Wonder 6-15, 34-37; cf. Guridy 124-35; Mullen, “Langston” 25-
27; Mullen, “Literary” 25-31; Rampersad, I, Too 150, 176-81, 201-04).
Already before his first visit to the island, Hughes published a Cuban-themed
poem in his first poetry collection, The Weary Blues (1926). Tellingly entitled
“Soledad: A Cuban Portrait,”—the Spanish woman’s name “Soledad” meaning “soli-
tude”—, the poem depicts the worn-out body and “deeply scarred” soul of a woman
whose life has been “full of pain and passion/… full of lies” (53). While there is
nothing specifically Cuban about this woman, this portrait in some way prefigures the
silent encounters of Hughes’s traveling companions during his first visit to Cuba, a
group of Chinese ship’s cooks, with Havana prostitutes the poet describes in his first
autobiography (Big Sea 292-93). A completely different, though equally “tourist” vista
on Cuba appears in the poem “Havana Dreams,” published in Opportunity magazine in
1933. This “somewhat stylized reflection on Cuban high life” (Mullen, “Literary” 31),
lists popular stereotypes of desirable, “consumable” Cuban items—exotic cocktails,
countryside trips, beautiful women, or exquisite goods—but interrogates them at the
same time (“Havana Dreams”; for a different reading, cf. Rampersad, I, Too 204).
While he engaged to a certain extent with Spanish and Amerindian, but not with
black cultures in Mexico—despite a long history of African presence in the country
(Andrews 13, 17, 20)—, Hughes “viewed the Caribbean, like the U.S. South, as a
repository of authentic afro-diasporic cultural forms” (Guridy 124). As Nicolás
Guillén noted in an interview with Hughes, “black Cuba is … his constant preoccupa-
tion. Wherever he goes, he inquires about blacks. … I took him to a black dance hall.
From the very minute he enters, the poet acts like he’s possessed with the spirit of our
people. ‘My people!,’ he exclaims” (“Conversación” 175, my translation; cf. Guridy
134-35; Rampersad, I, Too 180). Hughes was surely conscious that, being considered a
mulatto in the phenotype-based racial taxonomy of Cuba,13
he enjoyed a privileged
13
On Cuba’s racial taxonomy, cf. Kutzinski, “Yo también” 565-66; Miller, Rise 59-60. In his
interview with Hughes, Guillén states that the poet looks like a Cuban “mulatico” (“Con-
versación” 172; cf. Leary 142), and in his memoir he explicitly calls Hughes a “mulato”
(Páginas 105). For Guillén’s own poetic-political concern with mulatez, cf. Chrisman 812,
817-18; Miller, Rise 47-49, 55-60. Hughes’s awareness of other concepts of racial dif-
ference than the U.S. American one shows prominently in The Big Sea: here he writes how
during his first visit to Africa “the Africans looked at me and would not believe I was a
Negro,” because “I am not black. … I am brown” (11; cf. Mayer 94).
13. A Continent of Color 185
position unavailable to him in the United States with its strict white/black color line
(Scott 49-51). As Guillén notes, “while he watches the ‘black-as-the-night’ bongo
player, … [Hughes] exclaims with a sigh of dissatisfied anxiety: ‘I’d like to be black.
Really black. Truly black!’” (“Conversación” 175, my translation; cf. Leary 143;
Mullen, “Literary” 29; Rampersad, I, Too 180; Scott 35-36, 45).
Hughes’s writing about Cuba and Cuban culture is, not surprisingly, strongly in-
formed by his concern with black culture (Mullen, “Literary” 32), which he closely
associated with the working-class experience (Scott 35-36). The—often lower-class—
Afro-Cuban experience is at the center of a portrait Hughes published about the black
Cuban vanguard sculptor Teodoro Ramos Blanco in 1930 (“Cuban Sculptor”; cf.
