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1. Chapter 7. Normative Leadership Theories
Transformational Leadership
 The term “transformational leader” was the product of a book
written by James MacGregor Burns, a former presidential
advisor, political scientist, and historian
 Moral commitments are at the heart of Burns’s definition of
transforming leadership.
 Transformational leaders focus on terminal values such as
liberty, equality, and justice.
 Transformational leaders are driven by duty, they are
guided universal ethical principles
 They are altruistic
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

2. Transactional Leaders
Transactional leaders emphasize instrumental
values, such as responsibility, fairness, and honesty,
which make routine interactions go smoothly.
Transactional leaders take a utilitarian approach,
judging the morality of actions based on their
outcomes.
Transactional leaders are concerned with protecting
their interests rather than in promoting the interests
of the group.
They are more likely to be controlling.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

3. Transactional Leadership
Leadership expert Bernard Bass and his colleagues
found that transactional leadership has both active
and passive elements:
 Active transactional leaders engage in
contingent reward and management-by-
exception.
 Passive–avoidant or laissez-faire leaders wait
for problems to arise before taking action, or they
avoid taking any action at all.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

4. Transformational Leadership
According to Bass and Avolio, transformational
leadership is characterized by the following:
 Idealized influence: They become role models for followers
and put followers’ needs above their own
 Inspirational motivation: motivate by providing meaning
and challenge to the tasks of followers and they arouse team
spirit
 Intellectual stimulation: Transformational leaders
stimulate innovation and creativity.
 Individualized consideration: act as coaches or mentors
who foster personal development
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

5. Transformational Leadership
Bass found that transforming leadership uses both
transactional and transformational elements.
The transformational leader uses the active elements
of the transactional approach (contingent reward
and management-by-exception) along with idealized
influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual
stimulation, and individualized consideration.
Evidence from more than 100 empirical studies
establishes that transforming leaders are more
successful than their transactional counterparts.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

6. Transformational Leadership
Bass adopted the terms authentic and pseudo-
transformational to distinguish between ethical and
unethical transformational leaders
 Authentic transformational leaders are motivated by
altruism and marked by integrity; allow followers free
choice, followers are viewed as ends in themselves
 Pseudo-transformational leaders are self-centered; they
manipulate followers for their own goals
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

7. Transformational Leadership
Applications of Transformational Leadership
 Start small
 Employ the full range of leadership behaviors
 Recognize the universal appeal of
transformational leadership
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

8. Transformational Leadership
Cautions of Transformation Leadership
 Equating success with transformation
 Leader centric
 Fosters dependency
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

9. Transformational Leadership
9 charismatic and transformational attributes
universally associated with outstanding leadership:
 1. Motive arouser
 2. Foresight
 3. Encouraging
 4. Communicative
 5. Trustworthy
 6. Dynamic
 7. Positive
 8. Confidence builder
 9. Motivational
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

10. Transformational Leadership
Transformational v. Charismatic Leadership
 Charismatic leaders are more person centered; followers
have a strong connection to the leader, approaching idol
worship; their success as leaders is based on their personal
characteristics; and are result focused
 Transformational leaders raise the morality of both the
leaders and followers; transformational leaders prescribe
how leaders should act; and they are much less prone to
ethical abuses
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

11. Servant Leadership
The basic premise of servant leadership is that
leaders should put the needs of the followers before
their own needs.
Servant leaders are less likely to cast shadows by
taking advantage of the trust of followers, acting
inconsistently, or accumulating money and power.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

12. Servant Leadership
5 concepts that appear to be central to Servant
Leadership
 1. Stewardship: Being a servant leader means acting on behalf
of others.
 2. Obligation: Servant leaders take their obligations or
responsibilities seriously.
 3. Partnership: Servant leaders view followers as partners, not
subordinates.
 4. Emotional healing: Servant leaders help followers and
organizations recover from disappointment, trauma, hardship,
and broken relationships.
 5. Elevating purpose: Servant leaders also serve worthy
missions, ideas, and causes.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

13. Servant Leadership
Applications of Servant Leadership
 Focus on followers
 Act as a steward
 Cultivate self-awareness
 Pursue elevating purposes
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

14. Servant Leadership
Cautions of Servant Leadership
 Seems unrealistic
 May not work in every context
 Poses the danger of serving the wrong cause or
offering unwise service
 The term servant carries a negative connotation
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

