490
The Future of Evaluation
Orienting Questions
1. How are future program evaluations likely to be different from current evaluations in
• the way in which political considerations are handled?
• the approaches that will be used?
• the involvement of stakeholders?
• who conducts them?
2. How is evaluation like some other activities in organizations?
3. How is evaluation viewed differently in other countries?
We have reached the last chapter of this book, but we have only begun to share
what is known about program evaluation. The references we have made to other
writings reflect only a fraction of the existing literature in this growing field. In
choosing to focus attention on (1) alternative approaches to program evaluation,
and (2) practical guidelines for planning, conducting, reporting, and using evalu-
ation studies, we have tried to emphasize what we believe is most important to
include in any single volume that aspires to give a broad overview of such a complex
and multifaceted field. We hope we have selected well, but we encourage students
and evaluation practitioners to go beyond this text to explore the richness and
depth of other evaluation literature. In this final chapter, we share our perceptions
and those of a few of our colleagues about evaluation’s future.
The Future of Evaluation
Hindsight is inevitably better than foresight, and ours is no exception. Yet present
circumstances permit us to hazard a few predictions that we believe will hold true
for program evaluation in the next few decades. History will determine whether
18
Chapter 18 • The Future of Evaluation 491
Predictions Concerning the Profession
of Evaluation
1. Evaluation will become an increasingly useful force in our society. As
noted, evaluation will have increasing impacts on programs, on organizations, and
on society. Many of the movements we have discussed in this text—performance
monitoring, organizational learning, and others—illustrate the increasing interest
in and impact of evaluation in different sectors. Evaluative means of thinking will
improve ways of planning and delivering programs and policies to achieve their
intended effects and, more broadly, improve society.
2. Evaluation will increase in the United States and in other developed
countries as the pressure for accountability weighs heavily on governments and
nonprofit organizations that deliver vital services. The emphasis on accountability
and data-based decision making has increased dramatically in the first decade of
the twenty-first century. Also, virtually every trend points to more, not less, eval-
uation in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors in the future. In some organi-
zations, the focus is on documenting outcomes in response to external political
pressures. In other organizations, evaluation is being used for organizational
growth and development, which should, ultimately, improve the achievement of
those outcomes. In each context, however, evaluation is in dema ...
Program Evaluation Studies TK Logan and David Royse .docxstilliegeorgiana
Program Evaluation
Studies
TK Logan and David Royse
A
variety of programs have been developed to address social problems such
as drug addiction, homelessness, child abuse, domestic violence, illiteracy,
and poverty. The goals of these programs may include directly addressing
the problem origin or moderating the effects of these problems on indi-
viduals, families, and communities. Sometimes programs are developed
to prevent something from happening such as drug use, sexual assault, or crime.
These kinds of problems and programs to help people are often what allracts many
social workers to the profession; we want to be part of the mechanism through which
society provides assistance to those most in need. Despite low wages, bureaucratic red
tape, and routinely uncooperative clients, we tirelessly provide services tha t are invaluable
but also at various Limes may be or become insufficient or inappropriate. But without
conducting eva luation, we do not know whether our programs are helping or hurting,
that is, whether they only postpone the hunt for real solutions or truly construct new
futures for our clients. This chapter provides an overview of program evaluation in gen -
eral and outlines the primary considerations in designing program evaluations.
Evaluation can be done informally or formally. We are constantly, as consumers, infor-
mally evaluating products, services, and in formation. For example, we may choose not to
return to a store or an agency again if we did not evaluate the experience as pleasant.
Similarl y, we may mentally take note of unsolicited comments or anecdotes from clients and
draw conclusions about a program. Anecdotal and informal approaches such as these gen-
erally are not regarded as carrying scientific credibility. One reason is that decision biases
play a role in our "informal" evaluation. Specifically, vivid memories or strongly negative or
positive anecdotes will be overrepresented in our summaries of how things are evaluated.
This is why objective data are necessary to truly understand what is or is not working.
By contrast, formal evaluations systematically examine data from and about programs
and their outcomes so that better decisions can be made about the interventions designed
to address the related social problem. Thus, program evaluation involves the usc of social
research meLhodologies to appraise and improve the ways in which human services, poli-
ci~s, and programs are co nducted. Formal eva l.uation, by its very nature, is applied research.
Formal program evaluations attempt to answer the following general ques tion: Does
the p rogram work? Program evaluation may also address questions such as the following:
Do our clients get better? How does our success rate compare to those of other programs
or agencies? Can the same level of success be obtained through less expensive means?
221
222 PART II • QUANTITATIVE A PPROACHES: TYPES OF STUD IES
What is the expe ...
SOCW 6311 wk 11 discussion 1 peer responses
Respond
to
at least two
colleagues’ by doing the following:
Respond to at least two colleagues by offering critiques of their analyses. Identify strengths in their analyses and strategies for presenting evaluation results to others.
Identify ways your colleagues might improve their presentations.
Identify potential needs or questions of the audience that they may not have considered.
Provide an additional strategy for overcoming the obstacles or challenges in communicating the content of the evaluation reports.
Name first and references after every person
Instructor wants lay out like this:
Respond to at least two colleagues ( 2 peers posts are provided) by doing all of the following:
Identify strengths of your colleagues’ analyses and areas in which the analyses could be improved.
Your response
Address his or her evaluation of the efficacy and applicability of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
[Evaluate] his or her identification of factors that could support or hinder the implementation of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
And [evaluate] his or her solution for mitigating those factors.
Your response
Offer additional insight to your colleagues by either identifying additional factors that may support or limit implementation of the evidence-based practice or an alternative solution for mitigating one of the limitations that your colleagues identified.
Your response
References
Your response
Peer 1: McKenna Bull
RE: Katie Otte Initial Post-Discussion 1 - Week 11
COLLAPSE
Top of Form
Identify strengths in their analyses and strategies for presenting evaluation results to others.
You provided an insightful analysis of this particular process evaluation, and it seems that you were able to design a comprehensive presentation guideline. I agree with your tactic to break the presentation up into categories, and the categories you have selected seem to address the major components of the program, the evaluation itself, and the findings of said evaluation. You also provided a great analysis and summary of the PATHS program. The purpose of the program is clear, and the overarching purpose of the evaluation was made clear in your synopsis as well.
Identify ways your colleagues might improve their presentations.
You addressed outcome measures very well, however, there may have been some lacking information in regards to overall evaluation methods as a whole. Addressing factors such as who was collecting the data, how they were trained, how their training or standing could limit potential bias, and similar information. This may be an important piece of information that could help to provide audience members with a better understanding of the evaluation processes as a whole.
Identify potential needs or questions of the audience that they may not have considered.
As mentioned by Law and Shek (2011), this program was designed and facilitated in Hong Kong, Chi.
CHAPTER SIXTEENUnderstanding Context Evaluation and MeasuremeJinElias52
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Understanding Context: Evaluation and Measurement in Not-for-Profit Sectors
Dale C. Brandenburg
Many individuals associated with community agencies, health care, public workforce development, and similar not-for-profit organizations view program evaluation akin to a visit to the dentist’s office. It’s painful, but at some point it cannot be avoided. A major reason for this perspective is that evaluation is seen as taking money away from program activities that perform good for others, that is, intruding on valuable resources that are intended for delivering the “real” services of the organization (Kopczynski & Pritchard, 2004). A major reason for this logic is that since there are limited funds available to serve the public good, why must a portion of program delivery be allocated to something other than serving people in need? This is not an unreasonable point and one that program managers in not-for-profits face on a continuing basis.
The focus of evaluation in not-for-profit organization has shifted in recent years from administrative data to outcome measurement, impact evaluation, and sustainability (Aspen Institute, 2000), thus a shift from short-term to long-term effects of interventions. Evaluators in the not-for-profit sector view their world as the combination of technical knowledge, communication skills, and political savvy that can make or break the utility and value of the program under consideration. Evaluation in not-for-profit settings tends to value the importance of teamwork, collaboration, and generally working together. This chapter is meant to provide a glimpse at a minor portion of the evaluation efforts that take place in the not-for-profit sector. It excludes, for example, the efforts in public education, but does provide some context for workforce development efforts.
CONTRAST OF CONTEXTS
Evaluation in not-for-profit settings tends to have different criteria for the judgment of its worth than is typically found in corporate and similar settings. Such criteria are likely to include the following:
How useful is the evaluation?
Is the evaluation feasible and practical?
Does the evaluation hold high ethical principles?
Does the evaluation measure the right things, and is it accurate?
Using criteria such as the above seems a far cry from concepts of return on investment that are of vital importance in the profit sector. Even the cause of transfer of training can sometimes be of secondary importance to assuring that the program is described accurately. Another difference is the pressure of time. Programs offered by not-for-profit organizations, such as an alcohol recovery program, take a long time to see the effects and, by the time results are viewable, the organization has moved on to the next program. Instead we often see that evaluation is relegated to measuring the countable, the numbers of people who have completed the program, rather than the life-changing impact that decreased alcohol abuse has on ...
The field of program evaluation presents a diversity of images a.docxcherry686017
The field of program evaluation presents a diversity of images and claims about the nature and role of evaluation that confounds any attempt to construct a coher- ent account of its methods or confidently identify important new developments. We take the view that the overarching goal of the program evaluation enterprise is to contribute to the improvement of social conditions by providing scientifically credible information and balanced judgment to legitimate social agents about the effectiveness of interventions intended to produce social benefits. Because of its centrality in this perspective, this review focuses on outcome evaluation, that is, the assessment of the effects of interventions upon the populations they are intended to benefit. The coverage of this topic is concentrated on literature published within the last decade with particular attention to the period subsequent to the related reviews by Cook and Shadish (1994) on social experiments and Sechrest & Figueredo (1993) on program evaluation.
The word ‘evaluation’ has become increasingly used in the language of community, health and social services and programs. The growth of talk and practice of evaluation in these fields has often been promoted and encouraged by funders and commissioners of services and programs. Following the interest of funders, has been a growth in the study and practice of evaluation by community, health and social service practitioners and academics. When we consider why this move in evaluative thinking and practice has occurred, we can assume the position of the funder and simply answer, ‘...because we want to know if this program or service works’. Practitioners, specialists and academics in these fields have been called upon by governments and philanthropists to aid the development of effective evaluation. Over time, they have led their own thinking and practice independently. Evaluation in its simplest form is about understanding the effect and impact of a program, service, or indeed a whole organization. Evaluation as a practice is not so simple however, largely because in order to assess impact, we need to be very clear at the beginning what effect or difference we are trying to achieve.
The literature review begins with an overview of qualitative and quantitative research methods, followed by a description of key forms of evaluation. Health promotion evaluation and advocacy and policy evaluation will then be explored as two specific domains. These domains are not evaluation methodologies, but forms of evaluation that present unique requirements for effective community development evaluation. Following this discussion, the review will explore eight key evaluation methodologies: appreciative enquiry, empowerment evaluation, social capital,
social return on investment, outcomes based evaluation, performance dashboards and scorecards and developmental evaluation. Each of these sections will include specific methods, the values base of each methodo ...
Running Head: DATA SOURCE EVALUATION 1
DATA SOURCE EVALUATION 2
Data source in Evaluation
Name:
Anthony Tyler
Institution:
Strayer University
Professor:
Dr. Jacob
Date:
June 7, 2020
Data source in Evaluation
There are various sources of data that are used in the process of evaluation in that data is easily acquired in most convenient forms such that it can be used in proper evaluation that aids the best result (Long, et al 2015).
Current and Previous Data
An individual who is involved in an evaluation should start by considering data that is already available as well as the data that had been used previously. According to the program it has been out of operation for more than five years, therefore, being inactive. Knowing what program had been used by checking records that have been documented (Boulmetis et al, 2016). For example, looking at reports written previously allows the evaluator to have the whole idea.
Plan Recipient
The most convenient way to source data is when an evaluator relies on the plan or the program that the recipients have in existence. This is because this is a way that can provide a route way to achieve evaluation needs (Greene et al, 2017). Discussion together with the recipients is a better way to access information while surveys that are involved verify the whole process.
Records from observation
Images that have been recorded in various forms are essential data capturing sources (Greene et al, 2017). Some of these sources include pictures, stored clips, and videos which is the preferred data acquiring points that have been in use. This rationale provides well-elaborated information to the evaluator since well-represented data in form of images and videos that a good example of well-processed data that can be used in making the final resolution in management. However, other means of collecting data depend on the source and individuals that are being involved in their disposition and capacity to provide information (Boulmetis et al, 2016). Actual situations are preferred as they can give accountancy of the real experiences in the entire program and the reason behind occurrences.
Questions
1. According to your accountancies tell us which is the appropriate period when you get to follow programs directives in an actual way
2. Talk about a schedule that was tight and how you handled the schedule.
3. Describe the occurrence when bad information had been brought to your manager, what the reaction
4. During your duty explain incidences that you had a mistake that shows serious improvement is required in a certain field of work.
5. Do you think there is any relationship that exists between Latinos in the schools as appointees and Americans who make them run away from schools?
6. What kind of association should be in existence between a me.
Program Evaluation Studies TK Logan and David Royse .docxstilliegeorgiana
Program Evaluation
Studies
TK Logan and David Royse
A
variety of programs have been developed to address social problems such
as drug addiction, homelessness, child abuse, domestic violence, illiteracy,
and poverty. The goals of these programs may include directly addressing
the problem origin or moderating the effects of these problems on indi-
viduals, families, and communities. Sometimes programs are developed
to prevent something from happening such as drug use, sexual assault, or crime.
These kinds of problems and programs to help people are often what allracts many
social workers to the profession; we want to be part of the mechanism through which
society provides assistance to those most in need. Despite low wages, bureaucratic red
tape, and routinely uncooperative clients, we tirelessly provide services tha t are invaluable
but also at various Limes may be or become insufficient or inappropriate. But without
conducting eva luation, we do not know whether our programs are helping or hurting,
that is, whether they only postpone the hunt for real solutions or truly construct new
futures for our clients. This chapter provides an overview of program evaluation in gen -
eral and outlines the primary considerations in designing program evaluations.
Evaluation can be done informally or formally. We are constantly, as consumers, infor-
mally evaluating products, services, and in formation. For example, we may choose not to
return to a store or an agency again if we did not evaluate the experience as pleasant.
Similarl y, we may mentally take note of unsolicited comments or anecdotes from clients and
draw conclusions about a program. Anecdotal and informal approaches such as these gen-
erally are not regarded as carrying scientific credibility. One reason is that decision biases
play a role in our "informal" evaluation. Specifically, vivid memories or strongly negative or
positive anecdotes will be overrepresented in our summaries of how things are evaluated.
This is why objective data are necessary to truly understand what is or is not working.
By contrast, formal evaluations systematically examine data from and about programs
and their outcomes so that better decisions can be made about the interventions designed
to address the related social problem. Thus, program evaluation involves the usc of social
research meLhodologies to appraise and improve the ways in which human services, poli-
ci~s, and programs are co nducted. Formal eva l.uation, by its very nature, is applied research.
Formal program evaluations attempt to answer the following general ques tion: Does
the p rogram work? Program evaluation may also address questions such as the following:
Do our clients get better? How does our success rate compare to those of other programs
or agencies? Can the same level of success be obtained through less expensive means?
221
222 PART II • QUANTITATIVE A PPROACHES: TYPES OF STUD IES
What is the expe ...
SOCW 6311 wk 11 discussion 1 peer responses
Respond
to
at least two
colleagues’ by doing the following:
Respond to at least two colleagues by offering critiques of their analyses. Identify strengths in their analyses and strategies for presenting evaluation results to others.
Identify ways your colleagues might improve their presentations.
Identify potential needs or questions of the audience that they may not have considered.
Provide an additional strategy for overcoming the obstacles or challenges in communicating the content of the evaluation reports.
Name first and references after every person
Instructor wants lay out like this:
Respond to at least two colleagues ( 2 peers posts are provided) by doing all of the following:
Identify strengths of your colleagues’ analyses and areas in which the analyses could be improved.
Your response
Address his or her evaluation of the efficacy and applicability of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
[Evaluate] his or her identification of factors that could support or hinder the implementation of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
And [evaluate] his or her solution for mitigating those factors.
Your response
Offer additional insight to your colleagues by either identifying additional factors that may support or limit implementation of the evidence-based practice or an alternative solution for mitigating one of the limitations that your colleagues identified.
Your response
References
Your response
Peer 1: McKenna Bull
RE: Katie Otte Initial Post-Discussion 1 - Week 11
COLLAPSE
Top of Form
Identify strengths in their analyses and strategies for presenting evaluation results to others.
You provided an insightful analysis of this particular process evaluation, and it seems that you were able to design a comprehensive presentation guideline. I agree with your tactic to break the presentation up into categories, and the categories you have selected seem to address the major components of the program, the evaluation itself, and the findings of said evaluation. You also provided a great analysis and summary of the PATHS program. The purpose of the program is clear, and the overarching purpose of the evaluation was made clear in your synopsis as well.
Identify ways your colleagues might improve their presentations.
You addressed outcome measures very well, however, there may have been some lacking information in regards to overall evaluation methods as a whole. Addressing factors such as who was collecting the data, how they were trained, how their training or standing could limit potential bias, and similar information. This may be an important piece of information that could help to provide audience members with a better understanding of the evaluation processes as a whole.
Identify potential needs or questions of the audience that they may not have considered.
As mentioned by Law and Shek (2011), this program was designed and facilitated in Hong Kong, Chi.