Mullen, “Langston” 27; Mullen, “Literary” 31) and an unpublished 1948 note on his
friend Nicolás Guillén (“Concerning Nicolás Guillén”). He praises the latter for the
aesthetic and political value of his verses: using popular (Afro-)Cuban rhythms and
idioms to address “the problems, poverty, and folk-ways of his native Cuba” (485) and
successfully reaching both lower-class readers and fellow poets throughout the
Caribbean and South America (485). Hughes similarly notes Ramos Blanco for his
“monumental statue to heroic black motherhood, Maternal Heroism” (“Cuban
Sculptor” 45; cf. Leary 150), a monument to Mariana Granjales, an icon of the 19th-
century Cuban women’s, anti-slavery, and independence struggles. Hughes fails to
address the significance that Ramos Blanco carried out this work in white Italian
marble, which might be seen as an attempt to symbolically “whiten” Granjales or to
“ennoble” both her and the black sculptor through the choice of such a precious,
prestigious, and difficult material. Yet, the poet emphasizes the relevance of this
sculpture for black U.S. Americans, whom he invokes as “we who have so few
memorials to our own racial heroes in [the United States], so few monuments to
Sojourner Truth or Frederick Douglass or Booker Washington or any of the great
figures in our own perilous history” (“Cuban Sculptor” 45; cf. Leary 150).
Paralleling his concern with social class issues in his Mexican-themed writing,
Hughes scrutinizes social inequality and imperialism in Cuba in his work. His poem “To
the Little Fort of San Lazaro, on the Ocean Front, Havana,” tellingly published in the
Marxist periodical New Masses in 1931, scrutinizes the impact of United States eco-
nomic imperialism on Cuba by likening it to piracy. The text compares the glorious past
of the titular building as a bulwark against English and Spanish buccaneers with its
powerlessness in the present “against a pirate called/THE NATIONAL CITY BANK”
(“Little Fort” 205, capitalization in the original; cf. Ellis 141; Leary 139-40; Mullen,
“Langston” 27; Mullen, “Literary” 32; Rampersad, I, Too 203-04). Using the case of a
Cuban sailor’s political awakening, the short story “The Sailor and the Steward” (1932)
calls for workers’ organized labor activism to effectively gain their rights (“The Sailor”).
Informed by Hughes’s feeling of being under government surveillance after a
visit to Ramos Blanco’s studio during his Cuban trip in 1931, the “deliberately Hem-
ingwayesque” (Rampersad, I, Too 204) short story “Little Old Spy” (1952) depicts the
racism, classism, and political censorship of the right-winged Machado dictatorship on
14. Astrid Haas
186
the island (1925-33) as well as the Cuban population’s will to revolt against the regime
(“Little Old Spy”; cf. Mullen, “Langston” 27; Mullen, “Literary” 32; Rampersad, I,
Too 204). The story further articulates a critique of the U.S. tourists who regard the
poverty of the local population as exotic spectacle (“Little Old Spy” 255), and it
repeatedly attests to the awakening political power of the working masses (256),
especially among the black population. In one scene, the narrator muses:
The government of Cuba had grown suddenly terribly afraid of its Negro population, its
black shine boys and cane field hands, its colored soldiers and sailors who make up most
of the armed forces, its taxi drivers and street vendors At last, after all the other elements
of the island’s population had openly revolted against the tyrant in power, the Negroes
had begun to rise with the students and others to drive the dictator from Cuba. (257)
As much as their own black population, the Cuban regime, according to Hughes,
seemed to fear the influence of African U.S. Americans on the “colored world.” As the
story continues:
For a strange New York Negro to come to Havana might mean … that he had come to
help stir them up—for the Negroes of Harlem were reputed in Cuba to be none too
docile, and none too dumb. Had not Marcus Garvey come out of Harlem to arouse the
whole black world to a consciousness to its political strength? (257)
As the spy who follows the narrator around Havana turns out to be a an elderly former
pimp who is easily outwitted, the story ridicules the Cuban government paranoia as
well as criticizes the racism-cum-sexism of the island’s socio-political order the old
spy represents (258-61).
Describing his visits to Cuba in his two volumes of autobiography, Hughes, as in
his remembrance of Mexico, on the one hand provides a somewhat ethnographic per-
spective, with a strong “tourist”-like focus on the picturesque elements of popular cul-
ture (Big Sea 292-93; I Wonder 6-15, 34-37). On the other hand, he is, once again,
concerned with the color line and its role in the social stratification of a Latin Ameri-
can society. In line with his desire for partaking in the “truly” black Afro-Cuban cul-
ture he articulated toward Nicolás Guillén, Hughes of I Wonder as I Wander marvels
at some dark-complexioned Afro-Cuban percussionists as those “who somehow have
saved—out of all the centuries of slavery and all the miles and miles from Guinea—
the heartbeat and songbeat of Africa” (7). According to Frank Guridy, “perhaps his
own racialized position as a mulatto led [Hughes] to conclude that an encounter with
music played by darker-skinned people of African descent in a foreign country would
enable him to gain a momentary taste of ‘true’ blackness” (135). As a celebrated visi-
tor to Havana, Hughes further became aware of Cuba’s racialized gender order (on this
order, cf. Guridy 129-30; Miller, Rise 50-52). Invited to a private rumba party, he not
only observes in his memoir that the all-male guests are entertained by mulatto girl-
friends and mistresses of their host—an “acceptable” entertainment for middle-class
men—, but also notes that he, being the guest of honor, was explicitly asked to spend
the night with the girl(s) of his choice (I Wonder 8-10; cf. Guridy 130).
