This document discusses various methods for processing animal feeds including grinding, cracking, steaming, pelleting and extruding. Processing feeds can increase digestibility by disrupting plant coatings, increasing surface area and altering starch structure. Grinding and cracking increase nutrient availability but may destroy vitamins. Steam flaking gelatinizes starch for improved digestion. Pelleting creates dense feeds but may reduce intake. Roughages can be chopped, ground or pelletized to increase consumption. Processing increases costs but also nutrient value.
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Feed processing techniques for improving nutrients utilization in ANN
Feed processing techniques for improving nutrients utilization in farm animals
Dr. Rahul Kumar Dangi
Grain processing methods
Classification on the basis of thermal treatments
Hot process
Steam flaking, Steam rolling, Pressure Cooking, Exploding, Gelatinization, Pelleting, Roasting andMicronization.
Cold process
Cracking/dry rolling Crimping, Crumbling, Extrusion Water soaking, Reconstitution, Decortication
Classification on the basis of treatment
Physical treatment
Chemical treatment
Biological treatment
Cracking or dry rolling:
The process of disintegration of kernels into particles with the application of pressure by moving rollers is known as dry rolling or cracking. It is done by a combination of breaking and crushing of the grains. The rollers are adjustable forgetting the rolled products of desired particles size. However, there is generally considerable variation in the particle size if fine particles are not removed by screening.
Crimping:
The process of rolling of feed ingredients with the use of corrugated rollers is called crimping. The process may include conditioning cooling of the processed feed.
Pellets
Crumbles & Roasting
Crumbles: The feed of granular particle size produced from thegrinding of pelleted feeds is called crumbles. Such processing ismostly done for the feeding pigs and poultry.
Roasting: The treatment of grains with direct flame or applicationof hot sand is called roasting. It causes expansion in volume dueto heating and generally increases digestibility.
Grinding
Grinding is a process of particle size reduction with the application of pressure and shearing. The purposes of feed grinding are as follows:
It reduces particle size, breakage of cell wall resulting into release of nutrients and their availability
Increases compactness and reduces space requirementfor storage.
Facilitate uniform mixing of feed ingredient
Pelleting more efficient
Swelling efficiency of feed ingredients increases.
Reduced scope for sorting of less palatable feed
Improves digestibility of fat containing material resulting in improved energy availability.
Reconstitution
Reconstitution is a process of conditioning the grains to raise its moisture content to 25-30% and storing in anaerobic condition for approximately 21 days. It results in disruption of the protein matrix the grain and release of enzyme (amylase and protease).
Result in breakdown of cellular carbohydrates and/or alteration in the structure of intracellular starch. The only disadvantage with reconstitution of grains is high cost of drying wet material.
Improvement in nutritive value of barley on reconstitution which was attributed to reduced glucan content through activation of endogenous enzymes.
Reconstitution can raise the sorghum digestibility to near that of maize. Rolling and grinding of reconstituted grains results in complete breakdown of the endosperm of the grain.
Soaking and germi
This presentation show about feed technology how to feed and fodder process their History, Principles, classification and some related definition its also helpful to graduate student and post graduate student FEED TECHNOLOGY
Definition
The subject of feed technology deals with processing of feeds, fodders and preparation of formula feeds for which the knowledge of nutritional requirements of various livestock and poultry, quality control of feed ingredients, feed plant management and the storage of feed ingredients and feeds are essential.
Animal feed technology may also be defined as the application of physical, chemical, biochemical, biological and engineering techniques to increase the nutrient utilization of feeds and fodders in animal system for the development of livestock and poultry and feed industry.
Beginning of feed Industry and related Activities in the US:-
• In 1875 Mr. john barwell initiated the production of a calf meal at Blatchford of Waukegan, Illinois.
• American Feed Manufacturers Association (AFMA) was founded in 1909 in Wisconsin and its name was changed to American Feed Industry Association (AFIA) in 1985.
• The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) was established in 1909.
• Linear programming, a mathematical procedure, was developed by George B. Dantzig in 1947.
• W.V. Waugh of USDA was the first to see the potential of this mathematical procedure and developed a least cost dairy feed in 1951.
• Food and drug Administration (FDA) was passed in 1906 in USA.
*Some of the AAFCO Definitions:-
1. Complete feed: - A nutritionally adequate feed for animals other than humans and is capable of maintaining life and / or promoting production without any additional substance, except water.
2. Concentrate:- A feed used with another to improve the nutritive balance of the total and intended to be further diluted and mixed to produce a supplement or a complete feed.
3. Supplement:- A feed used with another to improve the nutritive balance or performance of the total and intended to be (1) fed undiluted as a supplement to other feeds, (2) offered free- choice with other parts of the ration separately available or (3) further diluted and mixed to produce a complete feed.
4. Premix:- A uniform mixture of one or more micro-ingredients with diluents and carrier.
Development of Feed Industry in India:-
• Feed industry came into existence in India in 1961 with the establishment of a feed plant in Ludhiana, Punjab.
• Compound Livestock Feed Manufacturers Association (CLFMA) was formed on 8 June, 1967.
•
Power point will help to understand the animal feed preparation in feed mill. what are the different processes involving in the readymade animal feed preparation.