15. Servant Leadership
5 Strengths of Servant Leadership
 1. Altruism: concern for others (followers) comes before the
self
 2. Simplicity: having one goal in mind—to serve others
 3. Self-awareness: servant leaders take time to listen to
themselves and others and to reflect
 4. Moral sensitivity: servant leaders are acutely aware of the
importance of pursuing ethical purposes that bring meaning
and fulfillment to work
 5. Ongoing development
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

16. Servant Leadership
Criticism of Servant Leadership
 Cynicism: the first response when this model is presented;
some equate servant leadership with passivity
 A misunderstanding that equates service with weakness.
 Misplaced goals: a problem for both servant leaders and
followers
 Members of some minority groups, particularly African
Americans, associate the word servant with a history of
slavery, oppression, and discrimination.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

17. Servant Followership
Consultant and author Robert Kelley outlines 5
patterns for those who hope to become ideal servant
followers:
 1. Leading yourself: excellent followers know how to lead
themselves
 2. Commit and focus: commit to ideas and causes bigger than
themselves
 3. Develop competence and credibility: set high personal
standards; higher than the leader
 4. Use your courageous conscience: serve as ethical watchdogs
 5. Disagree agreeably
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

18. Authentic Leadership
Proponents of Authentic Leadership Theory (ALT)
identify authenticity as the “root construct” or
principle underlying all forms of positive leadership.
The practice of authentic leadership leads to
sustainable (long-term) and veritable (ethically
sound) organizational performance.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

19. Authentic Leadership
4 Components of Authenticity
 1. Self-awareness means being conscious of, and trusting in,
our motives, desires, feelings, and self-concept.
 2. Balanced processing describes remaining objective when
receiving information.
 3. Internalized moral perspective refers to regulating our
behavior according to our internal standards and values,
not according to what others say.
 4. Relational transparency is presenting the authentic self
to others, openly expressing true thoughts and feelings
appropriate for the situation.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

20. Authentic Leadership
Applications of Authentic Leadership
 Recognize the significance of authenticity
 Develop the four components of authenticity
 Foster authenticity in others
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

21. Authentic Leadership
Cautions of Authentic Leadership
 Overstates the importance of authenticity
 Equates authenticity with morality
 Differing interpretations of authentic behavior
 Authenticity can be defined as a personal characteristic
or as a perception
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

22. Authentic Leadership
For authenticity to have a positive influence on
organizational behavior, observers must perceive
that a leader’s behavior is authentic.
Authenticity then becomes a product of perception,
not of personal beliefs and behaviors.
Being authentic is no longer enough. Leaders must
also appear authentic.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

23. Focus on Follower Ethics: Authentic Followership
Followers have the greatest impact on leaders when
they develop psychological ownership, foster trust,
and practice transparency.
 Psychological ownership: Authentic followers feel like they
“own” the organizations where they work and volunteer.
 Trust: They build trust with their leaders by taking on
challenges without being asked.
 Transparency: By sharing their thoughts, values, and feelings,
they help create transparent relationships with their leaders.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

24. Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership
The aesthetic perspective emphasizes the sensory
and emotional dimension of organizational life.
Successful leaders generate strong positive emotions
and attributions. For example, President John F.
Kennedy was youthful, energetic and glamorous.
Ethics is integral to aesthetic leadership.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

25. Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership
University of Exeter leadership professor Donna
Ladkin identifies three components that contribute
to a beautiful leadership performance.
 The first is mastery. An ethical/beautiful leader is competent
and possesses the necessary skills and abilities to perform in a
given moment.
 The second component is coherence. The beautiful, ethical
leader is authentic, acting in a way that is consistent with
his/her message and purpose.
 The third component is purpose. The beautiful leader serves
the best interests of the community and improves the human
condition.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

26. Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership
Applications of Aesthetic (Beautiful)
Leadership:
 Recognize the physical dimension of leadership
 View leadership as a performing art
 Make aesthetic judgments
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

27. Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership
Cautions of Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership
 Ignores the rational dimension of leadership
 Definitions of beauty vary
 Performances can be dishonest
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

28. Leadership Ethics at the Movies: A Ripple of Hope
Discussion Questions:
 Why did Kennedy decide to give the speech despite the
warnings of police? What might have happened had he
cancelled the rally or only given a brief formal statement
announcing King’s death?
 Why did Kennedy wait till this incident to talk publicly
talk about the death of his brother?
 What made his speech so powerful and beautiful?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

29. Responsible Leadership
European researchers Nicola Pless and Thomas Maak
believe that leaders can help their corporations become a
force for global good through exercising responsible
leadership.
Maak and Pless define responsible leadership “as a
values-based and principle driven relationship between
leaders and stakeholders who are connected through a
shared sense of meaning and purpose through which
they raise to higher ethical levels of motivation and
commitment for achieving sustainable value creation and
responsible change.”
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