In I Wonder as I Wonder, Hughes directs attention to the “triple color line” typi-
cal of Cuba that divides society into (nearer) whites, mulattos, and “pure-blooded”
15. A Continent of Color 187
(10) blacks, and, as in other Latin Caribbean countries, is drawn less strictly than in the
Anglophone West Indies (10-11). This, he concludes, “is what misleads many visitors
from the United States—particularly colored visitors who are looking anxiously for a
country where they can say there is no color line” (11, italics in the original). He posi-
tively notes the absence of “Jim Crow cars” (11) and that Havana’s black population
has its own social clubs, among them the luxurious upper-class Club Atenas: “I had
been astonished and delighted with its taste and luxury, for colored people in the
United States had no such club” (8), he writes. At the same time, however, he notes
phenotype-based practices of racial discrimination in Cuba. In an unpublished manu-
script, he remarks that many Havana dance halls—akin to what he earlier observed in
the Cotton Club in Harlem (Big Sea 226)—feature a “black orchestra but no black
dancers” (qtd. in Guridy 126), and in I Wonder as I Wonder he lists examples of racial
exclusion in Cuban workplaces, politics, and social life, pointing out that “the darker a
man is, the richer and more celebrated he has to be to crash those divisions” (11).
What struck Hughes in particular, was the extension of the United States concept
of the color line on the island Nicolás Guillén had criticized earlier in his “El camino
de Harlem” (Guillén, “Camino” 6). Increasing U.S. American tourism—as well as
economic and political influence—“brought its quota of Southern racial prejudice from
the mainland” (I Wonder 11), as Hughes puts it. As a result, many facilities owned by
or catering to white U.S. citizens exerted a stricter “whites only”-policy at the time
Hughes visited Cuba. In his memoir, he gives a detailed report how he and a black
U.S. American travel companion were barred from a U.S. owned beach in Havana that
would admit Cuban “mulatto politicians and plutocrats,” but only as they “had enough
political pull or social prestige to force the management to sell [them] a season ticket”
(11-12; on the incidence in general, cf. Guillén, Páginas 106; Ellis 143; Rampersad, I,
Too 203). Arrested by the police and brought before court upon false accusations on
behalf of the corporate U.S. owner of the beach, Hughes and his friend nonetheless
leave with a victory: “The judge, a kindly old mulatto gentleman—who might have
been termed a Negro had he lived in the United States, but who was ‘white’ in
Havana” (I Wonder 14) dismisses the charges, telling the accusers: “‘What you have
done is against all the tenets of Cuban hospitality and against Cuban law, which
recognizes no differences because of race or color’” (15).
3. Spanish America and the Larger World of Color
As Edward Mullen observes, “while Mexico and Cuba were important points of con-
tact for Langston Hughes, they are only pieces of a larger literary mosaic” related to
the American hemisphere “to which Hughes is linked” (“Langston” 27). Hughes’s
writing on Spanish America also includes an introduction to the Selected Poems of
Gabriela Mistral (1957), a collection of works by the Chilean Nobel laureate Hughes
had selected and translated himself, which highlights Mistral’s accomplishment as an
educator and her service to her country in different government and diplomatic
16. Astrid Haas
188
positions as well as her poetic achievements (“Introduction”). More prominently, how-
ever, Hughes invokes the Caribbean, and its black cultures in particular, in his work. In
his tellingly entitled reminiscence of his “Early Days in Harlem,” the poet acknow-
ledges the presence of black Caribbeans there who contributed to turning this part of
Manhattan into the capital of the black world: “West Indian Harlem—warm rambunc-
tious, sassy remembering Marcus Garvey. Haitian Harlem, Cuban Harlem, little
pockets of tropical dreams in alien tongues. Magnet Harlem, pulling an Arthur Schom-
burg from Puerto Rico” (“Early Days” 397; cf. Guridy 121). His short story “Spanish
Blood” (1952) similarly pays tribute to Harlem’s Puerto Rican population but also ad-
dresses the at times problematic relations between black U.S. Americans and Afro-
Caribbeans through the conflict between a black woman and her Spanish-identifying
half-Puerto Rican son (“Spanish Blood”).