CHAPTER SIXTEENUnderstanding Context Evaluation and MeasuremeJinElias52
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Understanding Context: Evaluation and Measurement in Not-for-Profit Sectors
Dale C. Brandenburg
Many individuals associated with community agencies, health care, public workforce development, and similar not-for-profit organizations view program evaluation akin to a visit to the dentist’s office. It’s painful, but at some point it cannot be avoided. A major reason for this perspective is that evaluation is seen as taking money away from program activities that perform good for others, that is, intruding on valuable resources that are intended for delivering the “real” services of the organization (Kopczynski & Pritchard, 2004). A major reason for this logic is that since there are limited funds available to serve the public good, why must a portion of program delivery be allocated to something other than serving people in need? This is not an unreasonable point and one that program managers in not-for-profits face on a continuing basis.
The focus of evaluation in not-for-profit organization has shifted in recent years from administrative data to outcome measurement, impact evaluation, and sustainability (Aspen Institute, 2000), thus a shift from short-term to long-term effects of interventions. Evaluators in the not-for-profit sector view their world as the combination of technical knowledge, communication skills, and political savvy that can make or break the utility and value of the program under consideration. Evaluation in not-for-profit settings tends to value the importance of teamwork, collaboration, and generally working together. This chapter is meant to provide a glimpse at a minor portion of the evaluation efforts that take place in the not-for-profit sector. It excludes, for example, the efforts in public education, but does provide some context for workforce development efforts.
CONTRAST OF CONTEXTS
Evaluation in not-for-profit settings tends to have different criteria for the judgment of its worth than is typically found in corporate and similar settings. Such criteria are likely to include the following:
How useful is the evaluation?
Is the evaluation feasible and practical?
Does the evaluation hold high ethical principles?
Does the evaluation measure the right things, and is it accurate?
Using criteria such as the above seems a far cry from concepts of return on investment that are of vital importance in the profit sector. Even the cause of transfer of training can sometimes be of secondary importance to assuring that the program is described accurately. Another difference is the pressure of time. Programs offered by not-for-profit organizations, such as an alcohol recovery program, take a long time to see the effects and, by the time results are viewable, the organization has moved on to the next program. Instead we often see that evaluation is relegated to measuring the countable, the numbers of people who have completed the program, rather than the life-changing impact that decreased alcohol abuse has on ...
The field of program evaluation presents a diversity of images a.docxcherry686017
The field of program evaluation presents a diversity of images and claims about the nature and role of evaluation that confounds any attempt to construct a coher- ent account of its methods or confidently identify important new developments. We take the view that the overarching goal of the program evaluation enterprise is to contribute to the improvement of social conditions by providing scientifically credible information and balanced judgment to legitimate social agents about the effectiveness of interventions intended to produce social benefits. Because of its centrality in this perspective, this review focuses on outcome evaluation, that is, the assessment of the effects of interventions upon the populations they are intended to benefit. The coverage of this topic is concentrated on literature published within the last decade with particular attention to the period subsequent to the related reviews by Cook and Shadish (1994) on social experiments and Sechrest & Figueredo (1993) on program evaluation.
The word ‘evaluation’ has become increasingly used in the language of community, health and social services and programs. The growth of talk and practice of evaluation in these fields has often been promoted and encouraged by funders and commissioners of services and programs. Following the interest of funders, has been a growth in the study and practice of evaluation by community, health and social service practitioners and academics. When we consider why this move in evaluative thinking and practice has occurred, we can assume the position of the funder and simply answer, ‘...because we want to know if this program or service works’. Practitioners, specialists and academics in these fields have been called upon by governments and philanthropists to aid the development of effective evaluation. Over time, they have led their own thinking and practice independently. Evaluation in its simplest form is about understanding the effect and impact of a program, service, or indeed a whole organization. Evaluation as a practice is not so simple however, largely because in order to assess impact, we need to be very clear at the beginning what effect or difference we are trying to achieve.
The literature review begins with an overview of qualitative and quantitative research methods, followed by a description of key forms of evaluation. Health promotion evaluation and advocacy and policy evaluation will then be explored as two specific domains. These domains are not evaluation methodologies, but forms of evaluation that present unique requirements for effective community development evaluation. Following this discussion, the review will explore eight key evaluation methodologies: appreciative enquiry, empowerment evaluation, social capital,
social return on investment, outcomes based evaluation, performance dashboards and scorecards and developmental evaluation. Each of these sections will include specific methods, the values base of each methodo ...
Running Head: DATA SOURCE EVALUATION 1
DATA SOURCE EVALUATION 2
Data source in Evaluation
Name:
Anthony Tyler
Institution:
Strayer University
Professor:
Dr. Jacob
Date:
June 7, 2020
Data source in Evaluation
There are various sources of data that are used in the process of evaluation in that data is easily acquired in most convenient forms such that it can be used in proper evaluation that aids the best result (Long, et al 2015).
Current and Previous Data
An individual who is involved in an evaluation should start by considering data that is already available as well as the data that had been used previously. According to the program it has been out of operation for more than five years, therefore, being inactive. Knowing what program had been used by checking records that have been documented (Boulmetis et al, 2016). For example, looking at reports written previously allows the evaluator to have the whole idea.
Plan Recipient
The most convenient way to source data is when an evaluator relies on the plan or the program that the recipients have in existence. This is because this is a way that can provide a route way to achieve evaluation needs (Greene et al, 2017). Discussion together with the recipients is a better way to access information while surveys that are involved verify the whole process.
Records from observation
Images that have been recorded in various forms are essential data capturing sources (Greene et al, 2017). Some of these sources include pictures, stored clips, and videos which is the preferred data acquiring points that have been in use. This rationale provides well-elaborated information to the evaluator since well-represented data in form of images and videos that a good example of well-processed data that can be used in making the final resolution in management. However, other means of collecting data depend on the source and individuals that are being involved in their disposition and capacity to provide information (Boulmetis et al, 2016). Actual situations are preferred as they can give accountancy of the real experiences in the entire program and the reason behind occurrences.
Questions
1. According to your accountancies tell us which is the appropriate period when you get to follow programs directives in an actual way
2. Talk about a schedule that was tight and how you handled the schedule.
3. Describe the occurrence when bad information had been brought to your manager, what the reaction
4. During your duty explain incidences that you had a mistake that shows serious improvement is required in a certain field of work.
5. Do you think there is any relationship that exists between Latinos in the schools as appointees and Americans who make them run away from schools?
6. What kind of association should be in existence between a me.
SOCW 6311 WK 1 responses Respond to at least two colleagues .docxsamuel699872
SOCW 6311 WK 1 responses
Respond to at least two colleagues
(You have to compare my post to 2 SEPARATE peer posts and respond to their posts and ask a question I have provided all three)
by noting the similarities and differences in the factors that would support or impede your colleague’s implementation of evidence-based practice as noted in his or her post to those that would impact your implementation of evidence-based practice as noted in your original post. Offer a solution for addressing one of the factors that would impede your colleague’s implementation of evidence-based practice.
IT does not have to be long but has to in text citation and full references
MY POST
SummerLove Holcomb
RE: Discussion - Week 1
Top of Form
The Characteristics of the evidence-based practice (EBP)
The evidence-based program is defined as the programs that are effective and this is based on the rigorous assessment. One of the key features of EBP is that they have been assessed thoroughly in an experimental or quasi-experimental study. The evaluation of the EBP has been subjected to critical peer review and this implies that a conclusion has been reached by the evaluation experts. The EBP requires the ability to differentiate between the unverified opinions concerning the psychosocial interventions and the facts about their effectiveness. It is involving the process of inquiry that is provided to the practitioners and described for the physicians. This is important in integrating the best evidence, clinical expertise, and patient values as well as the situations that are linked to the management of the patient, management of the practice, and health policy decision-making processes (Small & O'Connor, 2007).
The assessment of the factors that are supporting or impeding the adoption of the evidence-based practice
Several factors are associated with the failure to the successful adoption of EBP. The implementation of EBP for example in healthcare facilities requires the dedication of time. Therefore, lack of adequate time for the training and implementation of the EBP makes it hard to adopt it within the facility. The adoption of evidence-based practice also requires adequate resources. This, therefore, implies that there must be adequate resources to facilitate the effective implementation and the adoption of the EBP. This, therefore, implies that smaller organizations with unstable capital income might not adopt the EBP. Another barrier is the inability to understand the statistical terms or the jargons used in the EBP. This leads to barriers in understanding thus making it hard to implement the EBP (Duncombe, 2018). Therefore, the factors that might support the implementation of the EBP are the availability of resources and adequate time.
References
Duncombe, D. C. (2018). A multi‐institutional study of the perceived barriers and facilitators to implementing evidence‐based practice. Journal of Clinical Nursing,.
1
Stakeholder Involvement In Evaluation Planning
Student Name
Institution Name
Course Number
Due Date
Faculty Name
Topic: Stakeholder Involvement In evaluation Planning
Stakeholders are the people that are at stake on the evaluation. They are individuals that have interest in or are impacted by evaluation and its results. I would consider involving stakeholders in health program planning. Stakeholders have the ability to provide ideas and aidin the creation of potential solutions (Ferreira,et al., 2020). In most cases stakeholders are from various backgrounds; they therefore look at issues from various perspectives.this allows opposing viewpoints to be expressed and also discussed. Engaging stakeholders from the planning stage, maximizes the chance of project success through the final execution. They may as well aid in preventing unforeseen problems (Michnej, & Zwolinski, 2018). They have a great influence on the community of animal lovers, thus it is imperative to have an advocate instead of an adversary.
I would consider facilitating stakeholder’s involvement through maintaining open communication. The stakeholders need to be updated on the organization’s core purpose. It is essential to be consistent in the messages, and use them to show employees how they fit in the plan as well as how their contributions have aided in shaping the decisions made (Smith, 2017). Individuals that know what is expected as well as how they contribute tend to be more engaged and committed in comparison to those that do not. It is essential to ensure that the stakeholders know where they fit in. engaging employees in the planning process aids in building ownership in the firm.
References
Ferreira, V., Barreira, A. P., Loures, L., Antunes, D., & Panagopoulos, T. (2020). Stakeholders’ engagement on nature-based solutions: A systematic literature review. Sustainability, 12(2), 640.
Michnej, M., & Zwoliński, T. (2018). The role and responsibility of stakeholders in the planning process of the sustainable urban mobility in the city Krakow. Transport Economics and Logistics, 80, 159-167.
Smith, P. A. (2017). Stakeholder engagement framework. Information & Security, 38, 35-45.
TOPIC: Strategies and Ethics
As the director of the local public health department, you are preparing to conduct a town hall presentation. In it you will communicate the direction of the strategic plan. Your audience will include collaborative partners (invested stakeholders) such as academicians, health professionals, state health department staff, representatives from affected communities, and representatives from nongovernmental organizations.
Recall that your Stakeholder Involvement in Evaluation Planning discussion in Unit 5 reviewed the planning and evaluation cycle (Figure 11-1 in your textbook). In addition, in that discussion you explained where in the cycle and how you would seek stakeholder involvement in evaluation planning. The town hall presentation is on ...
SOCW 6311 WK 6 responses Respond to at least two colleagues .docxsamuel699872
SOCW 6311 WK 6 responses
Respond to at least two colleagues each one has to be answered separately name first then response
Bottom of Form
Respond
to
at least two
colleagues by doing all of the following:
Identify the stage or stages of the program to which your colleague’s selected question relates.
Suggest an additional question or concern that stakeholders may have about program evaluation.
Recommend an alternative model for the evaluation.
Instructor wants lay out like this:
Respond to at least two colleagues ( 2 peers posts are provided) by doing all of the following:
Identify strengths of your colleagues’ analyses and areas in which the analyses could be improved.
Your response
Address his or her evaluation of the efficacy and applicability of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
[Evaluate] his or her identification of factors that could support or hinder the implementation of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
And [evaluate] his or her solution for mitigating those factors.
Your response
Offer additional insight to your colleagues by either identifying additional factors that may support or limit implementation of the evidence-based practice or an alternative solution for mitigating one of the limitations that your colleagues identified.
Your response
References
Your response
PEER 1
Elektra Smith
Top of Form
Post a brief summary of the program that you selected. Recommend a program evaluation model that would answer a question relevant to the program.
I chose a victim advocate program that provides crisis intervention for sexual assault victims. “The Victim Advocate provides emotional support to primary victims and secondary victims during the examination at the hospital or during an interview with the police. Applicant must be able to respond to victim/family in a non-judgmental and unbiased manner. The requirement is to work a minimum 2 shifts per month (
https://visitthecenter.org/volunteer
, 2018).” I chose the program monitoring to answer the question about clients being satisfied with this service program.
Explain the potential benefits of the program evaluation that you proposed (both process and outcome).
The process benefits of monitoring the program helps with determining the strengths and weaknesses of the service program that is being implemented. It helps to discover ways to improve program services for the most effective outcomes. Additionally, monitoring the program presents accountability to ensure effectiveness and integrity of the program. “Program monitoring typically uses many different types of data-collection strategies, such as questionnaires given out to clients or staff members, individual and group interviewing of staff and clients, observations of pro-grams and specific interactions between staff members and clients, reviews of existing documents such as client files and personnel documents, and consulting experts (Dudley, 2014) (p.73).”
Identify 2–3 concern.
The implementation 'black box' and evaluation as a driver for change. Presentation by Katie Burke and Claire Hickey of the Centre for Effective Services.
My project idea is developing a grant that will assist with disruptiAlyciaGold776
My project idea is developing a grant that will assist with disruptive/unruly high school students. Once this proposal is developed and funded it will assist schools and their teachers with methods that will allow them to be more in control of their classrooms which will ultimately promote effectiveness and a higher graduation rate. Better classroom management techniques will be more appealing to stakeholders and other organizations because it will make education in the public school system more marketable when compared to private schools.
Assignment 2: Final Project: Writing the Grant Part 2: Methodology and Evaluation Plans
The methodology section is one of the core components of the grant. This section is concerned with addressing the question: “How will you carry out the project?” (Gitlin & Lyons, 2014, p. 92). For example, if your proposal is for a nonprofit-related project, you might identify the population served or indicate who will receive services. Depending on the grant type, you may also include the research sample and associated inclusion criteria. A research proposal may also include the research design strategy, assumptions, validity, reliability, statistical analysis, timeline, and evaluation plans. Finally, in this section you may address human resources requirements and materials or supplies needed to complete the project.
In recent years, evaluation plans have become increasingly important to prospective funders. Competition for grants is intense, and funders must feel confident that money will be well spent and that projects can be appropriately evaluated. This is an important consideration for the grant seeker as well. Your organization will also want to be assured that the time and effort put into a project proves that the objectives are met and if not, why.
For this Assignment:
Review the Final Project Guidelines provided in this module’s Learning Resources.
Carefully review your Gitlin & Lyons text, the University of Wisconsin-Extension resource, and the Community Tool Box resource as well as other Learning Resources that focus on methodology and evaluation. You may also find additional online information from reputable grant-related organizations, such as Foundation Center and individual private funders.
Remember that this content must demonstrate that it addresses funder interests as well as the grantee perspective.
In 3–5 pages, provide your Methodology and Evaluation Plans.
In developing the methodology for your project, keep these thoughts in mind:
A project should undertake only activities that will move it toward the objectives.
If any activities are not necessary for reaching the objectives, do not include them in the proposal.
The methodology includes the day-to-day, week-to-week, and/or month-to-month activities that will be carried out during the project period.
The Methodology includes:
Program description
Research design
Human subjects (sample)
Study validity and reliability
Assumpti ...
Chapter 1 Evaluation and Social Work Making the ConnectionP.docxzebadiahsummers
Chapter 1 Evaluation and Social Work: Making the Connection
Page 4
Let’s begin by considering three important questions: 1. Is evaluation an important area of social work? 2. Is the evaluator role an important one for social workers? 3. How can evaluations help improve or enhance social work interventions? These questions may be your questions as you begin to read this book. They are questions that many social work students and practitioners have pondered. This book is about evaluation so the responses to the first two questions, in brief, will be no surprise to you. Yes, evaluation is an important area of social work. Further, the evaluator role is an important role for every social worker to prepare to assume. Some social workers will be evaluators of programs, and virtually every social worker will be an evaluator of their own practice. It’s like asking whether social workers need to know whether they are doing a good job, or asking them if they know whether their interventions are effective in helping their clients. The third question, asking how evaluation can help improve social work interventions, is the focus of this text.
The underlying theme driving the book is that evaluation is a vital element of any social work approach and is critical for ensuring that social work actually does work! A reassuring theme is that evaluation is a practice area that BSW and MSW students and practitioners alike can learn. Social workers and students wanting to maximize their impact in their jobs will find that the perspective, knowledge, ethics, and skills of evaluations covered in this book are a central component of practice and ensure that you will have a much greater impact on your clients’ well-being. This book provides the needed preparation for evaluation in both a comprehensive and a readable format. The primary emphasis is on the various kinds of small and mid-range formative evaluations that are often implemented at the local agency level; less emphasis is placed on the large, com-plex national and regional studies that may draw the most coverage under the title evaluation. These smaller formative evaluations are also the critical ones that social work students and graduates either are assigned or should consider taking on in their field placements and employment agencies. Such
Page 5
evaluations often are instrumental in determining whether the programs in which you are working will continue and possibly expand. Example of a Small, Formative Evaluation An agency that provides an anger management program to perpetrators of domestic violence offers a series of ten psychoeducational group sessions to help them manage their anger. The agency also conducts an evaluation of this program that is integral to it. An anger management scale is used to measure changes that occur in the participants’ anger after they have completed all ten sessions of a group program. Throughout the series, the specific items of the anger management scale (e.g., be.
