5_6192566572737889031 structure of argument

Day 1:
• Understanding the structure of arguments:
– Argument forms,
– structure of categorical propositions,
– mood and figure and
– classical square of opposition

Proposition
• Every complete sentence contains two parts:
– a subject and a predicate.
• The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about,
• while the predicate tells something about the subject.
Ex, Some dogs are White
• Dogs – Subject
• White –Predicate
Note: Proposition –Statement-Premise

Argument:
• The premises of the Argument is the first two
statement, and the last statement is a
Conclusion.
• The statements of premises support the
statement of conclusion.
• This type of arrangement is called an
Argument.

Structure of Argument:
All Roses are Red Premise 1
All Red are Blood Premise 2
All Roses are Blood Conclusion

Forms of Arguments
There are three types of Arguments:
1. Deductive arguments
2. Inductive arguments and
3. Abductive arguments

1. Deductive Argument
• An argument where the truth of the
premises guarantees the truth of the
conclusion.
• Example:
Premises: All man are good
Kalam is a man
Conclusion: Kalam is good

2. Inductive Argument
• An inductive argument will not be deductively
valid, because even if a pattern is found many
times
• Therefore, an inductive argument provides
weaker, less trustworthy support for the
conclusion than a deductive argument does.
• For Example:
Premises: I have seen 1000 birds, and
All of them have been white
Conclusion: All birds are white.

3. Abductive (Hypothetic) Argument
• Abductive arguments seem to make an even bigger
jump than inductive arguments. Inductive arguments
generalize, while abductive arguments say that
successful predictions “prove” theory is true.
Abductive arguments are not deductively valid because
false theories can make true predictions. So, true
predictions do not guarantee that the theory is true.
• Example:
Premises: These coins conduct electricity (fact)
If these coins are made of gold (hypothesis)
then they would conduct electricity (prediction).
Conclusion: These coins are made of gold.

Psychological:
Mental representation
To represent knowledge, memories or ideas
Analogical:
Concludes that two things are similar in a certain
respect
Like, as, than, same

• Symmetry
• Transitivity
• connexity

Symmetry:
• Symmetrical:
– A is = B
– So B is = A
• Asymmetrical:
– A is > B
– So B is not > A
• Non symmetrical:
– A is the sister of B
– So B is may or may not be sister of A

Transitivity:
• Transitive: Relationship travels from A to C via B
– A is = B
– B is = C
– So A is = C
• Younger to, Precedes, Succeeds and ancestor of
• Intransitive : Relationship not travels from A to C
via B
– A is father of B
– B is father of C
– So A is father of C is invalid
• Son of

Connexity:
• Relationship is valid between two or more terms
– 9 is greater than 6 is greater than 3

Which one of the following is the characteristics
feature of an argument? (6th Dec 2019-1st Shift)
(1) It is neither true nor false
(2) It is either true or false
(3) It is neither valid nor invalid
(4) It is either valid or invalid

The premises of a valid deductive argument is?
(December 2008)
(1) Provide some evidence for its conclusion
(2) Provide no evidence for its conclusion
(3) Are irrelevant for its conclusion
(4) Provide conclusive evidence for its conclusion

Structure of a categorical Proposition:
Quantifier + Subject +Qualifier + Predicate
Example:
All Roses are Red
Quantifier Subject Copula Predicate

A- type E- type
All No
(Universal (Universal
Affirmative) Negative)
I- type O-type
Some Some not
(Particular (Particular

A-type: All, Each, Every, Any, Only, The, An,
Noun, Pronoun
E-type: No, Neither, Never, None, Not
I-type: Some, A few, Certain, Most, Many,
Almost, Few
O-type: Some not, Hardly, Every not,
Majority not, All not

Trick to remember:
Vowel:
A E I O U

“Some students are sincere” is an example of
which proposition? (2nd Dec 2019-1st Shift)
(1) Universal negative
(2) Universal affirmative
(3) Particular affirmative
(4) Particular negative

Example:
All Roses are Red
Quantifier Subject Copula Predicate

Important terms:
Minor term:
• Subject of
conclusion
Ex.,
All Roses are Red
Roses = Subject
Roses =Minor term
Major term:
• Predicate of
conclusion
Ex.,
All Roses are Red
Red = Predicate
Red =Major term

Important terms:
Middle term:
• It appears twice or
• It presents in both the statements
but not in conclusion
Ex.,
All Roses are Red
All Red are Blood
Therefore All Roses are Blood
Middle term = Red

Steps in Mood & Figure:
Step 1 – Make argument in standard form
Step 2 – Determine the Mood
Step 3 – Determine the figure of the Argument
Step 4 – Check the validity
Conditional Unconditional

Step 1:
Standard form:
• Write Major premise and minor premise
• In standard form the subject of the
conclusion must come from the minor
premises and predicate of the conclusion
must come from major premises