Shifting away from Caribbean contributions to black U.S. culture, Hughes dedi-
cated one of six children’s books he wrote for the publisher Franklin Watts in the
1950s and ‘60s about the black world (Scott 191) to the Caribbean. The First Book of
the West Indies (1956) “demonstrates his recognition of the importance of antillanité to
the idea of negritude and American identity” (Miller, “Gypsy” 338). The text provides
an introduction to the history, geography, cultures, and everyday life experiences on
the Caribbean islands (327-58), once again with a certain emphasis on the intersected
issues of race and class that might resonate especially with his target readers, U.S.
children of color. In his introductory chapter, Hughes addresses European colonization
and black Atlantic slavery as the causal origin for the present multiethnic/-racial iden-
tity of many Caribbean societies (328), to which he explicitly adds the Asian presence
in the section on Jamaica (347). The chapter on Haiti specifically points to the rele-
vance of the Haitian Revolution (333-34) that made “Haiti … the first Negro Republic
in the world, and the second country in the Western hemisphere [after the United
States] to gain its independence” (333). Several times, Hughes emphasizes the wide-
spread poverty on many Caribbean islands, manifest in people’s lack of adequate
housing, clothes, and food (336, 340, 342), but especially in the fact that “most of the
children of the Caribbean work as much as they play, if not more” (341; cf. 342), as
their workforce is needed for the family income. In quite a different vein, Hughes’s
poetry collection Ask Your Mama: 12 Moods for Jazz (1961) integrates words and
phrases in Spanish (93, 111) and asks for an instrumental accompaniment that includes
maracas, a native percussion instrument of Latin America, among others (92-93, 108-
10). The texts of the poems establish connections between black life in the U.S. South
and Afro-diasporic cultures in an ever-widening geographic area, moving from the
Caribbean via the American hemisphere to the entire “Third World” (91, 93, 108-10,
114, 117), a link that is underlined by the accompanying blend of the musical forms of
black U.S. gospel and the Cuban cha-cha-cha—especially in the poem “Gospel Cha-
Cha” (108-10). Most importantly, the collection, without ever becoming as explicitly
political as Hughes’s more radical poetry of the 1930s and ‘40s, validates black and
leftist political agency against mainstream United States criticism by invoking various
Afro-Caribbean leaders as well as Cuban revolutionary Fidel Castro (91, 93, 108-10).
17. A Continent of Color 189
Hughes’s concern with the Americas, and in particular the black experience(s)
there, formed part of his larger concern with social injustice, notably his critique of
intersectional poverty, racism, and systems of colonialism and/or imperialism.
Throughout his work he articulates what David Chioni Moore calls a notion of “local/-
global color” (54)—a strong sense of connection to “nonwhite” people around the
world, on the one hand, and to those around the globe who suffer from poverty, dis-
crimination, exploitation, and/or oppression, on the other hand.14
A dominant strain of
social protest against oppressive local/global color lines especially marked his writing
of the 1930s (De Santis 6-14; Ellis 147-54). As R. Baxter Miller points out, “to
[Hughes], writing becomes intellectual armament against colonialism throughout the
world” (Art 67-68), and “in his literature, the pride of the contribution of all Blacks to
world culture takes shape” (71). Several poems from this period link a Latin America
threatened by United States imperialism to the wider nonwhite world and its struggle
against U.S. American or European hegemony. First appearing in 1930 in New
Masses, the poem “Merry Christmas,” for instance, is a call for arms to the nations of
the Caribbean (namely Cuba and Haiti), Africa, and Asia against “righteous Christian
England” and “Yankee domination” (199) as well as their dubious “gifts” of war, rape,
hunger, economic exploitation, and cultural oppression (199-200; cf. Ellis 148). A
stronger focus on the economically motivated exploitation of the global urban and rural
black masses in the Americas and Africa as well as a more explicit call for a socialist
revolution characterizes “Always the Same,” the similarly agitational poem of the same
decade (“Always the Same”). The later “Broadcast to the West Indies” (1940s) takes on
a softer tone. Warning Caribbeans against the anti-U.S. Propaganda of the axis powers
in World War II, this poem critically acknowledges United States anti-black racist