A Multidisciplinary Analysis of Research and Performance Synthesis Utilized i...ROBELYN GARCIA PhD
Review of Literature - When planning an evaluation, there are several steps an evaluator must take. The philosophical roots of a qualitative research analysis lead to a highly subjective outcome reflective of the evaluator’s philosophical underpinnings. The conclusions drawn from qualitative research will only be as strong as the quality of the evaluation of the researcher.
1. Report contentThe report should demonstrate your understa.docxblondellchancy
1. Report content
The report should demonstrate your understanding of good project management and health and safety management as appropriate within the context of your chosen project and event.
The report will present the context/background of the chosen project, describe the project, and present student’s critical reflection and thoughts on the management of one particular event/issue of project. The impacts of the event/issue on (1) people, (2) cost, (3) time, (4) health and safety, (5) sustainability, and (6) Ethics will be explored. Using the theory and tools presented in the lectures across the module as well as their own independent research, students should suggest and discuss solutions to (1) overcome the challenges and manage the risks associated with the event/issue, and (2) improve the efficiency, sustainability and ethics of the management of the event/issue.
Appendices and references must be used to demonstrate study that has been undertaken and to provide sources for points made in the body of the report. This will include copies of any individual or group student work undertaken during the module.
The student should refer to the learning materials and readings provided across the module, but are also recommended to give appropriate regard to any additional useful material available online in terms of theory and practice.
.
1. Research the assessment process for ELL students in your state. W.docxblondellchancy
1. Research the assessment process for ELL students in your state. What is the process your district goes through to properly identify students for ESL program placement?
2. Planning for effective instruction is the key to academic success for students. Using data to inform instruction is a regular process. Discuss how teachers can use longitudinal data along with other formative classroom assessments to design effective instruction.
200-300
.
More Related Content
Similar to 490The Future of EvaluationOrienting Questions1. H.docx
SOCW 6311 WK 1 responses Respond to at least two colleagues .docxsamuel699872
SOCW 6311 WK 1 responses
Respond to at least two colleagues
(You have to compare my post to 2 SEPARATE peer posts and respond to their posts and ask a question I have provided all three)
by noting the similarities and differences in the factors that would support or impede your colleague’s implementation of evidence-based practice as noted in his or her post to those that would impact your implementation of evidence-based practice as noted in your original post. Offer a solution for addressing one of the factors that would impede your colleague’s implementation of evidence-based practice.
IT does not have to be long but has to in text citation and full references
MY POST
SummerLove Holcomb
RE: Discussion - Week 1
Top of Form
The Characteristics of the evidence-based practice (EBP)
The evidence-based program is defined as the programs that are effective and this is based on the rigorous assessment. One of the key features of EBP is that they have been assessed thoroughly in an experimental or quasi-experimental study. The evaluation of the EBP has been subjected to critical peer review and this implies that a conclusion has been reached by the evaluation experts. The EBP requires the ability to differentiate between the unverified opinions concerning the psychosocial interventions and the facts about their effectiveness. It is involving the process of inquiry that is provided to the practitioners and described for the physicians. This is important in integrating the best evidence, clinical expertise, and patient values as well as the situations that are linked to the management of the patient, management of the practice, and health policy decision-making processes (Small & O'Connor, 2007).
The assessment of the factors that are supporting or impeding the adoption of the evidence-based practice
Several factors are associated with the failure to the successful adoption of EBP. The implementation of EBP for example in healthcare facilities requires the dedication of time. Therefore, lack of adequate time for the training and implementation of the EBP makes it hard to adopt it within the facility. The adoption of evidence-based practice also requires adequate resources. This, therefore, implies that there must be adequate resources to facilitate the effective implementation and the adoption of the EBP. This, therefore, implies that smaller organizations with unstable capital income might not adopt the EBP. Another barrier is the inability to understand the statistical terms or the jargons used in the EBP. This leads to barriers in understanding thus making it hard to implement the EBP (Duncombe, 2018). Therefore, the factors that might support the implementation of the EBP are the availability of resources and adequate time.
References
Duncombe, D. C. (2018). A multi‐institutional study of the perceived barriers and facilitators to implementing evidence‐based practice. Journal of Clinical Nursing,.
1
Stakeholder Involvement In Evaluation Planning
Student Name
Institution Name
Course Number
Due Date
Faculty Name
Topic: Stakeholder Involvement In evaluation Planning
Stakeholders are the people that are at stake on the evaluation. They are individuals that have interest in or are impacted by evaluation and its results. I would consider involving stakeholders in health program planning. Stakeholders have the ability to provide ideas and aidin the creation of potential solutions (Ferreira,et al., 2020). In most cases stakeholders are from various backgrounds; they therefore look at issues from various perspectives.this allows opposing viewpoints to be expressed and also discussed. Engaging stakeholders from the planning stage, maximizes the chance of project success through the final execution. They may as well aid in preventing unforeseen problems (Michnej, & Zwolinski, 2018). They have a great influence on the community of animal lovers, thus it is imperative to have an advocate instead of an adversary.
I would consider facilitating stakeholder’s involvement through maintaining open communication. The stakeholders need to be updated on the organization’s core purpose. It is essential to be consistent in the messages, and use them to show employees how they fit in the plan as well as how their contributions have aided in shaping the decisions made (Smith, 2017). Individuals that know what is expected as well as how they contribute tend to be more engaged and committed in comparison to those that do not. It is essential to ensure that the stakeholders know where they fit in. engaging employees in the planning process aids in building ownership in the firm.
References
Ferreira, V., Barreira, A. P., Loures, L., Antunes, D., & Panagopoulos, T. (2020). Stakeholders’ engagement on nature-based solutions: A systematic literature review. Sustainability, 12(2), 640.
Michnej, M., & Zwoliński, T. (2018). The role and responsibility of stakeholders in the planning process of the sustainable urban mobility in the city Krakow. Transport Economics and Logistics, 80, 159-167.
Smith, P. A. (2017). Stakeholder engagement framework. Information & Security, 38, 35-45.
TOPIC: Strategies and Ethics
As the director of the local public health department, you are preparing to conduct a town hall presentation. In it you will communicate the direction of the strategic plan. Your audience will include collaborative partners (invested stakeholders) such as academicians, health professionals, state health department staff, representatives from affected communities, and representatives from nongovernmental organizations.
Recall that your Stakeholder Involvement in Evaluation Planning discussion in Unit 5 reviewed the planning and evaluation cycle (Figure 11-1 in your textbook). In addition, in that discussion you explained where in the cycle and how you would seek stakeholder involvement in evaluation planning. The town hall presentation is on ...
SOCW 6311 WK 6 responses Respond to at least two colleagues .docxsamuel699872
SOCW 6311 WK 6 responses
Respond to at least two colleagues each one has to be answered separately name first then response
Bottom of Form
Respond
to
at least two
colleagues by doing all of the following:
Identify the stage or stages of the program to which your colleague’s selected question relates.
Suggest an additional question or concern that stakeholders may have about program evaluation.
Recommend an alternative model for the evaluation.
Instructor wants lay out like this:
Respond to at least two colleagues ( 2 peers posts are provided) by doing all of the following:
Identify strengths of your colleagues’ analyses and areas in which the analyses could be improved.
Your response
Address his or her evaluation of the efficacy and applicability of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
[Evaluate] his or her identification of factors that could support or hinder the implementation of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
And [evaluate] his or her solution for mitigating those factors.
Your response
Offer additional insight to your colleagues by either identifying additional factors that may support or limit implementation of the evidence-based practice or an alternative solution for mitigating one of the limitations that your colleagues identified.
Your response
References
Your response
PEER 1
Elektra Smith
Top of Form
Post a brief summary of the program that you selected. Recommend a program evaluation model that would answer a question relevant to the program.
I chose a victim advocate program that provides crisis intervention for sexual assault victims. “The Victim Advocate provides emotional support to primary victims and secondary victims during the examination at the hospital or during an interview with the police. Applicant must be able to respond to victim/family in a non-judgmental and unbiased manner. The requirement is to work a minimum 2 shifts per month (
https://visitthecenter.org/volunteer
, 2018).” I chose the program monitoring to answer the question about clients being satisfied with this service program.
Explain the potential benefits of the program evaluation that you proposed (both process and outcome).
The process benefits of monitoring the program helps with determining the strengths and weaknesses of the service program that is being implemented. It helps to discover ways to improve program services for the most effective outcomes. Additionally, monitoring the program presents accountability to ensure effectiveness and integrity of the program. “Program monitoring typically uses many different types of data-collection strategies, such as questionnaires given out to clients or staff members, individual and group interviewing of staff and clients, observations of pro-grams and specific interactions between staff members and clients, reviews of existing documents such as client files and personnel documents, and consulting experts (Dudley, 2014) (p.73).”
Identify 2–3 concern.
The implementation 'black box' and evaluation as a driver for change. Presentation by Katie Burke and Claire Hickey of the Centre for Effective Services.
My project idea is developing a grant that will assist with disruptiAlyciaGold776
My project idea is developing a grant that will assist with disruptive/unruly high school students. Once this proposal is developed and funded it will assist schools and their teachers with methods that will allow them to be more in control of their classrooms which will ultimately promote effectiveness and a higher graduation rate. Better classroom management techniques will be more appealing to stakeholders and other organizations because it will make education in the public school system more marketable when compared to private schools.
Assignment 2: Final Project: Writing the Grant Part 2: Methodology and Evaluation Plans
The methodology section is one of the core components of the grant. This section is concerned with addressing the question: “How will you carry out the project?” (Gitlin & Lyons, 2014, p. 92). For example, if your proposal is for a nonprofit-related project, you might identify the population served or indicate who will receive services. Depending on the grant type, you may also include the research sample and associated inclusion criteria. A research proposal may also include the research design strategy, assumptions, validity, reliability, statistical analysis, timeline, and evaluation plans. Finally, in this section you may address human resources requirements and materials or supplies needed to complete the project.
In recent years, evaluation plans have become increasingly important to prospective funders. Competition for grants is intense, and funders must feel confident that money will be well spent and that projects can be appropriately evaluated. This is an important consideration for the grant seeker as well. Your organization will also want to be assured that the time and effort put into a project proves that the objectives are met and if not, why.
For this Assignment:
Review the Final Project Guidelines provided in this module’s Learning Resources.
Carefully review your Gitlin & Lyons text, the University of Wisconsin-Extension resource, and the Community Tool Box resource as well as other Learning Resources that focus on methodology and evaluation. You may also find additional online information from reputable grant-related organizations, such as Foundation Center and individual private funders.
Remember that this content must demonstrate that it addresses funder interests as well as the grantee perspective.
In 3–5 pages, provide your Methodology and Evaluation Plans.
In developing the methodology for your project, keep these thoughts in mind:
A project should undertake only activities that will move it toward the objectives.
If any activities are not necessary for reaching the objectives, do not include them in the proposal.
The methodology includes the day-to-day, week-to-week, and/or month-to-month activities that will be carried out during the project period.
The Methodology includes:
Program description
Research design
Human subjects (sample)
Study validity and reliability
Assumpti ...
Chapter 1 Evaluation and Social Work Making the ConnectionP.docxzebadiahsummers
Chapter 1 Evaluation and Social Work: Making the Connection
Page 4
Let’s begin by considering three important questions: 1. Is evaluation an important area of social work? 2. Is the evaluator role an important one for social workers? 3. How can evaluations help improve or enhance social work interventions? These questions may be your questions as you begin to read this book. They are questions that many social work students and practitioners have pondered. This book is about evaluation so the responses to the first two questions, in brief, will be no surprise to you. Yes, evaluation is an important area of social work. Further, the evaluator role is an important role for every social worker to prepare to assume. Some social workers will be evaluators of programs, and virtually every social worker will be an evaluator of their own practice. It’s like asking whether social workers need to know whether they are doing a good job, or asking them if they know whether their interventions are effective in helping their clients. The third question, asking how evaluation can help improve social work interventions, is the focus of this text.
The underlying theme driving the book is that evaluation is a vital element of any social work approach and is critical for ensuring that social work actually does work! A reassuring theme is that evaluation is a practice area that BSW and MSW students and practitioners alike can learn. Social workers and students wanting to maximize their impact in their jobs will find that the perspective, knowledge, ethics, and skills of evaluations covered in this book are a central component of practice and ensure that you will have a much greater impact on your clients’ well-being. This book provides the needed preparation for evaluation in both a comprehensive and a readable format. The primary emphasis is on the various kinds of small and mid-range formative evaluations that are often implemented at the local agency level; less emphasis is placed on the large, com-plex national and regional studies that may draw the most coverage under the title evaluation. These smaller formative evaluations are also the critical ones that social work students and graduates either are assigned or should consider taking on in their field placements and employment agencies. Such
Page 5
evaluations often are instrumental in determining whether the programs in which you are working will continue and possibly expand. Example of a Small, Formative Evaluation An agency that provides an anger management program to perpetrators of domestic violence offers a series of ten psychoeducational group sessions to help them manage their anger. The agency also conducts an evaluation of this program that is integral to it. An anger management scale is used to measure changes that occur in the participants’ anger after they have completed all ten sessions of a group program. Throughout the series, the specific items of the anger management scale (e.g., be.
A Multidisciplinary Analysis of Research and Performance Synthesis Utilized i...ROBELYN GARCIA PhD
Review of Literature - When planning an evaluation, there are several steps an evaluator must take. The philosophical roots of a qualitative research analysis lead to a highly subjective outcome reflective of the evaluator’s philosophical underpinnings. The conclusions drawn from qualitative research will only be as strong as the quality of the evaluation of the researcher.
Similar to 490The Future of EvaluationOrienting Questions1. H.docx (20)
1. Report contentThe report should demonstrate your understa.docxblondellchancy
1. Report content
The report should demonstrate your understanding of good project management and health and safety management as appropriate within the context of your chosen project and event.
The report will present the context/background of the chosen project, describe the project, and present student’s critical reflection and thoughts on the management of one particular event/issue of project. The impacts of the event/issue on (1) people, (2) cost, (3) time, (4) health and safety, (5) sustainability, and (6) Ethics will be explored. Using the theory and tools presented in the lectures across the module as well as their own independent research, students should suggest and discuss solutions to (1) overcome the challenges and manage the risks associated with the event/issue, and (2) improve the efficiency, sustainability and ethics of the management of the event/issue.
Appendices and references must be used to demonstrate study that has been undertaken and to provide sources for points made in the body of the report. This will include copies of any individual or group student work undertaken during the module.
The student should refer to the learning materials and readings provided across the module, but are also recommended to give appropriate regard to any additional useful material available online in terms of theory and practice.
.
1. Research the assessment process for ELL students in your state. W.docxblondellchancy
1. Research the assessment process for ELL students in your state. What is the process your district goes through to properly identify students for ESL program placement?
2. Planning for effective instruction is the key to academic success for students. Using data to inform instruction is a regular process. Discuss how teachers can use longitudinal data along with other formative classroom assessments to design effective instruction.
200-300
.
1. Review the three articles about Inflation that are of any choice..docxblondellchancy
1. Review the three articles about Inflation that are of any choice.
2. Locate two JOURNAL articles which discuss this topic further. You need to focus on the Abstract, Introduction, Results, and Conclusion. For our purposes, you are not expected to fully understand the Data and Methodology.
3. Summarize these journal articles. Please use your own words. No copy-and-paste. Cite your sources. in 1200 words
.
1. Read the RiskReport to see what requirements are.2. Read the .docxblondellchancy
1. Read the RiskReport to see what requirements are.
2. Read the Interim Risk Assessment to see the current state of paper that needs to be revised.
3. Use the RiskReport and the details below on what is missing to revise paper.
Feedback on changes needed to the Risk Assessment Plan
Risk Assessment Plan: Purpose does not make reference to BRI at all. Provide context. Scope, assumptions and constraints appear reasonable, but you can add an assumption or constraint regarding budget.
Need to elaborate on how risk is determine using the qualitative approach.
1. Title
IT Security Risk Assessment
2. Introduction
You are employed with Government Security Consultants, a subsidiary of Largo Corporation. As a member of IT security consultant team, one of your responsibilities is to ensure the security of assets as well as provide a secure environment for customers, partners and employees. You and the team play a key role in defining, implementing and maintaining the IT security strategy in organizations.
A government agency called the Bureau of Research and Intelligence (BRI) is tasked with gathering and analyzing information to support U.S. diplomats.
In a series of New York Times articles, BRI was exposed as being the victim of several security breaches. As a follow up, the United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) conducted a comprehensive review of the agency’s information security controls and identified numerous issues.
The head of the agency has contracted your company to conduct an IT security risk assessment on its operations. This risk assessment was determined to be necessary to address security gaps in the agency’s critical operational areas and to determine actions to close those gaps. It is also meant to ensure that the agency invests time and money in the right areas and does not waste resources. After conducting the assessment, you are to develop a final report that summarizes the findings and provides a set of recommendations. You are to convince the agency to implement your recommendations.
This learning activity focuses on IT security which is an overarching concern that involves practically all facets of an organization’s activities. You will learn about the key steps of preparing for and conducting a security risk assessment and how to present the findings to leaders and convince them into taking appropriate action.
Understanding security capabilities is basic to the core knowledge, skills, and abilities that IT personnel are expected to possess. Information security is a significant concern among every organization and it may spell success or failure of its mission. Effective IT professionals are expected to be up-to-date on trends in IT security, current threats and vulnerabilities, state-of-the-art security safeguards, and security policies and procedures. IT professionals must be able to communicate effectively (oral and written) to executive level management in a non-jargon, executive .
1. Quantitative According to the scoring criteria for the BAI, .docxblondellchancy
1. Quantitative: According to the scoring criteria for the BAI, a score of 21 or below indicates very low anxiety. What percentage of each group’s scores falls below that clinical cutoff?