30. Responsible Leadership
Responsible leadership then manifests itself in the
following roles:
 The leader as steward
 The leader as servant
 The leader as coach
 The leader as architect
 The leader as storyteller
 The leader as change agent
 The leader as citizen
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

31. Responsible Leadership
Applications of Responsible Leadership
 Encourage corporate social responsibility
 Play the roles of the responsible leader
 Broaden your focus to outside the organization
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

32. Responsible Leadership
Cautions of Responsible Leadership
 In the early stages of development
 Overlaps other theories
 Corporations are resistant to an expanded social role
 Liberal bias
 Focuses exclusively on business leadership
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

33. Responsible Leadership
Only responsible leadership incorporates globalization
and stakeholder theory.
Responsible leadership theory is in the beginning
stages of development, which accounts for many of its
shortcomings.
Additional theoretical development may address what
is perhaps the greatest concern about responsible
leadership, which is whether this perspective can serve
as a general theory of leadership ethics.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

34. Taoism
Taoism (pronounced “Dowism”) is one of the world’s
oldest philosophies, dating back to ancient China
(600–300 B.C.).
The Tao is the shapeless, nameless force or “nonbeing”
that brings all things into existence, or being, and then
sustains them.
Ethical leaders and followers develop te, or character,
by acting in harmony with the Tao, not by following
rules and commandments.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

35. Taoism
Taoists rely on images or metaphors drawn from
nature and daily life to illustrate the characteristics
of model leaders.
 First image: An uncarved block of stone or wood is
nameless and shapeless, like the Tao itself.
 Second image: A child serves as another reminder that
wise leaders don’t get caught up in the pursuit of power
and privilege but remain humble
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

36. Taoism
Images (Cont’d)
 Third image: Water provides an important insight into how
leaders ought to influence others by illustrating that there is
great strength in weakness.
 Fourth image: Valley: Taoists highlight the importance of
the yin, or feminine side of leadership, which is represented
by the valley metaphor. Leaders should seek to be valleys
(which reflect the yin) rather than prominent peaks (which
reflect the yang).
 Fifth image: the clay pot, which celebrates emptiness by
elevating nothing to higher status than something.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

37. Taoism
Applications of Taoism
 Use “soft” tactics
 Focus on being, not doing
 Temper your use of power and privilege
 Follow nature’s example
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

38. Taoism
Cautions of Taoism
 Denies reason
 Rejects codes and laws
 Is ambiguous about many moral issues
 Does not adequately explain evil
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

39. Taoism
Taoist principles provide an ethical framework for
such important trends or themes in leadership
studies as empowerment, innovation, teamwork,
spirituality, and collaboration.
Taoism speaks most directly to the leader’s use of
power and privilege.
The Taoist perspective also addresses environmental
issues.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

40. Taoism
There are some serious disadvantages to Taoist
ethics:
 In their attempt to follow nature, Taoists encourage
leaders to empty themselves of, among other things,
reason.
 Although Taoism has much to say about the shadow of
power and our relationship to the world around us, it is
silent on many common ethical dilemmas.
 One final concern should be noted: Taoism’s firm
conviction that humans, in their natural state, will act
morally seems to deny the power of evil.
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

41. Case Study: Transforming Clear Lake College
Discussion Questions:
 What elements of transactional and transforming leadership
did Sam exhibit?
 Was Sam a transformational or a pseudo-transformational
leader?
 How would you evaluate the actions of the college’s board of
directors?
 Have you ever had to confront a leader about her or his
behavior? What did you say or do? What was the outcome of
the encounter? Would you do anything differently next time?
 How do you determine when to remove a leader, particularly
one who has a proven track record of success?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

42. Case Study: From the Secret Service
Discussion Questions:
 Should Secret Service agents be held to a higher ethical
standard both on and off the job?
 Will the new rules and the appointment of a female director
prevent future scandals?
 What additional steps can the agency take to change its
culture?
 How can more women be encouraged to join Secret Service
protection teams?
 How can the agency reinforce the importance of its
mission?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

43. Case Study: Patagonia
Discussion Questions:
 How does Yvon Chouinard function as a responsible
leader?
 Can you think of other business executives who also meet
the criteria for responsible leadership?
 Could leaders of publicly held corporations follow
Chouinard’s example? Should they try to do so?
 Does Patagonia put too much emphasis on the
environment? Who might be hurt by this commitment?
 Should all states adopt benefit corporation laws? What
are the potential benefits and costs of doing so?
© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.