Given Form:
All Roses are Red = Statement 1
All Red are Blood = Statement 2
All Roses are Blood = Conclusion
Minor Major
term term
Standard Form:
All Red are Blood = Major premise
All Roses are Red = Minor Premise

A-type: All White are Milk
E-type: No White are Milk
I-type: Some White are Milk
O-type: Some White are not Milk
To predicate mood always look at standard form equation
St 1:All Red are Blood
St 2:All Roses are Red
Con :All Roses are Blood
Which means Mood is AAA
Step 2:

• Position of the middle term = Figure
St 1:All Red are Blood
St 2:All Roses are Red
Con :All Roses are Blood
Step 3:

Step 3:
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4
M P P M M P P M
S M S M M S M S

Figure 1 Figure 4
Figure 2 Figure 3

Given Question:
All Roses are Red = Statement 1
All Red are Blood = Statement 2
Standard Form:
All Red are Blood = Major premise
All Roses are Red = Minor Premise
Answer:
Mood is AAA
Figure is 1

Consider the following argument (4th Dec.2019)
Some Chairs are curtains
All curtains are bedsheets
Some chairs are bedsheets
What is the mood in the above syllogism
A. IAI
B. IAA
C. IIA
D. AII

Types of
Categorical
Proposition
Denoted
by
symbol
Example Distribution
Subject Predicate
Universal
Affirmative
A All Roses are Red Distributed Undistributed
Universal
Negative
E No Rose is Red Distributed Distributed
Particular
Affirmative
I Some Roses are Red Undistributed Undistributed
Particular
Negative
O Some Roses are not Red Undistributed Distributed
Distribution of Proposition

1.In the statement “ No dogs are Reptiles”,
which terms are distributed? (6th Dec 2019 II
nd Shift)
A. Only Subject term
B. Both subject and predicate terms
C. Only predicate term
D. Neither subject nor predicate

A- type E- type
All No
I- type O-type
Some Some not

A- type E- type
All Contrary No
(Universal (Universal
I- type O-type
Some Some not
(Particular (Particular
Affirmative) Subcontrary Negative)
Subalternation
Subalternation
Contradictory

Contradictory Statements:
• A-O, E-I contradictory Pairs
• If one is true - definitely other will be false
• If one is false - definitely other will be true
• Both can not be true or false
• If one is undetermined
– other will also be undetermined

Example:
All White are Milk True A
Some White are not Milk False O
No White are Milk False E
Some White are Milk True I

Contrary Statements:
• A-E contrary pairs
• It is always between universal
• Both can not be true
• Both can be false
• If one is true – definitely other will be false
• If one is false – other will be doubtful

Example:
No White are Milk False E
All White are Milk False A
No White are Milk Doubtful E

Subcontrary Statements:
• I-O Subcontrary pairs
• It is always between Particular
• Both can be true
• Both can not be false
• If one is false – definitely other will be true
• If one is true – other will be doubtful

Example:
Some White are Milk False I
Some White are not Milk True O
Some White are not Milk Doubtful O

Subalternation Statements:
• A-I, E-O Subaltern pairs
• It is always between Universal & Particular
• If universal true – definitely particular true
• If universal false –particular doubtful
• If particular false - definitely universal false
• If particular true -universal doubtful

True Downward False Upward
A (All) E (No)
I(Some) O(Some not)

Example: (A-I)
All White are Milk False A
Some White are Milk Doubtful I

Some White are Milk (False I)
All White are Milk (False A)
Some White are Milk (True I)
All White are Milk (Doubtful A)

Example: (E-O)
No White are Milk (True E)
Some White are not Milk (True O)
No White are Milk (False E)
Some White are not Milk (Doubtful O)

Some White are not Milk (False O)
No White are Milk (False E)
Some White are not Milk (True O)
No White are Milk (Doubtful E)

If two standard form categorical propositions
with the same subject and predicate are related
in such a manner that if one is undetermined
the other must be undetermined, what is their
relation?
(June 2014)
(1) Contrary
(2) Subcontrary
(3) Contradictory
(4) Subalternation

Among the following statements two are contradictory to
each other. Select the correct code that represents them
(June 2015)
Statements:
(a) All poets are philosophers.
(b) Some poets are philosophers.
(c) Some poets are not philosophers.
(d) No philosopher is a poet.
Codes:
A.(b) and (c)
B.(a) and (b)
C.(a) and (d)
D.(a) and (c)

If the statement ‘all students are intelligent’ is true,
which of the following statements are false?
(i) No students are intelligent.
(ii) Some students are intelligent.
(iii) Some students are not intelligent.
(A) (i) and (ii)
(B) (i) and (iii)
(C) (ii) and (iii)
(D) (i) only

5_6192566572737889031 structure of argument

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