Qualitative: Based on the qualitative responses, what percentage of the participants articulated a feeling of improvement?
.
1. Prof. Lennart Van der Zeil’s theorem says that any programmin.docxblondellchancy
1. Prof. Lennart Van der Zeil’s theorem says that any programming language is
complete
if it can be used to write a program to compute any computable number.
a. What is a computable number?
b. What is a non-computable number?
c. If all existing programming languages are complete why do we need more than one?
2. Two methodologies are used to transform programs written in a
source language
(also known as a
programmer-oriented language
, or a horizontal language, or a high-level language) into a
target language
(also known as a machine language, or a vertical language, or a low-level language). There is a static method called
translation
and a dynamic method called
interpretation
. Yet FORTRAN while 98% static ., uses interpretation for the Formatted I/O statement, similarly COBOL uses interpretation for the MOVE and MOVE CORRESPONDING statements; on the other hand, Java is fully interpretative except that in some programs and certain data sets it may invoke a JIT (Just In Time) compiler to execute a bit of static code
. Why do language designers mix these modalities if either is complete?
Hint: This is a long question with a short answer.
3. C and C++ store numerical arrays (matrices) in
row major
order and each index range must begin with 0; whereas FORTRAN stores arrays in
column major
order and the (default) index range starts (almost always) with 1. Engineers and scientists are often faced with the problem of converting a working program, or much more often a subroutine, from one language to another. Unfortunately, due to the index range difference (0 to n-1) in C/C++ and (1 to N) in FORTRAN, viewing one array as simply the transpose of the other will not suffice. What steps would you take to convert such a subroutine to compute the product of two matrices A(N,M) and B(M,N) to produce C(N,N) from FORTRAN to C++?
4. What was the major reason Jim Gosling invented Java? Did he succeed?
5. What are the four major features of C++ that were eliminated in Java? Why were they taken out? Why do we not miss them?
6. What was Kim Polese’ role at SUN Microsystems and why did she think Java should be positioned as a general purpose computer programming language? How did she accomplish this truly incredible feat, not done since Captain (later Admiral) Grace Murray Hopper, USN standardized COBOL in the early 1960s.
7. Describe briefly the role of women in the development of computer programming and computer programming languages. (Ada Lovelace, Betty Holberton, Grace Hopper, Mandaly Grems, Kim Polese, Laura Lemay)
8. What are the pros and cons of overloaded operators in C++? Java has only one, what is it?
9. State your own arguments for allowing mixed mode arithmetic statements. (See Ch 7)
10. What is BNF and why are meta-languages like BNF and EBNF used?
.
1. Review the results of your assessment using the explanation.docxblondellchancy
1. Review the results of your assessment using the explanation below.
2. Write at least 200 words describing the results, how you learn best, and how you will modify your study techniques to fit your learning style.
What do the results mean? Barbara Soloman, Coordinator of Advising, First Year College, North Carolina State University explains:
· Active Learners: tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it like discussing or explaining it to others. They enjoy group work.
· Reflective Learners: prefer to think about it quietly first. They prefer to work alone.
· Sensing Learners: tend to like learning facts. They are patient with details and good at memorizing things. They are practical and careful.
· Intuitive Learners: prefer discovering possibilities and relationships. They are good at grasping new concepts and are comfortable with abstractions and mathematical formulations. They are innovative and creative.
· Visual Learners: remember best what they see--pictures, diagrams, flowcharts, timelines, films, and demonstrations.
· Verbal Learners: get more out of words--written and spoken explanations. Everyone learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally.
· Sequential Learners: tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from the previous one. They follow logical steps when finding solutions.
· Global Learners: Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly "getting it." They may be able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped the big picture, but they may have difficulty explaining how they did it.
.
1. Search the internet and learn about the cases of nurses Julie.docxblondellchancy
1. Search the internet and learn about the cases of nurses Julie Thao and Kimberly Hiatt.
2. List and discuss lessons that you and all healthcare professionals can learn from these two cases.
3. Describe how the principle of beneficence and the virtue of benevolence could be applied to these cases. Do you think the hospital administrators handled the situations legally and ethically?
4. In addition to benevolence, which other virtues exhibited by their colleagues might have helped Thao and Hiatt?
5. Discuss personal virtues that might be helpful to second victims themselves to navigate the grieving process.
All discussion boards should be submitted in APA style (7th edition
.
1. Qualitative or quantitative paperresearch required(Use stati.docxblondellchancy
1. Qualitative or quantitative paper/research required(Use statistics and numbers or facts.
2. Apply Statistics, numbers, research
3. Primary Sources explained
4. APA Formatting(Do not use the word “I”, do not use opinions in papers do not use “we”or pronouns)
5. Write a 5 page paper (8 in total-cover page and reference page), you can go over
APA FORMAT
5 scholarly sources
.
1. Prepare a one page paper on associative analysis. You may researc.docxblondellchancy
1. Prepare a one page paper on associative analysis. You may research the internet for more information. Please double space your paper and cite your sources.
2.
Prepare a one page paper on decision trees or discriminant analysis. You may compare the two. You may research the Internet for more information.
Please double space your paper and cite your sources.
APA format.
.
1. Prepare a comparative table in which you contrast the charact.docxblondellchancy
1. Prepare a comparative table in which you contrast the characteristics and details of the origins and development of social work in the United States, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean. Bring your comparison chart to the workshop to participate in a collaborative activity. The student will identify the most significant historical events in the United States that influenced the development and evolution of the Social Work profession.
2. Look for information on the following agencies:
1. National Association of Social Workers (NASW)
2. International Federation of Social Work (IFSW)
3. Association of Social Work Boards (ASWB)
4. Council on Social Work Education (CSWE)
Be prepared to participate in a collaborative activity during the workshop.
3. Write a reflective essay of at least two pages, and elaborate on the following aspects:
1. What is the current state of Social Work in the United States?
2. What do you focus on and what are the functions of current (modern) social work in the United States?
3. Explain the historical events that impacted the different ways of practicing social work.
Remember that an essay is made up of three basic parts: introduction, body or middle, and conclusion. In a reflective essay, the student must effectively combine the concepts and foundations of the discipline of study (definitions, history, prominent figures) with their experiences applicable to the topic of discussion or the guiding questions.
.
1. Portfolio part II a) APRN protocol also known as collab.docxblondellchancy
1.
Portfolio part II
a) APRN protocol also known as collaborative agreement with supervising physician(s).
b.) business proposal (refer to portfolio explanation/examples found on your BB lecture section.
There is an example of a business proposal. Use the example to create a brief business proposal with no more than two pages word or power point as your choice;
c.) Create a LinkedIn page and send me a proof of you creating the link.
.
1. Post the link to one news article, preferably a piece of rece.docxblondellchancy
1. Post the link to
one
news article, preferably a piece of recent news (2 points)
2. Explain
A) Which concepts (in which chapters) we learn in class is this news related to (4 points).
B) Specifically, how this concept is demonstrated in the news in your perspective (11 points).
.
1. Please explain fixed and flexible budgeting. Provide an examp.docxblondellchancy
1. Please explain fixed and flexible budgeting. Provide an example of budgeting for three
consecutive periods in which safety margin is included for flexibility
2. Explain statement of cash flows proforma and its significance in budgeting. Provide a
hypothetical example of a statement of cash flows in a manufacturing enterprise.
.
1. Open and print the Week 6 Assignment.2. The assignment .docxblondellchancy
1. Open and print the "Week 6 Assignment".
2. The assignment has four parts: A, B, C, and D.
(Part A has been created for use of the Access program where the data source recipients are to be created. However, if you do not have the Access program then you will need to create the data source recipients with the Excel program before you begin keying the letters for the mail merge. Also, If you are using Excel then be certain to create the label headers in each column with the data source recipient information beneath the headers. Whether you use Access or Excel you MUST save the data source in the Week 6 folder in which you will upload.
If you do not save the data source recipients in the folder then I am not able to grade your assignment
.)
3. Create a folder: [your last name]-Week6 (be sure to save to a disk device/hard drive NOT the desktop area.)
5. Complete the assignment as instructed and Save all work in [your last name]-Week6 folder.
6. Zip the folder and upload in the Week 6 Assignment Upload. DO NOT ATTACH THE FOLDER TO EMAIL, IT WILL NOT BE ACCEPTED. I will review the assignment and send you comments about the graded work.
.
1. Plato’s Republic takes as its point of departure the question of .docxblondellchancy
1. Plato’s Republic takes as its point of departure the question of the nature of:
A. JusticeB. ImmortalityC. TimeD. Equality
2. The most accurate way to describe Thrasymachus’ intervention onto the scene in Book I is:
A. He maintains that happiness is unattainable.B. He maintains that only the gods are just. C. He maintains that justice is the advantage of the strong.D. He maintains that justice and injustice are figments of the imagination.
3. In Book I, Thrasymachus’ ironic argument ad hominem is :
A. Socrates needs a wet-nurse.B. Socrates is ugly.C. Socrates should put himself to bed.D. Socrates should not have gone to last night’s banquet.
4. In Book II, Glaucon tells the myth of a ring, the point of which is to illustrate:
A. That we prize material goods above all else.B. That the rich decide what is just and unjust.C. That anyone will commit injustice when they can get away without punishment.D. That myth-telling is essential to philosophy.
5. In Book III, Socrates suggests the city adopt a noble lie, according to which:
A. There are three sorts of beings: humans, angels, and demons.B. Into our natures were mixed one of three metals: gold, silver, or bronze. C. Everyone will live virtuously in a just city.D. The just city lasts forever.
.
1. Objective Learn why and how to develop a plan that encompasses a.docxblondellchancy
1. Objective: Learn why and how to develop a plan that encompasses all components of a security system.
Use the information found at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs98/safetech/chapter5.asp
to research how determining possible physical threats may affect the choice of physical security countermeasures while planning new or updated security systems.
2. Objective: Determine the placement of physical barriers in integration with other components of the security system.
Research the different types of physical barriers and how they fit the needs of different types of facilities. Use the information found at
http://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/phys_sec/deter/index.htm.
APA Format , references & citations.
.
1. Open the attached Excel Assignment.xlsx” file and name it LastN.docxblondellchancy
1. Open the attached “Excel Assignment.xlsx” file and name it “LastName_FirstInitial - Excel Assignment.xlsx”. 2. Set the page orientation to landscape. Change the student name(s) to your name(s). 3. Wrap the text in the column headings A4:J4 and A14:H14 in Sheet 1 and set the column width to (approximately) 10 for columns B to J. 4. Calculate the Gross Pay (F5:F9) using the following formula: Pay Rate times Regular Hours plus 1.5 times Pay Rate times O/T Hours. 5. Display the Taxable Benefits (G5:I9) in the following way: apply a formula/function to allocate and return the appropriate weekly amount of Dental, Insurance, and Medical based on his/her Benefits Level and the corresponding taxable benefit to this code in Sheet 2. The assumptions, the taxable benefit rates, and the tax rates (all in Sheet 2) may be subject to changes, so all formulas should be created in a way so that they would reflect any changes in Sheet 2 automatically. 6. Calculate the Taxable Income (Gross Pay plus Taxable Benefits). 7. Use the Taxable Income (J5:J9) to automatically locate the Federal and Provincial Tax withholdings from the Tax Table on Sheet 2. For example: Federal Tax = Taxable Income * Federal Tax %. 8. Calculate the Employ. Insurance and Govt. Pension contributions based on the Gross Pay (Note: Gross Pay not Taxable Income). The contribution percentages are located in the Assumption area in Sheet 2. Calculate the Total Deductions as a sum of all deductions (Federal Tax, Provincial Tax, Employ. Insurance, and Govt. Pension). 9. Calculate the Net Amount by subtracting the Total Deductions from the Gross Pay. 10. Calculate the totals in B20:G20 11. Insert cheque number 121 in H15 and create a formula that will automatically number all the rest of cheques in sequence. 12. Format the title as Arial 16 pt., bold, italic and merge and centre it across columns A:J. 13. Format all dollar values as: number, 2 decimal places, 1,000 separators and no dollar sign. 14. Centre the contents of the Benefits Level (B5:B9) and the Cheque No. (H15:H19) columns. 15. Format the borders and headings as shown in the example below.
.
1. must be a research article from either pubmed or google scholar..docxblondellchancy
1. must be a research article from either pubmed or google scholar.
2. the article you select must have an abstract, introduction/ background, materials &methods, results, conclusion
3. summarize the article you selected
4. no plagiarism
5. must include reference
.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
490The Future of EvaluationOrienting Questions1. H.docx
1. 490
The Future of Evaluation
Orienting Questions
1. How are future program evaluations likely to be different
from current evaluations in
• the way in which political considerations are handled?
• the approaches that will be used?
• the involvement of stakeholders?
• who conducts them?
2. How is evaluation like some other activities in organizations?
3. How is evaluation viewed differently in other countries?
We have reached the last chapter of this book, but we have only
begun to share
what is known about program evaluation. The references we
have made to other
writings reflect only a fraction of the existing literature in this
growing field. In
choosing to focus attention on (1) alternative approaches to
program evaluation,
and (2) practical guidelines for planning, conducting, reporting,
and using evalu-
ation studies, we have tried to emphasize what we believe is
most important to
include in any single volume that aspires to give a broad
overview of such a complex
and multifaceted field. We hope we have selected well, but we
2. encourage students
and evaluation practitioners to go beyond this text to explore
the richness and
depth of other evaluation literature. In this final chapter, we
share our perceptions
and those of a few of our colleagues about evaluation’s future.
The Future of Evaluation
Hindsight is inevitably better than foresight, and ours is no
exception. Yet present
circumstances permit us to hazard a few predictions that we
believe will hold true
for program evaluation in the next few decades. History will
determine whether
18
Chapter 18 • The Future of Evaluation 491
Predictions Concerning the Profession
of Evaluation
1. Evaluation will become an increasingly useful force in our
society. As
noted, evaluation will have increasing impacts on programs, on
organizations, and
on society. Many of the movements we have discussed in this
text—performance
monitoring, organizational learning, and others—illustrate the
increasing interest
in and impact of evaluation in different sectors. Evaluative
means of thinking will
improve ways of planning and delivering programs and policies
3. to achieve their
intended effects and, more broadly, improve society.
2. Evaluation will increase in the United States and in other
developed
countries as the pressure for accountability weighs heavily on
governments and
nonprofit organizations that deliver vital services. The emphasis
on accountability
and data-based decision making has increased dramatically in
the first decade of
the twenty-first century. Also, virtually every trend points to
more, not less, eval-
uation in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors in the future.
In some organi-
zations, the focus is on documenting outcomes in response to
external political
pressures. In other organizations, evaluation is being used for
organizational
growth and development, which should, ultimately, improve the
achievement of
those outcomes. In each context, however, evaluation is in
demand.
or not our predictions are accurate enough to add prophecy to
the repertoire of
techniques useful to evaluators.
We believe that evaluation will continue to spread rapidly
around the globe,
until there are few countries, territories, provinces, states, and
locales in which pro-
gram evaluations are not at least an occasional occurrence. As
we have noted, the
spreading interest in program evaluation has been evident for
some years in the
4. development of evaluation associations and activities around the
world. We also be-
lieve that evaluation will become an increasingly useful force in
the following ways:
• Improving programs, thus improving the lot of those intended
to benefit
from those programs
• Improving policy making by governing boards, legislators, and
congressional
and parliamentary bodies
• Improving organizational learning and decision making
• Improving societies through improving the social conditions
programs address
• Improving even itself
If these predictions seem overly optimistic, it may underscore
our earlier point
that evaluators may not always be completely unbiased. Yet
these forecasts do not
strike us as unrealistic or overdrawn; we are willing to submit
them to the test of time.
Now let us move to more specific predictions concerning the
profession of
evaluation and its practice (Worthen, 2001).
492 Part IV • Practical Guidelines for Conducting and Using
Evaluations
3. Evaluation will continue to spread rapidly around the globe
until there
5. are few countries where program evaluations are not at least an
occasional occur-
rence. In addition, the number of national and multinational
professional societies
for evaluation will burgeon.
4. The opportunity for careers in evaluation will continue to
increase as
the demand for evaluation skills grow. As LaVelle and
Donaldson write in 2010,
“Evaluation practice has grown in leaps and bounds in recent
years” (2010, p. 9). The
growth in evaluation in the United States is demonstrated by the
dramatic growth in
membership of the American Evaluation Association in the last
decade (Mark, 2007).
5. Graduate programs in evaluation will increase with the
growing
demand. Lavelle and Donaldson (2010) found that the number
of graduate train-
ing programs in evaluation increased to 48 in 2008, a dramatic
increase since 2006
when there were only 27 such programs following several years
of decline. In-
creases were particularly notable in schools of education, but
programs were also
found in public policy, psychology, criminal justice, and
sociology. More than half
of the 48 programs, however, were small ones, offering only
two to three
evaluation-specific courses. As the profession grows, and the
market demands
more professionals trained specifically in evaluation, we hope
the incidence and
depth of such programs grow as well. A world with growing
6. evaluation demands
requires evaluations that are conducted by people trained in the
many options that
evaluators can pursue.
6. Many of those conducting evaluations will need more specific
evalua-
tion training. Graduate programs cannot keep up with the
demand. Further, since
evaluation is a relatively new profession, many are not aware of
the profession and
the specific approaches and methodologies professional
evaluators use. Many of
those conducting evaluations within organizations, and as
external consultants,
continue to be trained in social science methodologies, or in
organizational man-
agement, but have not received in-depth evaluation training. As
educators, public
and nonprofit administrators, corporate officers, and those in a
variety of other roles
are asked to assume some responsibility for carrying out
evaluation studies along
with their other professional duties, the need for in-service
education in evaluation
will grow (Datta, 2006).