violence (239). Yet, it also points to the “Caribbeanness” of Harlem. The lines
“Harlem/Little land, too/Bordered by the sea that washes and mingles/With all the
waters in the world” (239) emphasize the similarities between Harlem and the West
Indian islands. These similarities include not only “Suffering/Domination/Segregation”
(240) but, in deviance from the strict black/white notion of the color line in the United
States, the shared history of miscegenation, as the following lines argue: “HELLO
WEST INDIES!/You are dark like me/Colored with many bloods like me/Verging …
from black to white like me.”15
Finally, the poem, this time undermining the ideology
of United States superiority to Latin America, expresses admiration for and support of
14
Moore 54-56, 63-64. What remains problematic about this sense of affinity, however, is
the way Hughes tends to view social class discrimination overwhelmingly in racial terms
(ignoring the impact of other factors) and to frame these racial(ized) differences in a binary
white/non-white pattern based on the U.S. concept of the color line (for an exemplary
analysis of how he viewed Soviet Central Asia in this respect, cf. Haas 121-25, 130-31).
15
239; capitalization in the original; cf. Miller, “Gypsy” 337-38. Here and elsewhere Hughes
explicitly emphasizes his own racially mixed identity of African, Amerindian, and Euro-
pean descent (Big Sea 11; “My America” 232; cf. Scott 80, 149) to counter the U.S. Amer-
ican ideology of a clear-cut black/white color line.
18. Astrid Haas
190
black West Indian cultures, as the lyrical I admits, “I like your people, your fruit
…/Your strength, your sense/of right and wrong./We care for each other” (241).
4. Conclusion
As Edward Mullen observes,
in the area of hemispheric literary interrelationships …, [Hughes] remains a singular
figure, one who was able to convey a sense of what it meant to be black in [U.S.]
America to a white Hispanic audience while supplying a voice to Afro-Hispanic writers
… to articulate their own vision of black Hispanic culture. (“Langston” 27)
Moreover, in his large body of poetry, short stories, essays, and personal memoir
dealing with Spanish America, Hughes captures crucial aspects of—especially black
and Amerindian—life in the western hemisphere for U.S. American readers. Owing to
his personal experiences, his Spanish American-themed writing focuses largely on
post-revolutionary Mexico and pre-revolutionary Cuba, two countries that offer inter-
esting comparisons: Both nations witnessed an aesthetic-political “renaissance” paral-
leling and interacting with the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and early ‘30s, which
proved fruitful for the cultural self-determination and social validation of Native,
respectively Afro-diasporic cultures. Yet, owing to the specific conditions of his stays
in the two countries, Hughes’s texts about Mexico describe the Amerindian experience
in Mexico as largely marked by poverty and lack of opportunities, whereas he depicts
black Cuba as socially more diverse and as more actively engaged in the identity polit-
ical struggle. While he praises Mexico for the absence of an institutionalized color
line, Hughes critiques racial discrimination in Cuba, especially the spread of the U.S.
American color line to the island, as well as pinpoints social class differences within
the Afro-Cuban community.
Both in reference to and reaching beyond these two countries, Hughes scrutinizes
ethnicized/racialized practices of social class stratification in Spanish America and the
West Indies—a heritage of colonialism—as well as the increasing United States im-
perialism in the region. As David Luis-Brown argues,
in chronicling such exploitation and oppression abroad, writers like Hughes … allowed
U.S. citizens to perceive the processes by which neocolonialism deprived Latin Ameri-
cans of their citizenship rights. In so doing the [writers] devised discourses of hemi-
spheric citizenship in which leftist U.S. intellectuals traveling to Latin America took
responsibilities for the consequences of neocolonialism. (152; cf. 201)
By addressing in particular a black U.S. American audience and by suggesting paral-
lels to Jim Crow policies in the United States, Hughes in his Spanish American-
themed writing—as in his oeuvre in general—crucially urges his readers to feel con-
cerned about injustice and exploitation in their neighbor countries and to reflect upon
their own implication as United States citizens in these practices as well as seeks to
inspire his audiences to work toward social change both at home and abroad.
19. A Continent of Color 191
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