7. Internal evaluation will, despite its risks, become more
important
because of its benefits. Internal evaluators know the
organizational environment.
They can provide an important ongoing influence to encourage
organizational
learning and to use evaluation skills across the organization in
many different en-
deavors, from using new information technology to human
7. resource management
and traditional evaluation of programs. We predict there will be
increased coopera-
tion between internal and external evaluators in many
evaluations.
8. Professional associations will continue to grow and to branch
into
new areas to expand the public presence of evaluation. In 2010,
membership
in the American Evaluation Association (AEA) should reach
6,000 (Kistler, 2010).
Chapter 18 • The Future of Evaluation 493
The AEA and other societies of practicing evaluators and/or
evaluation theoreti-
cians will continue to contribute to evaluation’s maturation.
Like other profes-
sional associations, the AEA has begun taking public positions
on issues of
relevance to evaluation and has recently begun to direct its
attention to evaluation
policy and working to influence such policies. (See Trochim,
Mark, and Cooksy
[2009]) The Canadian Evaluation Society has developed a
program to recognize
professional evaluators through a credentialing process that
recognizes those who
apply and meet the criteria as Credentialed Evaluators. As in
other professions, this
process is intended to help clients and stakeholders to
distinguish professional
evaluators from those with less direct training or experience.
8. Through these efforts
and continuing education regarding evaluation practice and
standards, associa-
tions will work to educate stakeholders about the potential that
evaluation offers
and the risks entailed in using it inappropriately.
9. Evaluation literature will increase in both quantity and
quality, but
relatively little of it will be based on research into the process
of evaluation
itself. Current funding agencies do not seem interested in
supporting research con-
cerning the evaluation process. Governments are investing many
resources in
accountability, performance monitoring, and evaluation to
determine if programs
work and how they work. However, our approaches to these
subjects continue to
rely on reasoning and intuition rather than solid evidence about
how evaluators
can best work with stakeholders, what forms of participation
lead to what types of
impacts and use, and so forth. Therefore, the empirical
knowledge base in evaluation
will increase very slowly. As evaluation expands, there is a
critical need for more
research on what occurs, what works, and what doesn’t in
evaluation practice,
participation, and use.
Predictions Concerning the Practice of Evaluation
As the profession grows and expands, practice will change even
more dramatically.
9. 1. Approaches to evaluation will become more eclectic and
adaptive to
contextual circumstances. Program evaluation will continue to
be pluralistic,
but will move toward greater pragmatism as evaluators work to
provide valid
and appropriate findings and conclusions and to improve
programs, policies, and
decision making in many different settings. Single-method
evaluations will be
viewed by professional evaluators, if not by the public and some
elected officials, as
simplistic and inadequate for evaluation of complex programs or
those serving
diverse populations. Triangulation, cross-validation, and
iterative, expansive
designs will be used more routinely to allow the
complementarity of qualitative
and quantitative approaches to enrich evaluation work. The
usefulness of the
different approaches will lie less in having any one of them
serve as a model to be
followed slavishly but rather, as House (1994a) has suggested,
as collectively
494 Part IV • Practical Guidelines for Conducting and Using
Evaluations
comprising the “grammar of evaluation” that evaluators must
understand and be
skilled in using:
[One] might see the evaluation models as something like model
sentences in a gram-
10. mar of evaluation. . . . As one progresses, . . . one does not need
to think about the
models consciously, except to correct particular errors or study
the grammar itself.
Similarly, . . . experienced evaluators can construct evaluation
designs which
do not depend explicitly on particular models. Actual evaluation
designs can be
combinations of elements from different models, . . . just as
speakers can produce
novel grammatical sentences once they have learned the basic
grammar of a language.
(pp. 241–242)
2. Evaluation will be mainstreamed in organizations. Some of
its methods,
such as logic models and program theories, are already being
used by program
managers and staff to develop programs. As process learning
from evaluation and
organizational learning increase, evaluative ways of thinking in
organizations will
expand. Evaluation won’t always be called evaluation, but its
influence will be felt
through creating a culture of learning and using information and
data to make
decisions (Mark, 2007).
3. Evaluation will expand to evaluate programs in new arenas.
In the
United States and Canada, evaluators have come primarily from
education and psy-
chology and have evaluated programs in those areas. But, the
role of evaluation in
housing, social welfare, environmental programs, city planning,
11. transportation,
health, criminal justice, biotechnology, recreation, and
environmental programs
continues to expand. Working in these new areas will prompt
evaluators to expand
their repertoire of approaches and methods to adapt to these
new contexts, new po-
litical dynamics, and new issues to explore and investigate. In
Europe, evaluators
typically come from the disciplines of political science,
economics, and public
administration and, as a result, focus their efforts on different
types of programs using
somewhat different methods. Our growing awareness of these
differences makes us
realize that evaluators in each country can learn from practice
in other countries.
4. Evaluators will become more aware of and involved in the
work of
planners, policy analysts, and organizational developers.
Evaluation activities
overlap with the work of policy analysts, planners, and
organizational developers.
Evaluators have approaches and qualitative methods that could
contribute to the
work of policy analysts. They have economic and analytic
methods that could add
to the repertoire of evaluators. Similarly, city planners and
program planners collect
information in ways that are similar to an evaluator conducting
a needs assessment.
Evaluators’ skills in developing logic models and program
theory can help in pro-
gram planning. We predict that more communication will occur
across these fields,
12. with professionals sharing approaches and methods. As noted
previously, the work
they do may not be called evaluation, but evaluation
professionals will be bringing
their evaluative skills to the tasks.
5. Evaluation (and evaluators) will become more politically
sophisticated,
recognizing that our goal is to encourage policymakers and
program managers
to use evaluative information to make decisions and to educate
voters and the
Chapter 18 • The Future of Evaluation 495
public. As we move to more eclectic and adaptive evaluation
practices and avoid
our own infighting, we can be more successful in this venture.
Greene and Henry
advise us to recognize that we do not want evaluation’s disputes
to “become a license
for actions based entirely on ideology or the force of
unconstrained rhetoric. We
should unite in our commitment . . . to reclaim the conversation
about the contri-
butions of social science to social policies and programs”
(2005, p. 350). Ideology
and rhetoric are part of the political system, just as is public
opinion. Information,
conclusions, and judgments provided by evaluation studies
become one piece of
this mix of input that policymakers receive. For our activities to
rise to the fore,
evaluators must balance the perceived objectivity of their roles
13. against entering the
political fray to call attention to information that can improve
programs and policy.
Today, evaluation studies compete with information supplied by
partisan, overtly
political think tanks. Citizens, and some policymakers, may not
know the differ-
ence. Evaluators must be skilled at helping stakeholders
recognize the strengths of
our work.
6. Attention to ethical issues will increase as evaluators become
more in-
volved in political issues. The present evaluation Standards and
Guiding Principles—
and their descendants—provide a means for maintaining the
credibility of evaluation
and educating others about codes and ethics in an increasingly
politicized environ-
ment. Professional accountants have strengthened their ethical
codes and training of
practitioners in the face of public disillusionment concerning
the “independent” role
of accountants in reviewing the financial practices of
corporations (Fitzpatrick, 1999).
Evaluators can avoid the debacle that the Arthur Andersen
Accounting firm faced in
its auditing of Enron, and those that Standard and Poors and
other bond rating firms
endured as their high-rated bonds fell in the economic crisis of
2009, by strengthen-
ing the ethical education of current and future evaluators.
7. Electronic and other technological advances will alter the
way eval-
uators collect information, draw conclusions, and report
14. findings, en-
abling broader stakeholder participation and access to
evaluation reports
and their findings. Today, data are routinely collected through
Internet surveys
and interviews. Results can be shared and discussed online with
members of the
evaluation team and advisory councils to consider
interpretations. Databases can
be shared so members can explore the data for different
interpretations. Interim
and final reports are routinely posted on organizational web
sites with links to
videos and audio depicting the program or demonstrating
results. Readers are en-
couraged to post comments. Such uses, and others as yet
unanticipated, will in-
crease as technological capacity and literacy increase.
8. Efforts will increase to democratize evaluation as part of the
movement
in many countries for more citizen input. Across the United
States, deliberative
democracy methods are being used, where local citizens serve
with elected officials
and others to learn about policy issues and make
recommendations. Participatory
evaluation is part of that movement. We will continue to
democratize evaluation
by involving many different stakeholders and educating them on
evaluative ways
of thinking and purposes.
496 Part IV • Practical Guidelines for Conducting and Using
15. Evaluations
9. The performance measurement movement will grow in
response to per-
sistent demands for accountability. Performance measurement,
in some form or fash-
ion, is now mandated in most local, state, and federal
government agencies and in
nonprofit organizations led by initiatives from United Way and
the World Bank. Ex-
pectations from the public and from policymakers who
mandated performance mea-
surement are high. Yet most managers lack the expertise to
collect meaningful
measures of outcomes. Newcomer (2001) notes that professional
evaluators will play
an important role in making this process more than simply a
reporting exercise. Eval-
uators can help build program theory to link outcomes to
program activities and,
hence, make the outcome information useful for formative
purposes. Further, eval-
uators’ methodological expertise will be necessary to measure
outcomes.
Performance measurement, however, also presents potential
hazards for the
evaluation field. Just as states’ testing of students on
educational standards has
grossly simplified learning goals and focused educational
evaluation activities on
just this issue, so, too, can performance measurement simplify
and narrow evalu-
ation activities. Many policymakers and managers
underestimate the challenge of
measuring program outcomes and, because of the mandated
16. nature of perfor-
mance measurement, tend to see performance measurement as
all that evaluation
does. Evaluators need to be active in this area to bring their
expertise to bear.
A Vision for Evaluation
In addition to the predictions we have for the profession and
practice of evalua-
tion, we also have some visions, or goals, for it. These differ
from predictions in
that the evidence is not so clear as to whether these visions will
be realized.
Nevertheless, we would be remiss if we ended this book without
describing that
vision. It includes the following:
1. A global valuing of evaluation that cuts across boundaries of
professional
fields, job categories, sectors of society, geopolitical lines,
cultures—that is, formal
disciplined evaluation as a pervasive value. How will we bring
about this valuing?
By making others aware of evaluation and its importance. By
helping those who
are mandated to do evaluations to see its worth even when it is
not mandated. By
instilling evaluation institutions, policies and procedures, and
evaluative ways of
thinking in organizations (Sanders, 2001).
2. Continuing a constructive use of multiple methods and
eclectic
approaches to achieve the many different purposes of
evaluation. The de-
17. bates over qualitative and quantitative methods have subsided
and many have
moved on to the practical issues of applying their now increased
methodological
tools in a variety of settings. To avoid future divisive debates
we should recognize the
plurality of evaluation purposes, questions, and settings. An
evaluator working with
the U.S. government on performance monitoring issues is facing
different method-
ological and political challenges than the evaluator designing a
special, formative
Chapter 18 • The Future of Evaluation 497
study for a nonprofit agency on its work with a new group of
clients. Rather than
debate the different choices these evaluators make, we should
study their choices
and learn more about what approaches work best in different
settings. As evaluators,
we should know not to judge decisions made in other
evaluations without sufficient
information. We need to work harder to defer that judgment and
explore and col-
lect information on those choices. Let’s develop thick
descriptions about evaluations!
3. Increase the use of metaevaluation to improve evaluation
practice.
One type of publication that is regrettably rare in the evaluation
journals is cri-
tiques of prior evaluation reports, that is, metaevaluations.
Despite the acceptance
18. and availability of the Joint Committee’s Standards, few
evaluations appear to be
subjected to any closer scrutiny today than before
metaevaluation standards were
developed. To learn from our own work, we must be open to its
review and
evaluation. As others learn from our evaluations, evaluators can
learn from eval-
uations of their own work.
Conclusion
We leave the reader with two final thoughts.
First, all our years of experience conducting and studying it
convinces us that
evaluation, properly conducted, has great potential for
improving programs and
practices in education, human services, nonprofit
organizations—virtually every
area of society. Managers, policymakers, and other stakeholders
have become
aware that some evaluation studies are misused or ignored, with
the result that
some individuals have argued for decreased emphasis on the
evaluative process.
But that seems no more sensible than abandoning medical
diagnosis because sci-
ence has not yet succeeded in eliminating all disease.
The second thought we wish to leave with readers is this:
Despite great
strides, it is increasingly apparent how little we really do know
about evaluation,
compared with what we need to know. It is our earnest hope that
this book has
19. added to that knowledge and has helped to illuminate the
thousand points of
darkness that still constitute current processes for creating and
implementing the
policies and programs intended to improve the lot of
humankind.
Suggested Readings
Datta, L. (2006). The practice of evaluation: Challenges
and new directions. In J. F. Shaw, J. C. Greene, &
M. M. Mark (Eds.), The Sage handbook of evalu-
ation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mark, M. M. (2007). AEA and evaluation: 2006 (and
beyond). In S. Mathison (Ed.), Enduring issues in
evaluation: The 20th anniversary of the collaboration
between NDE and AEA. New Directions for Eval-
uation, No. 114. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, M. F. (2001). Evaluation: Preview of the
future #2. American Journal of Evaluation, 22,
281–300.
See the entire issues of American Journal of
Evaluation (2002), 22, and Evaluation Practice (1994),
15. Each of these issues focuses on reflections con-
cerning evaluation theories, practice, and status as a
profession and predictions concerning the future.
Leviathan
Part 2. Commonwealth
21. Chapter 20. Paternal dominion and despotic dominion 92
Leviathan 3 Thomas Hobbes
Chapter 21. The liberty of subjects 96
Chapter 22. Systems—subject, political, and private 103
Chapter 23. The public ministers of sovereign power 109
Chapter 24. The nutrition and procreation of a commonwealth
111
Chapter 25. Advice 115
Chapter 26. Civil laws 119
Chapter 27. Crimes, excuses, and extenuations 131
Chapter 28. Punishments and rewards 140
Chapter 29. Things that weaken or tend to the dissolution of a
commonwealth 144
Chapter 30. The office of the sovereign representative 150
Chapter 31. The kingdom of God by nature 160
Leviathan 3 Thomas Hobbes 17: Causes, creation, definition
Part 2. Commonwealth
22. Chapter 17. The causes, creation, and definition of a
commonwealth
Men naturally love liberty, and dominion over others;
so what is the final cause or end or design they have in
mind when they introduce the restraint upon themselves
under which we see them live in commonwealths? It is
the prospect of their own preservation and, through that,
of a more contented life; i.e. of getting themselves out of
the miserable condition of war which (as I have shown)
necessarily flows from the natural passions of men when
there is no visible power to keep them in awe and tie them
by fear of punishment to keep their covenants and to obey
the laws of nature set down in my chapters 14 and 15.
For the laws of nature—enjoining justice, fairness, mod-
esty, mercy, and (in short) treating others as we want them to
treat us—are in themselves contrary to our natural passions,
unless some power frightens us into observing them. In
the absence of such a power, our natural passions carry us
to partiality, pride, revenge, and the like. And covenants
without the sword are merely words, with no strength to
secure a man at all. Every man has obeyed the laws of
nature when he has wanted to, which is when he could do
it safely; but if there is no power set up, or none that is
strong enough for our security, ·no-one can safely abide
by the laws; and in that case· every man will and lawfully
may rely on his own strength and skill to protect himself
against all other men. In all places where men have lived
in small families ·with no larger organized groupings·, the
trade of robber was so far from being regarded as against
the law of nature that ·it was outright honoured, so that·
the greater spoils someone gained by robbery, the greater
was his honour. The only constraints on robbery came from
23. the laws of honour, which enjoined robbers to abstain from
cruelty and to let their victims keep their lives and their farm
implements. These days cities and kingdoms (which are
only greater families) do what small families used to do back
then: for their own security they enlarge their dominions,
on the basis of claims that they are in danger and in fear of
invasion, or that assistance might be given to invaders ·by
the country they are attacking·. They try as hard as they
can to subdue or weaken their neighbours, by open force
and secret manoeuvres; and if they have no other means for
their own security, they do this justly, and are honoured for
it in later years.
Nor can the joining together of a small number of men
give them this security ·that everyone seeks·; because when
the numbers are small, a small addition on the one side or
the other makes the advantage of strength so great that it
suffices to carry the victory, and so it gives encouragement
for an invasion. How many must we be, to be secure? That
depends not on any particular number, but on comparison
with the enemy we fear. We have enough if the enemy doesn’t
outnumber us by so much that that would settle the outcome
of a war between us, which would encourage the enemy to
start one.
And however great the number, if their actions are di-
rected according to their individual wants and beliefs, they
can’t expect their actions to defend or protect them against
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Leviathan 3 Thomas Hobbes 17: Causes, creation, definition
a common enemy or against injuries from one another.
24. For being drawn in different directions by their ·differing·
opinions concerning how best to use their strength, they
hinder rather than help one another, and by quarrelling
among themselves they reduce their strength to nothing.
When that happens they are easily subdued by a very few
men who agree together; and when there’s no common enemy
they make war on each other for their particular interests.
For if we could suppose a great multitude of men to agree in
the observation of justice and other laws of nature, without
a common power to keep them all in awe, we might as well
suppose all mankind to do the same; and then there would
not be—and would not need to be—any civil government or
commonwealth at all, because there would be peace without
subjection.
For the security that men desire to last throughout their
lifetimes, it’s not enough that they be governed and directed
by one judgment for a limited time—e.g. for one battle, or
one war. For ·in that case·, even if they obtain a victory
through their unanimous efforts against a foreign enemy,
yet afterwards—when they have no common enemy, or when
some of them regard as an enemy someone whom the others
regard as a friend—the difference of their interests makes it
certain that they will fall apart and once more come to be at
war amongst themselves.
It’s true that certain living creatures, such as bees and
ants, live sociably with one another (which is why Aristotle
counts them among the ‘political’ creatures [Greek politike
= ‘social’]), although •each of them is steered only by its
particular judgments and appetites, and •they don’t have
speech through which one might indicate to another what
it thinks expedient for the common benefit. You may want
to know why mankind can’t do the same. My answer to that
·has six parts·.
25. (1) Men continually compete with one another for honour
and dignity, which ants and bees do not; and that leads men,
but not those other animals, to envy and hatred and finally
war.
(2) Among those ·lower· creatures, the common good ·of
all· is the same as the private ·good of each·; and being
naturally inclined to their private ·benefit·, in procuring that
they also procure the common benefit. But a man’s biggest
pleasure in his own goods comes from their being greater
than those of others!
(3) Bees and ants etc. don’t have the use of reason (as
man does), and so they don’t see—and don’t think they
see—any fault in how their common business is organized;
whereas very many men think themselves wiser than the
rest, and better equipped to govern the public. These men
struggle to reform and innovate, one in this way and another
in that, thereby bringing the commonwealth into distraction
and civil war.
(4) These creatures, though they have some use of voice
in making known to one another their desires and other
affections, don’t have that skill with words through which
some men •represent good things to others in the guise of
evil, and evil in the guise of good, and •misrepresent how
great various goods and evils are. These activities enable
their practitioners to make men discontented, and to disturb
their peace, whenever they feel like doing so.
(5) Creatures that lack reason don’t have the notion of
being insulted or wronged as distinct from being physically
damaged; so as long as they are at ease ·physically· they
are not offended with their fellows; whereas man is most
troublesome when he is most at ease, for that is when he
loves to show his wisdom and to control the actions of those
26. who govern the commonwealth.
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Leviathan 3 Thomas Hobbes 17: Causes, creation, definition
(6) The agreement of these creatures is natural, whereas
men’s agreement is by covenant only, which is artificial; so
it’s no wonder if something besides the covenant is needed
to make their agreement constant and lasting, namely a
common power to keep them in awe and direct their actions
to the common benefit.
The •only way to establish a common power that can
defend them from the invasion of foreigners and the injuries
of one another, and thereby make them secure enough to
be able to nourish themselves and live contentedly through
their own labours and the fruits of the earth, is •to confer
all their power and strength on one man, or one assembly
of men, so as to turn all their wills by a majority vote into a
single will. That is to say: •to appoint one man or assembly
of men to bear their person; and everyone •to own and
acknowledge himself to be the author of every act that he
who bears their person performs or causes to be performed
in matters concerning the common peace and safety, and all
of them •to submit their wills to his will, and their judgments
to his judgment. [Hobbes explains the key concepts of that
sentence
early in Chapter 16.] This is more than ·mere· agreement or
harmony; it is a real unity of them all. They are unified in
that they constitute one single person, created through a
covenant of every man with every ·other· man, as though
each man were to say to each of the others:
27. I authorize and give up my right of governing myself
to this man, or to this assembly of men, on condition
that you surrender to him your right of governing
yourself, and authorize all his actions in the same
way.
[Rather than ‘you’ and ‘your’, Hobbes here uses ‘thou’ and
‘thy’—the
second-person singular, rare in Leviathan—emphasizing the
one-on-one
nature of the covenant.] When this is done, the multitude
so united in one person is called a COMMONWEALTH, in
Latin CIVITAS. This is the method of creation of that great
LEVIATHAN, or rather (to speak more reverently) of that
mortal
god to which we owe, under the immortal God, our peace
and defence. For by this authority that has been given to
•‘this man’ by every individual man in the commonwealth,
•he has conferred on him the use of so much power and
strength that people’s fear of it enables him to harmonize
and control the wills of them all, to the end of peace at home
and mutual aid against their enemies abroad. •He is the
essence of the commonwealth, which can be defined thus:
A commonwealth is one person of whose acts a great
multitude of people have made themselves the au-
thors (each of them an author), doing this by mutual
covenants with one another, so that the common-
wealth may use the strength and means of them all,
as he shall think appropriate, for their peace and
common defence.
He who carries this person is called SOVEREIGN, and said to
have ‘sovereign power’, and all the others are his SUBJECTS.
28. Sovereign power can be attained in two ways. One is by
natural force, as when a man •makes his children submit
themselves and their children to his government, by being
able to destroy them if they refuse, or •subdues his enemies
to his will by war, sparing their lives on condition that
they submit their wills to his government. The other is
when men agree amongst themselves to submit to some
one man or assembly of men, doing this voluntarily in the
confidence that this man or assembly will protect them
against all others. This latter, may be called a political
commonwealth, or commonwealth by institution, and the
former a commonwealth by acquisition. I shall speak first of
a commonwealth by institution, ·turning to commonwealth
by acquisition in chapter 20·.
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Chapter 18. The rights of sovereigns by institution
A commonwealth is said to be ‘instituted’ when a mul-
titude of men agree and covenant—each one with each
other—that
When some man or assembly of men is chosen by
majority vote to present the person of them all (i.e. to
be their representative), each of them will authorize all
the actions and judgments of that man or assembly of
men as though they were his own, doing this for the
purpose of living peacefully among themselves and
being protected against other men. This binds those
29. who did not vote for this representative, as well as
those who did. For unless the votes are all understood
to be included in the majority of votes, they have come
together in vain, and contrary to the end that each
proposed for himself, namely the peace and protection
of them all.
From the form of the institution are derived all the power
and all the rights of the one having supreme power, as well
as the duties of all the citizens. ·I shall discuss these rights,
powers, and duties under twelve headings·.
First, because the people make a covenant, it is to be un-
derstood they aren’t obliged by any previous covenant to do
anything conflicting with this new one. Consequently those
who have already instituted a commonwealth, being thereby
bound by a covenant to own the actions and judgments of
one sovereign, cannot lawfully get together to make a new
covenant to be obedient to someone else, in any respect
at all, without their sovereign’s permission. So those who
are subject to a monarch can’t without his leave •throw
off monarchy and return to the confusion of a disunited
multitude, or •transfer their person from him who now bears
it to some other man or other assembly of men; for •they
are bound, each of them to each of the others, to own and
be the proclaimed author of everything that their existing
sovereign does and judges fit to be done; so that any one man
dissenting, all the rest should break their covenant made
to that man, which is injustice [from the semi-colon to the end,
those words are Hobbes’s]. And •they have also—every man of
them—given the sovereignty to him who bears their person;
so if they depose him they take from him something that is
his, and that again is injustice. Furthermore, if anyone who
tries to depose his sovereign is killed or punished for this
by the sovereign, he is an author of his own punishment,
30. because the covenant makes him an author of everything
his sovereign does; and since it is injustice for a man to do
anything for which he may be punished by his own authority,
his attempt to depose his sovereign is unjust for that reason
also.
Some men have claimed to base their disobedience to
their sovereign on a new covenant that they have made
not with men but with God; and this also is unjust, for
there’s no covenant with God except through the mediation
of somebody who represents God’s person, and the only one
who does that is God’s lieutenant, who has the sovereignty
under God. But this claim of a covenant with God is so
obviously a lie, even in the claimant’s own consciences, that
it is the act of a disposition that is not only unjust but also
vile and unmanly.
Secondly, what gives the sovereign a right to bear the
person of all his subjects is •a covenant that they make
with one another, and not •a covenant between him and any
of them; there can’t be a breach of covenant on his part;
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and consequently none of his subjects can be freed from
subjection by a claim that the sovereign has forfeited ·his
right to govern by breaking his covenant with his subject(s)·.
It is obvious that the sovereign makes no covenant with his
subjects on the way to becoming sovereign. ·To see why
this is true, suppose that it isn’t, and for ease of exposition
suppose that you are one of the subjects·. In that case
31. the sovereign must either •make a covenant with the whole
multitude as the other party, or •make a separate covenant
with each man, ·including one with you·. But it can’t be
•with the whole as one party, because at this point they
are not one person; and if he •makes as many separate
covenants as there are men, those covenants become void
after he becomes sovereign. Why? Because any act ·of the
sovereign’s· that you (for example) can claim to be a breach
·of your covenant with him· is an act of yours and of everyone
else’s, because it was done ·by the sovereign, and thus was
done· in the person, and by the right, of every individual
subject including you.
Besides, if one or more of the subjects claims a breach
of the covenant made by the sovereign in his becoming
sovereign, and one or more other subjects contend that there
was no such breach (or indeed if only the sovereign himself
contends this), there’s no judge to decide the controversy, so
it returns to the sword again, and every man regains the right
of protecting himself by his own strength, contrary to the
design they had in the institution ·of the commonwealth·. . . .
The opinion that any monarch receives his power by
covenant—i.e. on some condition—comes from a failure to
grasp this easy truth:
Because covenants are merely words and breath, they
have no force to oblige, contain, constrain, or protect
any man, except whatever force comes from the public
sword—i.e. from the untied hands of that man or
assembly of men that has the sovereignty, whose
actions all the subjects take responsibility for, and are
performed by the strength of them all, united in their
sovereign.
32. When an assembly of men is made sovereign, nobody imag-
ines this to have happened through any such covenant;
for no man is so stupid as to say, for example, that the
people of Rome made a covenant with the Romans to hold
the sovereignty on such and such conditions, the non-
performance of which would entitle the Romans to depose the
Roman people! Why don’t men see that the basic principles of
a monarchy are the same as those of a popular government?
·They are led away from seeing this by· the ambition of people
who are kinder to the •government of an assembly than to
•that of a monarchy, because they •can hope to participate
in the former, but •despair of enjoying the latter.
Thirdly, because the majority have by consenting voices
declared a sovereign, someone who dissented must now
go along with the others, i.e. be contented to accept all
the actions the sovereign shall do; and if he doesn’t, he
may justly be destroyed by the others. For if he voluntarily
entered into the congregation of those who came together
·to consider instituting a sovereign·, he thereby sufficiently
declared his willingness to accept what the majority should
decide on (and therefore tacitly covenanted to do so); so if
he then refuses to accept it, or protests against any of their
decrees, he is acting contrary to his ·tacit· covenant, and
therefore unjustly. Furthermore: whether or not he enters
into the congregation, and whether or not his consent is
asked, he must either •submit to the majority’s decrees or
•be left in the condition of war he was in before, in which he
can without injustice be destroyed by any man at all.
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33. Fourthly, because every subject is by this institution
·of the commonwealth· the author of all the actions and
judgments of the sovereign, it follows that nothing the
sovereign does can wrong any of his subjects, nor ought
any of them to accuse him of injustice. For someone who
acts by the authority of someone else can’t in acting wrong
the person by whose authority he acts; but according to
this institution of a commonwealth, every individual man
is an author of everything the sovereign does; so someone
who complains of being wronged by his sovereign complains
about something of which he himself is an author; so
he oughtn’t to accuse anyone but himself—and indeed he
oughtn’t even to accuse himself of wronging himself, because
to wrong one’s self is impossible. [Throughout this paragraph
up
to this point, ‘wrong’ replaces Hobbes’s ‘injury’.] It’s true that
those
who have sovereign power may commit iniquity [= ‘do wicked
things’], but not injustice or injury in the proper meaning of
that term.
Fifthly, following from the preceding point: no man who
has sovereign power can justly be put to death or punished
in any other way by his subjects. For seeing that every
subject is an author of the actions of his sovereign, ·if he
punishes the sovereign· he punishes someone else for actions
committed by himself.
And because the goal of this institution is the peace and
defence of them all, and whoever has a right to the goal
has a right to the means to it, the man or assembly that
has the sovereignty has the right to be judge both of the
means to peace and defence, and also of the hindrances and
disturbances of peace and defence; and to do whatever he
thinks is needed, both beforehand •for preserving of peace
34. and security by prevention of discord at home and hostility
from abroad, and •for the recovery of peace and security after
they have been lost. And therefore,
Sixthly, it is for the sovereignty [= ‘the man or assembly of
men to whom the sovereignty has been given’] to be the judge
•of what opinions and doctrines are threats to peace
and what ones tend to support it;
and consequently
•of which men are to be trusted to speak to multitudes
of people, on what occasions, and how far they should
be allowed to go;
and
•of who shall examine the doctrines of all books before
they are published.
For the actions of men come from their opinions, and the
way to govern men’s actions in the interests of peace and
harmony is to govern their opinions. When we are consid-
ering doctrines, nothing ought to be taken account of but
truth; but this doesn’t conflict with regulating doctrines on
grounds having to do with peace. For a doctrine that is
harmful to peace can’t be true, any more than peace and
harmony can be against the law of nature. It’s true that in
a commonwealth where the negligence or incompetence of
governors and teachers has allowed false doctrines to become
generally believed, the contrary truths may be generally
found to be offensive. But even the most sudden and rough
bustling in of a new truth never breaks the peace, but only
sometimes awakens the war. ·I said ‘awakens’ the war, not
‘starts’ it·. For men who are so slackly governed that they
dare take up arms to defend or introduce an opinion are at
war already; their state is not peace, but only a cessation
35. of arms through mutual fear, and they live continually on
the fringe of a battlefield, so to speak. So he who has the
sovereign power must be the judge—or establish others as
judges—of opinions and doctrines, this being necessary for
peace and the avoidance of discord and civil war.
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Seventhly, the sovereignty has the whole power of pre-
scribing the rules that let every man know what goods he may
enjoy, and what actions he may perform, without being trou-
bled by any of his fellow-subjects; and this is what men call
‘property’ [Hobbes writes ‘propriety’]. Before the establishment
of sovereign power (as I have already shown), all men had a
right to all things, a state of affairs which necessarily causes
war; and therefore this ·system of· property, being necessary
for peace and dependent on sovereign power, is one of the
things done by sovereign power in the interests of public
peace. These rules of property (or meum and tuum [Latin for
‘mine’ and ‘yours’]) and of good, bad, lawful, and unlawful in
the
actions of subjects, are the civil laws, i.e. the laws of each
individual commonwealth. . . .
Eighthly, the sovereignty alone has the right of judging,
i.e. of hearing and deciding any controversies that may
arise concerning law (civil or natural) or concerning fact.
For if controversies are not decided, •one subject has no
protection against being wronged by another, •the laws
concerning meum and tuum have no effect, and •every man
retains—because of the natural and inevitable desire for
36. his own preservation—the right to protect himself by his
own private strength, which is the condition of war, and is
contrary to the purpose for which every commonwealth is
instituted.
Ninthly, the sovereignty alone has the right to make war
and peace with other nations, and commonwealths, i.e. the
right •to judge when war is for the public good, •to decide
what size of ·military· forces are to be assembled for that
purpose and armed and paid for, and •to tax the subjects
to get money to defray the expenses of those forces. For the
power by which the people are to be defended consists in
their armies, and the strength of an army consists in the
union of the soldiers’ strengths under one command; and
it’s the instituted sovereign who has that command. Indeed,
having command of the military is enough to make someone
sovereign, without his being instituted as such in any other
way. So whoever is appointed as general of an army, it’s
always the sovereign power who is its supreme commander.
Tenthly, it is for the sovereignty to choose all counsellors,
ministers, magistrates, and officers, in both peace and war.
For seeing that the sovereign is charged with ·achieving· the
goal of the common peace and defence, he is understood to
have the power to use whatever means he thinks most fit for
this purpose.
Eleventhly, to the sovereign is committed [= ‘entrusted’] the
power of rewarding with riches or honour, and of punishing
with corporal punishment or fines or public disgrace, every
subject •according to the law the sovereign has already made;
or if no ·relevant· law has been made, •according to his
(the sovereign’s) judgment about what will conduce most to
encouraging men to serve the commonwealth, or to deterring
them from doing disservice to it.
37. Lastly, because of •how highly men are naturally apt to
value themselves, •what respect they want from others, and
•how little they value other men—all of which continually
gives rise to resentful envy, quarrels, side-taking, and even-
tually war, in which they destroy one another and lessen
their strength against a common enemy—it’s necessary •to
have laws of honour, and a public rate [= ‘price-list’] stating the
values of men who have deserved well of the commonwealth
or may yet do so, and •to put into someone’s hands the power
to put those laws in execution. But I have already shown
that not only the whole military power of the commonwealth,
but also the judging of all controversies, is assigned to the
sovereignty. So it’s the sovereign whose role it is to give titles
of honour, and to appoint what order of place and dignity
each man shall hold, and what signs of respect they shall
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give to one another in public or private meetings.
These are the rights that make the essence of sovereignty,
and are the marks by which one can tell what man or
assembly of men has the sovereign power. For these ·rights
and powers· can’t be shared and can’t be separated from
one another. The sovereign may transfer to someone else the
power to coin money, to dispose of the estate and persons of
infant heirs, to have certain advantages in markets, or any
other prerogative that is governed by particular laws, while
still retaining the power to protect his subjects. But •if he
transfers the military it’s no use his retaining the power of
38. judging, because he will have no way of enforcing the laws;
or •if he gives away the power of raising money, the military
is useless; •or if he gives away the control of doctrines, men
will be frightened into rebellion by the fear of spirits. So if
we consider any one of the rights I have discussed, we shall
immediately see that ·it is necessary, because· the holding
of all the others ·without that one· will have no effect on the
conservation of peace and justice, the purpose for which all
commonwealths are instituted. This division ·of powers that
ought not to be divided· was the topic when it was said that
a kingdom divided in itself cannot stand (Mark 3:24); for a
division into opposite armies can never happen unless this
division ·of powers· happens first. If a majority of people in
England hadn’t come to think that these powers were divided
between the king, the Lords, and the House of Commons,
the people would never have been divided and fallen into
this civil war—first over disagreements in politics, and then
over disagreements about freedom of religion—a war that
has so instructed men in this matter of sovereign rights that
most people in England do now see that these rights are
inseparable. This will be generally acknowledged when peace
next returns, and it will continue to be acknowledged for as
long as people remember their miseries ·in the war· (though
it won’t continue beyond that unless the common people
come to be better taught than they have been until now!).
And because these rights are essential and inseparable,
it necessarily follows that in whatever words any of them
seem to be granted to someone other than the sovereign, the
grant is void unless the sovereign power itself is explicitly
renounced ·at the same time·, and the title ‘sovereign’ is no
longer given by the grantees to him who grants the rights
in question; for when he has granted as much as he can,
if we grant back ·or he retains· the sovereignty ·itself·, all
the rights he has supposedly granted to someone else are
39. restored to him, because they are inseparably attached to
the sovereignty.
This great authority being indivisible, and inseparably
assigned to the sovereignty, there is little basis for the
opinion of those who say of sovereign kings that though
they have •greater power than every one of their subjects,
they have •less power than all their subjects together. For if
by ‘all together’ they don’t mean the collective body as one
person, then ‘all together’ and ‘every one’ mean the same, and
what these people say is absurd. But if by ‘all together’ they
understand them as one person (which person the sovereign
bears), then the power of ‘all together’ is the same as the
sovereign’s power, and so again what they say is absurd.
They could see its absurdity well enough when the sovereign
is an assembly of ·all· the people, but they don’t see it when
the sovereign is a monarch; yet the power of sovereignty is
the same, whoever has it.
Just as the •power of the sovereign ought to be greater
than that of any or all the subjects, so should the sovereign’s
•honour. For the sovereignty is the fountain of honour.
The dignities of lord, earl, duke, and prince are created
by him. Just as servants in the presence of their master are
equal, and without any honour at all, so are subjects in the
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presence of their sovereign. When they are out of his sight
some may shine more than others, but in his presence they
shine no more than do the stars in the presence of the sun.
40. But someone may object here that subjects are in a
miserable situation because they are at the mercy of the
lusts and other irregular passions of him who has (or of
them who have) such unlimited power. Commonly those
who live under a monarch think their troubles are the fault
of monarchy, and those who live under the government
of democracy or some other kind of sovereign assembly
attribute all the inconvenience to that form of commonwealth
(when really the sovereign power is the same in every form of
commonwealth, as long as it is complete enough to protect
the subjects). These complainers don’t bear in mind •that the
human condition can never be without some inconvenience
or other, or •that the greatest trouble that can possibly come
to the populace in any form of government is almost nothing
when compared with the miseries and horrible calamities
that accompany a civil war, or with the dissolute condition
of ungoverned men who are not subject to laws and to a
coercive power to hold them back from robbery and revenge.
Nor do they bear in mind •that the greatest burdens laid
on subjects by sovereign governors does not come from
•any pleasure or profit they can expect from damaging or
weakening their subjects (in whose vigour consists their
own strength and glory), but from •the stubbornness of
the subjects themselves, who are unwilling to contribute
to their own defence, and so make it necessary for their
governors to get what they can from them ·in taxes· in time
of peace, so that they may have the means to resist their
enemies, or to get an advantage over them, if an occasion for
this should suddenly present itself. For all men are provided
by nature with notable •microscopes (that is their passions
and self-love) through which every little payment appears
as a great grievance, but don’t have the •telescopes (namely
moral and political science) that would enable them to see far
off the miseries that hang over them, which can’t be avoided
41. without such payments.
Chapter 19. Kinds of commonwealth by institution, and
succession
to the sovereign power
Differences amongst commonwealths come from differ-
ences in the sovereign, or the person who represents ev-
ery one of the multitude. The sovereignty resides either
in •one man, or in •an assembly of more than one; and
·when it is an assembly· either •every man has right to
enter the assembly or •not everyone but only certain men
distinguished from the rest. So, clearly, there can be only
three kinds of commonwealth. For the representative must
be one man or more than one; and if more than one, then it’s
either the assembly of all ·the multitude· or an assembling
containing only some of them. When the representative is
•one man, the commonwealth is a MONARCHY; when it’s •an
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assembly of only some of the multitude, then it is called an
ARISTOCRACY; when it’s •an assembly of all that are willing
come together, it is a DEMOCRACY or popular commonwealth.
There can’t be any other kind of commonwealth, because the
sovereign power (which I have shown to be indivisible) must
be possessed •by one, •by more than one ·but less than all·,
or •by all.
Books of history and political theory contain other names
42. for governments, such as ‘tyranny’ and ‘oligarchy’. But
they are not the names of other forms of government; they
are names of the same forms, given by people who dislike
them. For those who are discontented under monarchy call
it ‘tyranny’, and those who are displeased with aristocracy
call it ‘oligarchy’; so also those who find themselves aggrieved
under a democracy call it ‘anarchy’, which means lack of any
government, but I don’t think anyone believes that lack of
government is any new kind of government! Nor (to continue
the line of thought) ought they to believe that the government
is of one kind when they like it and of another when they
dislike it or are oppressed by the governors.
Obviously, men who are in absolute liberty may if they
please give authority to one man to represent them all, or give
such authority to any assembly of men whatever; so they are
free to subject themselves to a monarch as absolutely as to
any other representative, if they think fit to do so. Therefore,
where a sovereign power has already been established, there
can be no other representative of the same people (except for
certain particular purposes that are circumscribed by the
sovereign). ·If there were two unrestricted representatives·,
that would be to establish two sovereigns, and every man
would have his person represented by two actors; if these
opposed one another, that would divide the power that has to
be indivisible if men are to live in peace, and would thereby
pull the multitude down into the condition of war, contrary
to the purpose for which all sovereignty is instituted.
So it would absurd for a monarch, having invited the
people of his dominion to send him their deputies with
power to make known to him their advice or desires, to
think that these deputies, rather than himself, were the
absolute representative of the people. (The absurdity is even
more obvious if this idea is applied not to a monarch but to
43. a sovereign assembly.) I don’t know how this obvious truth
came to be so disregarded ·in England· in recent years. In
this country we had a monarchy in which he who had the
sovereignty—in a line of descent 600 years long—was alone
called ‘sovereign’, had the title ‘Majesty’ from every one of his
subjects, and was unquestionably accepted by them as their
king. Yet he was never considered as their representative,
that name being given—with no ·sense that this was a·
contradiction—to the men who at his command were sent
to him by the people to bring their petitions and give him (if
he permitted it) their advice. This may serve as a warning
for those who are the true and absolute representatives of
a people, that if they want to fulfil the trust that has been
committed to them they had better •instruct men in the
nature of the office ·of sovereign·, and •be careful how they
permit any other general representation on any occasion
whatsoever.
The differences among these three kinds of common-
wealth don’t consist in differences ·in the amount of· power,
but in differences in how serviceable they are, how apt to
produce the peace and security of the people—the purpose
for which they were instituted. ·I now want· to compare
monarchy with the other two, ·making six points about this
comparison·.
(1) Anyone who bears the person of the people or belongs
to the assembly that bears it, also bears his own natural
person [= ‘bears himself considered just as one human being’].
And
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though he is careful in his official person to procure the
common interest, he is at least as careful to procure the
private good of himself, his family, relatives, and friends; and
when the public interest happens to conflict with the private,
he usually prefers the private, because men’s passions
are commonly more powerful than their reason. It follows
from this that the public interest is most advanced when it
coincides with the private interest ·of the sovereign·. Now
in •monarchy the private interest is the same as the public.
The riches, power, and honour of a monarch arise purely
from the riches, strength and reputation of his subjects; for
no king can be rich or glorious or secure if his subjects
are poor or wretched, or so much weakened by poverty
or dissension that they can’t maintain a war against their
enemies. In a •democracy or an •aristocracy, on the other
hand, public prosperity often does less for the private fortune
of someone who is corrupt or ambitious than does lying
advice, treacherous action, or civil war.
(2) A monarch decides who will advise him, and when
and where; so he can hear the opinions of men who are
knowledgeable about the matter in question—men of any
rank or status—and as long in advance of the action and with
as much secrecy as he likes. But when a sovereign assembly
needs advice, it can’t have advisers from outside its own
body; and of those who are in the assembly few are skilled in
civic matters—the majority of them being orators, who give
their opinions in speeches that are full either of pretence
or of inept learning, and either disrupt the commonwealth
or do it no good. For the flame of the passions dazzles the
understanding, but never enlightens it. And there’s no place
or time at which an assembly can receive advice in secret;
there are too many of them for that.
45. (3) The resolutions of a monarch are not subject to any
inconstancy except that of human nature; but in assemblies,
besides the inconstancy of nature there is an inconstancy of
numbers. Something that the assembly decided yesterday
may be undone today because a few members who wanted
it reversed showed up, while those who would have wanted
yesterday’s resolution to hold firm have stayed away because
they were too confident, or negligent, or for personal reasons.
(4) A monarch can’t disagree with himself out of envy or
self-interest, but an assembly can, and the disagreement
may be so strenuous as to lead to a civil war.
(5) In monarchy there’s this disadvantage: any subject
may be deprived of all he possesses by the power of one
man (·the sovereign·), so as to enrich a favourite or flatterer.
[The Latin version adds: ‘Nevertheless, we do not read that this
has
ever been done.’] I admit that this is a great and inevitable
disadvantage. But the same thing can just as well happen
where the sovereign power is in an assembly; for their power
is the same, and they are as likely to be seduced into
accepting bad advice from orators as a monarch is from
flatterers; and they can become one another’s flatterers,
taking turns in serving one another’s greed and ambition.
Also, a monarch has only a few favourites, and the only
others they may want to advance are their own relatives;
whereas the favourites of an assembly are many, and the
relatives of the members of an assembly are much more
numerous than those of any monarch. Besides, any favourite
of a monarch can help his friends as well as hurt his enemies;
but orators—i.e. favourites of sovereign assemblies—have
great power to hurt but little to help. For, such is man’s
nature, accusing requires less eloquence than does excusing;
also, condemning looks more like justice than pardoning
46. does.
(6) In a monarchy the sovereignty may descend to an
infant, or to one who can’t tell good from bad; which has
the ·alleged· drawback that then •the use of the sovereign’s
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power must be in the hands of another man, or of some
assembly of men, who are to govern by the child’s right and
in his name, as guardians and protectors of his person and
his authority. But to say there is a drawback in •putting
the use of the sovereign power into the hands of a man
or an assembly of men is to say that •all government is
less satisfactory than confusion and civil war—·which is
absurd·. So the only danger that can be claimed to arise
·from a situation where the monarchy has been inherited by
someone who isn’t yet fit to exercise its powers· has to do
with the struggles among those who become competitors for
an office bringing so much honour and profit.
This disadvantage does not come from the form of gov-
ernment we call ‘monarchy’. To see this, consider •the case
where the previous monarch has appointed those who are to
have the care of his infant successor—doing this either by an
explicit statement or ·implicitly· by not interfering with the
customarily accepted procedure for such appointments. In
that case, if the ‘competition’ disadvantage arises, it should
be attributed not to the monarchy but to the ambition and
injustice of the subjects; and those ·vices· are the same in all
kinds of government where the people are not well instructed
47. in their duty and in the rights of sovereignty. For •the case
where the previous monarch has made no provision at all
for such care ·of his infant successor·, the law of nature has
provided this sufficient rule, that the infant sovereign shall
be cared for by the man who has by nature •the most to gain
from the preservation of the infant’s authority and •the least
to gain from the child’s dying or losing authority. For since
every man by nature seeks his own benefit and promotion,
to put an infant under the control of people who can promote
themselves by destroying or harming him is not guardianship
but treachery. So once sufficient provision has been made
against any proper dispute about the government under a
child, if any contest does start up and disturb the public
peace, it should be attributed not to the form of monarchy
but to the subjects’ ambition and ignorance of their duty.
On the other side, every great commonwealth whose
sovereignty is in a great assembly is, so far as concerns
consultations about peace and war and the making of laws,
in the same condition as if the ·power of· government were
·theoretically· in a child. For just as •a child lacks the
judgment to disagree with advice that is given him, and so
has to accept the advice of them (or him) to whose care
he is committed, so also •an assembly lacks the freedom
to disagree with the advice of the majority, whether it’s
good or bad. And just as •a child needs a guardian or
protector to preserve his person and his authority, so also •in
great commonwealths the sovereign assembly, in all ·times
of· great danger and trouble, needs guardians of liberty
[Hobbes gives this phrase in Latin’]. That is, they need dictators
or
protectors of their authority, who amount to being temporary
monarchs, to whom they can for a time commit the exercise
of all their power; and it has more often happened that at the
end of that time •the assembly were ·permanently· deprived
48. of their power ·by the dictator· than it has happened that
•infant kings were deprived of their power by their protectors,
regents, or any other guardians.
I have shown that there are only three kinds of
sovereignty:
•monarchy, where one man has the sovereignty,
•democracy, where the general assembly of ·all the·
subjects has it, and
•aristocracy, where it is in an assembly of certain
persons picked out in some way from the rest.
Still, someone who surveys the particular commonwealths
that did or do exist in the world will perhaps find it hard
to get them into three groups, and this may incline him
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to think there are other forms, arising from mixtures of
these three. For example, (1) elective kingdoms, where
kings have the sovereign power put into their hands for
a time, or (2) kingdoms in which the king has limited power,
though most writers apply the label ‘monarchy’ to these
governments. Likewise (3) if a democratic (or aristocratic)
commonwealth subdues an enemy’s country and governs it
through an appointed governor, executive officer, or other
legal authority, this may perhaps seem at first sight to be a
democratic (or aristocratic) government. But this is all wrong.
For (1) elective kings are not sovereigns but ministers of the
49. sovereign; (2) limited kings are not sovereigns but ministers
of those who have the sovereign power; and (3) provinces that
are in subjection to a democracy (or aristocracy) of another
commonwealth are themselves governed not democratically
(or aristocratically) but monarchically. ·I shall discuss these
three cases at more length, giving them a paragraph each·.
(1) Concerning an elective king whose power is limited •to
his life as it is in many parts of Christendom at this day, or
•to certain years or months like the dictator’s power among
the Romans: if he has the right to appoint his successor, he is
no longer an elective king but an hereditary one. But if he has
no power to designate his successor, then either •some other
known man or assembly can designate a successor after his
death or •the commonwealth dies and dissolves with him and
returns to the condition of war. •If it’s known what people
have the power to award the sovereignty after his death, it’s
also known that the sovereignty was in them while he was
alive; for nobody has the right to give something that he
doesn’t have the right to possess and to keep to himself if he
sees fit. But •if there’s no-one who can give the sovereignty
after the decease of him who was first elected, then that
king has the power to establish his own successor, so as to
keep those who had trusted him with the government from
relapsing into the miserable condition of civil war; indeed,
he is obliged by the law of nature to take care of this. So he
was, as soon as he was elected, an absolute sovereign.
(2) The king whose power is limited is not superior to
whoever has the power to limit it, and he who is not superior
·to someone· is not supreme, which is to say that he is not
sovereign. So the sovereignty always was in the assembly
that had the right to limit him, which implies that the govern-
ment is not monarchy but either democracy or aristocracy;
as in ancient Sparta, where the kings had the privilege of
50. leading their armies but the sovereignty was possessed by
the Ephori [= ‘magistrates with authority over the king’s
conduct’].
Thirdly, although the Roman people governed the land of
Judea (for example) through a governor, that didn’t make
Judea •a democracy, because they weren’t governed by any
assembly into which each of them had a right to enter; nor
was it •an aristocracy, because they weren’t governed by any
assembly that a man could be selected to belong to. Rather,
·it was •a monarchy·. They were governed by one person:
in relation to the people of Rome this ‘one person’ was an
assembly of ·all· the people, i.e. a democracy, but in relation
to the people of Judea, who had no right at to participate
in the government, it was a monarchy. Where the people
are governed by an assembly chosen by themselves out of
their own number, the government is called a democracy or
an aristocracy; but when they are governed by an assembly
that they didn’t choose, it is a monarchy—not of one man
over another man, but of one people over another people.
The matter of all these forms of government consists in
monarchs and assemblies; these die, so the matter is mortal.
So it is necessary for the preservation of peace of men that
steps be taken not only for ·the creation of· an artificial man
but also for ·that ‘man’ to have· an artificial eternity of life.
Without that, •men who are governed by an assembly would
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return into the condition of war in every generation, and
51. •those who are governed by one man would return to it as
soon as their governor dies. This artificial eternity is what
men call ‘the right of succession’.
In any perfect form of government it is the present
sovereign who has the right to decide how the succession will
go. For if the right were possessed by •any other particular
man or non-sovereign assembly, it would be in a subject
person; so the sovereign could take it to himself at his
pleasure, which means that the right belonged to him all
along. And if this right belonged to •no particular man,
and was left to a new choice ·after the death of the present
sovereign·, then the commonwealth would be dissolved, and
the right ·to decide the succession· would belong to whoever
could get it, which is contrary to the intention of those who
instituted the commonwealth ·in the first place, which they
did· for their perpetual and not just their temporary security.
In a democracy, the whole assembly can’t die unless
the multitude that are to be governed die. So in that form
of government questions about the right of ·deciding the·
succession don’t arise.
In an aristocracy, when any member of the assembly
dies the choice of someone else to take his place is for
the assembly to make, because it’s the sovereign to whom
belongs the ·right of· choosing of all counsellors and officers.
For what the representative does as actor is done by every
one of the subjects as author. The sovereign assembly may
give power to others to choose new members to make up
their numbers, but it’s still by their authority that the choice
is made, and by their authority that the choice may be
cancelled if the public good requires it.
The greatest difficulty about the right of succession
occurs in monarchy. The difficulty arises from the fact
52. that it isn’t immediately obvious •who is to appoint the
successor ·to a king who has died·, and ·in cases where
it was clearly the role of the king to do this·, it is often not
obvious •whom he has appointed. For both these cases
require thinking that is more precise than men in general
are accustomed to. As to the question of •who shall appoint
the successor of a monarch, the central point is this: either
he who now possesses the sovereign power has the right
to decide the succession or else that right reverts to the
dissolved multitude ·which is thereby threatened with sliding
into war·. (I am saying this about a monarch who possesses
sovereign authority, so that the right of succession is the
right of inheritance; not about elective kings and princes,
who don’t own the sovereign power but merely have the use
of it). For the death of him who possesses the sovereign
power leaves the multitude without any sovereign at all, i.e.
without any representative in whom they can be united and
be capable of acting; so they can’t ·act in any way at all,
which implies that they can’t· elect any new monarch. ·In
this state of affairs·, every man has an equal right to submit
himself to whomever he thinks best able to protect him, or
(if he can) to protect himself by his own sword; which is a
return to confusion and to the condition of a war of every
man against every man, contrary to the purpose for which
monarchy was first instituted. This makes it obvious that
the institution of monarchy always leaves the choice of the
successor to the judgment and will of the present possessor
of sovereignty.
Sometimes a question arises about who it is whom the
monarch has designated to the succession and inheritance
of his power; it is to be answered on the basis of his explicit
words and testament, or by other sufficient wordless signs.
By explicit words or testament when it is declared by
53. him in his lifetime, orally or in writing, as the first emperors
of Rome declared who were to be their heirs. (·That is an
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appropriate word·, for ‘heir’ is not restricted to the children
or nearest relatives of a man; it applies to anyone at all whom
he says—somehow—he wants to succeed him in his estate.)
So if a monarch explicitly declares that such-and-such a man
is to be his heir, doing this either orally or in writing, then
that man acquires the right of being monarch immediately
after the decease of his predecessor.
But in the absence of testament and explicit words,
other natural signs of the sovereign’s wishes should be
followed. One of these is custom. Where it is customary
for the monarch to be succeeded by •his next of kin, with
no conditions on that, the next of kin does have the right
to the succession, for if the previous monarch had wanted
something different he could easily have declared this in his
lifetime. Likewise, where the custom is that the succession
goes to •the male who is next of the kin, the right of suc-
cession in that case does go to the male next of kin, for the
same reason. Similarly if the custom were to advance •the
female ·next of kin·. For if a man could by a word modify an
existing custom, ·yet doesn’t do so·, that is a natural sign
that he wants the custom to stand unchanged.
What if neither custom nor the monarch’s testament has
been provided? Then it should be understood •first that the
monarch wanted the government to remain monarchical,
54. because he approved that government in himself. •Secondly
that ·he wanted· a child of his own—male or female—to be
preferred before any other; because men are presumed to
be naturally more inclined to advance their own children
than those of other men (and of their own, a male rather
than a female, because men, are naturally fitter than women
for actions of labour and danger). •Thirdly, if he has no
descendants, ·that he wanted to be succeeded by· a brother
rather than a stranger—and, generalizing from that—to have
a successor close to him in blood rather than one who is
more remote; because it’s always presumed that closeness of
kinship goes with closeness of affection, and it’s evident that
the greatness of a man’s nearest kindred reflect the most
honour on him.
But if it is lawful for a monarch to settle the succession
on someone by words of contract or testament, men may
perhaps object that there’s a great disadvantage in this: for
he may sell or give his right of governing to a foreigner; and
this may lead to the oppression of his subjects, because
people who are foreigners to one another (i.e. men who don’t
customarily live under the same government or speak the
same language) commonly undervalue one another. This is
indeed a great disadvantage; but ·if there’s oppression in
such a case·, it may come not from the mere fact that the gov-
ernment is foreign but rather from the unskilfulness of the
governors, their ignorance of the true rules of politics. That
is why the Romans, when they had subdued many nations
and wanted to make their government of them digestible,
usually removed that grievance (·of oppression entirely by
foreigners·) as much as they thought it necessary to do so,
by giving sometimes to whole nations and sometimes to
principal men of conquered nations not only the privileges
of Romans but also the title ‘Roman’, and admitted many
of them to the senate and to official positions, even in the
55. Roman city. That is what our most wise King James aimed
at in trying to unite his two realms of England and Scotland.
Had he succeeded in this, it would probably have prevented
the civil wars that make both those kingdoms miserable
now. So it’s not an offence against the people for a monarch
to make a foreigner his successor, though disadvantages
sometimes come from that, through the fault either of the
rulers or of their citizens. . . .
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Chapter 20. Paternal dominion and despotic dominion
A commonwealth by acquisition is one where the
sovereign power is acquired by force; and it is acquired by
force when men (either singly or jointly by majority of voices)
are led by their fear of death or imprisonment to authorize
all the actions of the man or assembly that has their lives
and liberty in his power.
This kind of dominion or sovereignty differs from
sovereignty by institution only in this: men who choose
their sovereign do it for fear of •one another, not fear of
the man whom they institute; but in this case ·of dominion
by acquisition· they are afraid of •the very person whom
they institute ·as sovereign·. In both cases they act out of
fear—a fact that should be noted by those who hold that any
covenant is void if it comes from fear of death or violence. If
they were right, no man in any kind of commonwealth could
be obliged to obedience! It’s true that when a commonwealth
has been instituted or acquired, promises coming from fear
of death or violence are not covenants, and don’t oblige, if
56. the thing promised is contrary to the laws; but that’s not
because the promise is made out of fear, but because he who
promises has no right ·to do the thing he has promised to
do·. . . .
But the rights and consequences of sovereignty are the
same in both ·instituted and acquired sovereignty·:
The monarch’s power can’t without his consent be
transferred to someone else; he can’t forfeit it; he
can’t be accused by any of his subjects of having
wronged them; he can’t be punished by them; he is
the judge of what is necessary for peace, and the judge
of ·what· doctrines ·maybe published·; he is the sole
legislator, supreme arbitrator of controversies, and
supreme judge of the times and occasions for war and
peace; it is for him to choose magistrates, counsellors,
commanders, and all other officers and ministers, and
to determine all rewards and punishments, honours,
and rankings.
The reasons for this ·in sovereignty by acquisition· are
the ones I adduced in chapter 18 for the same rights and
consequences of sovereignty by institution.
Dominion is acquired two ways, by generation and by
conquest. [Hobbes has previously used ‘generation’ to mean
‘bringing
into being’; and this text has replaced this by ‘creation’—e.g. in
‘creation
of a commonwealth’. In the present context ‘generation’ means,
more
narrowly, ‘animal reproduction’—begetting and giving birth to.]
57. The
right of dominion by generation is what the parent has over
his children, and is called PATERNAL. It doesn’t come from
•the ·mere fact of· generation, as though the parent had
dominion over his child simply because he begot him. Rather,
it comes from •the child’s consent, either explicitly stated
or indicated by other sufficient signs. As for ·the idea that·
generation alone is enough for dominion: God has given to
man a ·woman, as· helper, and there are always two who
are equally parents; so the dominion over the child, ·if it
came from generation alone·, would belong equally to both
·parents·, and the child would subject to both equally, which
is impossible, for no man can obey two masters. And whereas
some—·such as Aristotle and Aquinas·—have ascribed the
dominion to the man only, because the male sex is the more
excellent one, they have miscalculated. For there is not
always enough difference of strength or prudence between
men and women for the right to be determined without war.
In commonwealths this controversy is decided by the civil
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law; and usually though not always the judgment goes in
favour of the father, because most commonwealths have
been set up by the fathers of families, not the mothers. But
the present question concerns the state of mere nature,
where we can’t assume laws of matrimony or laws for the
upbringing of children, but only the law of nature and the
natural fondness of the sexes for one another and for their
children. In this raw condition of nature, either the parents
settle the dominion over the child jointly, by contract, or
they don’t settle it at all. If they do, the right goes where the
58. contract says it goes. We find in history that the Amazons
contracted with the men of the neighbouring countries—to
whom they went to have children—that the male children
should be sent back ·to their fathers·, but the female ones
would remain with themselves; so that ·in their case· the
dominion of the females was in the mother.
If there’s no contract, the mother has dominion. For in
the condition of mere nature where there are no matrimonial
laws it can’t be known who is the father, unless the mother
tells; so the right of dominion over the child depends on her
will—·i.e. on her choice not to say who the father is·—and
consequently it is hers. Also, the infant is at first in the
power of the mother, so that she can either nourish it or
expose it [= leave it out in the open, to die unless rescued by
strangers].
If she nourishes it, it owes its life to the mother and is
therefore obliged to obey her rather than anyone else, and
consequently the dominion over it is hers. But if she exposes
the child and someone else finds and nourishes it, the
dominion is in that person. For the child ought to obey
the man who has preserved it, because preservation of life
is the purpose for which one human becomes subject to
another, so that every man is supposed to promise obedience
to him who has it is in his power to save him or destroy him.
If the mother is a subject of the father, the child is in the
father’s power; and if the father is a subject of the mother
(as when a sovereign queen marries one of her subjects), the
child is subject to the mother, because the father also is
her subject. [Curley points out that Hobbes lived under three
Stuart
kings descended from the marriage of Mary Queen of Scots to
one of
59. her subjects.] If a man and a woman who are monarchs of
two different kingdoms have a child, and make a contract
concerning who shall have dominion of him, the right of
dominion goes where the contract puts it. If they don’t make
a contract, the dominion follows the dominion of the place of
the child’s residence. For the sovereign of each country has
dominion over all that live in it.
He who has dominion over a child has dominion also over
the child’s children and over their children’s children. For he
that has dominion over the person of a man has dominion
over all that is his; without that, dominion would be just a
title with no effect.
The right of succession to paternal dominion, proceeds in
the same way as the right of succession to monarchy, about
which I have already said enough in chapter 19.
Dominion acquired by conquest, or victory in war, is what
some writers call DESPOTIC—from despotes [Greek], meaning
‘lord’ or ‘master’—and is the dominion of a master over
his servant. This dominion is acquired by the victor when
the vanquished, seeking to avoid being killed on the spot,
covenants either in explicit words or by other sufficient
signs of his will that as long as •his life and •the liberty
of his body are allowed to him, the victor will have the use
of •them at his pleasure. After such a covenant is made,
the vanquished person is a SERVANT—not before. The word
‘servant’. . . .does not mean ‘captive’, ·a status that doesn’t
involve any covenant·. A captive is someone who is kept in
prison or in fetters until the owner of the man who captured
him, or who bought him from someone who captured him,
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60. Leviathan 3 Thomas Hobbes 20: Paternal and despotic dominion
has decided what to do with him. Such men (commonly
called ‘slaves’) have no obligation at all, but may justly break
their bonds or smash the prison, and kill their master or
carry him away as a captive. ·A servant’s situation is nothing
like this. A servant is· someone who, having been captured,
has bodily liberty allowed to him and is trusted by his master
on the strength of his promise not to run away or do violence
to his master.
So it’s not the victory that gives the victor a right of
dominion over the vanquished, but the covenant ·between
them·. What puts the vanquished man under an obligation is
not •his being conquered—i.e. defeated and either captured
or put to flight—but •his coming in and submitting to the
victor ·and making with him the covenant I have described·.
And the mere fact that the vanquished man surrenders
(without being promised his life) does not oblige the victor to
spare him: when the vanquished man yields himself to the
victor’s discretion, that obliges the victor for only as long as
he in his own discretion thinks fit. [In this context, ‘discretion’
=
‘freedom to act or decide as one thinks fit’.]
What men do in asking for quarter (as it is now
called). . . .is to evade the present fury of the victor by sub-
mission, and to offer ransom or service in exchange for
their life. So someone who receives quarter hasn’t been
given his life; ·the status of his life· is merely deferred until
further deliberation ·by the victor·; for in asking for quarter
he wasn’t •yielding on condition of ·being allowed his· life,
but merely •yielding to ·the victor’s· discretion. When the
victor has entrusted him with his bodily liberty, then his
life is something he keeps on certain conditions and his
61. service is something he owes; then, but not before. For
slaves who work in prisons or in chains ·don’t owe their
service; they· serve not out of duty but to avoid the cruelty
of their task-masters.
The master of the servant is master also of everything
the servant has, and may demand the use of it—that it, the
use of the servant’s goods, of his labour, of his servants,
and of his children—as often as he thinks fit. For what
enables the servant to stay alive rather than being killed by
his master is the covenant of obedience through which he
owns and authorizes everything the master does. [Hobbes
expresses this by saying of the servant that ‘he holdeth his life
of his
master, by the covenant of obedience’.] And if he refuses to
serve,
and his master kills or imprisons or otherwise punishes him
for his disobedience, the servant is himself the author of this
action, and can’t accuse his master of wronging him.
Summing up: the rights and consequences of both pater-
nal and despotic dominion are the very same as those of a
sovereign by institution, and for the same reasons—which
I have set out in chapter 18. Suppose then that a man
is monarch of two nations, having sovereignty •in one by
institution of the assembled people, and •in the other by
conquest—i.e. by the submission of each individual person,
to avoid death or imprisonment. To demand more from the
conquered nation than from the one with a commonwealth
by institution, simply because the former was conquered,
is an act of ignorance of the rights of sovereignty. For
the sovereign is absolute over both nations alike; or else
there’s no sovereignty at all and every man may lawfully
protect himself, if he can, with his own sword—which is the
condition of war.
62. From this it appears that a great family, if it isn’t part
of some commonwealth, is in itself a little monarchy in
which there are rights of sovereignty, the sovereign being the
master or father. This holds, whether the family consist of
a man and his children, of a man and his servants, or of
a man and his children and servants together. [In Hobbes’s
time, ‘family’ could mean something broader, like ‘household’.]
But a
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family isn’t properly a commonwealth unless it has enough
power—through its numbers or its situation—to avoid being
subdued without the risk of starting a war. For when a
number of men are plainly too weak to mount a united
defence by themselves, each of them may, in time of danger,
use his own reason to save his life either by flight or by
submission to the enemy, as he shall think best; just as a
squad of soldiers, when a whole army takes them by surprise,
may throw down their arms and ask for quarter or run away
rather than being put to the sword.
That brings me to the end of what I have to say about
sovereign rights, on the basis of theorizing and deduction
concerning the nature, needs, and designs of men when
they establish commonwealths and put themselves under
monarchs or assemblies which they entrust with enough
power for their protection.
Let us now consider what the scripture teaches in the
same point. [What follows is about two pages of argument
63. aiming to show that Hobbes’s view of sovereignty is sup-
ported by the Bible. The present text omits that material.]
So that it appears plainly to my understanding, both from
reason and scripture, that the sovereign power is as great
as men can possibly be imagined to make it—whether it is
placed in one man (as in monarchy) or in one assembly of
men (as in democratic and aristocratic commonwealths). And
though men may fancy many evil consequences from such
unlimited power, the consequences of not having it—namely,
perpetual war of every man against his neighbour—are
much worse. The condition of men in this life will never
be without disadvantages, but the only big disadvantages
that occur in any commonwealth come from the subject’s
disobedience and breaking of the covenants from which the
commonwealth gets its existence. Anyway, someone who
thinks that sovereign power is too great and seeks to lessen
it will have to subject himself to a power that can limit it—i.e.
to a still greater power!
The greatest objection is an argument from practice [=
‘people’s actual behaviour’]. It is asked: where and when have
subjects actually acknowledged such power? But I ask in
turn: where and when has there been a commonwealth
where the power was not absolute and yet there was no
sedition and civil war? In nations whose commonwealths
have been long-lived, and not destroyed except by foreign
war, the subjects never did dispute over the sovereign power.
But anyway an argument from the practice of men who
•haven’t sifted to the bottom and with exact reason weighed
the causes and nature of commonwealths, and who •suffer
daily the miseries that come from ignorance of these mat-
ters, is invalid. Even if throughout the world men laid the
foundations of their houses on sand, it wouldn’t follow that
that’s what they ought to do. The making and maintaining
64. of commonwealths isn’t a mere matter of practice [= ‘practical
know-how’], like tennis; it is a science, with definite and
infallible rules, like arithmetic and geometry; poor men don’t
have the leisure to discover these rules, and men who have
had the leisure have up until now not had the curiosity ·to
search for them· or the method to discover them.
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Leviathan 3 Thomas Hobbes 21: Liberty of subjects
Chapter 21. The liberty of subjects
The ·equivalent· terms LIBER TY and FREEDOM, properly
understood, signify the absence of opposition, i.e. absence
of external impediments to motion. These terms may be
applied to unthinking and inanimate creatures just as much
as to thinking ones. For when something—anything—is tied
down or hemmed in so that it can move only within a certain
space, this space being determined by the opposition of some
external body, we say it doesn’t have ‘liberty’ to go further.
So when •any living creature is imprisoned or restrained by
walls or chains, or when •water that would otherwise spread
itself into a larger space is held back by banks or containers,
we are accustomed to say that it’s ‘not at liberty’ to move in
the way that it would without those external impediments.
But when the impediment to motion lies in the constitution
of the thing itself—as when a stone lies still, or a man is
held to his bed by sickness—what we say it lacks is not the
‘liberty’ to move but rather the ‘power’ to move.
And according to this proper and generally accepted
meaning of the word ·’free’·, a FREEMAN is someone who
isn’t