A presentation by New Food Innovation ltd , On Food Proteins review protein sustainability , food protein sources , novel proteins, manipulation , functionality , Novel proteins , and food waste valorisation
Feed processing techniques for improving nutrients utilization in ANN
Feed processing techniques for improving nutrients utilization in farm animals
Dr. Rahul Kumar Dangi
Grain processing methods
Classification on the basis of thermal treatments
Hot process
Steam flaking, Steam rolling, Pressure Cooking, Exploding, Gelatinization, Pelleting, Roasting andMicronization.
Cold process
Cracking/dry rolling Crimping, Crumbling, Extrusion Water soaking, Reconstitution, Decortication
Classification on the basis of treatment
Physical treatment
Chemical treatment
Biological treatment
Cracking or dry rolling:
The process of disintegration of kernels into particles with the application of pressure by moving rollers is known as dry rolling or cracking. It is done by a combination of breaking and crushing of the grains. The rollers are adjustable forgetting the rolled products of desired particles size. However, there is generally considerable variation in the particle size if fine particles are not removed by screening.
Crimping:
The process of rolling of feed ingredients with the use of corrugated rollers is called crimping. The process may include conditioning cooling of the processed feed.
Pellets
Crumbles & Roasting
Crumbles: The feed of granular particle size produced from thegrinding of pelleted feeds is called crumbles. Such processing ismostly done for the feeding pigs and poultry.
Roasting: The treatment of grains with direct flame or applicationof hot sand is called roasting. It causes expansion in volume dueto heating and generally increases digestibility.
Grinding
Grinding is a process of particle size reduction with the application of pressure and shearing. The purposes of feed grinding are as follows:
It reduces particle size, breakage of cell wall resulting into release of nutrients and their availability
Increases compactness and reduces space requirementfor storage.
Facilitate uniform mixing of feed ingredient
Pelleting more efficient
Swelling efficiency of feed ingredients increases.
Reduced scope for sorting of less palatable feed
Improves digestibility of fat containing material resulting in improved energy availability.
Reconstitution
Reconstitution is a process of conditioning the grains to raise its moisture content to 25-30% and storing in anaerobic condition for approximately 21 days. It results in disruption of the protein matrix the grain and release of enzyme (amylase and protease).
Result in breakdown of cellular carbohydrates and/or alteration in the structure of intracellular starch. The only disadvantage with reconstitution of grains is high cost of drying wet material.
Improvement in nutritive value of barley on reconstitution which was attributed to reduced glucan content through activation of endogenous enzymes.
Reconstitution can raise the sorghum digestibility to near that of maize. Rolling and grinding of reconstituted grains results in complete breakdown of the endosperm of the grain.
Soaking and germi
This presentation show about feed technology how to feed and fodder process their History, Principles, classification and some related definition its also helpful to graduate student and post graduate student FEED TECHNOLOGY
Definition
The subject of feed technology deals with processing of feeds, fodders and preparation of formula feeds for which the knowledge of nutritional requirements of various livestock and poultry, quality control of feed ingredients, feed plant management and the storage of feed ingredients and feeds are essential.
Animal feed technology may also be defined as the application of physical, chemical, biochemical, biological and engineering techniques to increase the nutrient utilization of feeds and fodders in animal system for the development of livestock and poultry and feed industry.
Beginning of feed Industry and related Activities in the US:-
• In 1875 Mr. john barwell initiated the production of a calf meal at Blatchford of Waukegan, Illinois.
• American Feed Manufacturers Association (AFMA) was founded in 1909 in Wisconsin and its name was changed to American Feed Industry Association (AFIA) in 1985.
• The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) was established in 1909.
• Linear programming, a mathematical procedure, was developed by George B. Dantzig in 1947.
• W.V. Waugh of USDA was the first to see the potential of this mathematical procedure and developed a least cost dairy feed in 1951.
• Food and drug Administration (FDA) was passed in 1906 in USA.
*Some of the AAFCO Definitions:-
1. Complete feed: - A nutritionally adequate feed for animals other than humans and is capable of maintaining life and / or promoting production without any additional substance, except water.
2. Concentrate:- A feed used with another to improve the nutritive balance of the total and intended to be further diluted and mixed to produce a supplement or a complete feed.
3. Supplement:- A feed used with another to improve the nutritive balance or performance of the total and intended to be (1) fed undiluted as a supplement to other feeds, (2) offered free- choice with other parts of the ration separately available or (3) further diluted and mixed to produce a complete feed.
4. Premix:- A uniform mixture of one or more micro-ingredients with diluents and carrier.
Development of Feed Industry in India:-
• Feed industry came into existence in India in 1961 with the establishment of a feed plant in Ludhiana, Punjab.
• Compound Livestock Feed Manufacturers Association (CLFMA) was formed on 8 June, 1967.
•
Power point will help to understand the animal feed preparation in feed mill. what are the different processes involving in the readymade animal feed preparation.
A presentation by New Food Innovation ltd , On Food Proteins review protein sustainability , food protein sources , novel proteins, manipulation , functionality , Novel proteins , and food waste valorisation
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
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Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
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2. FEED PROCESSING
• Feed cost is normally the single largest
expense associated with any animal
production operation
– > 50%
– Often up to 80%
3. Why Process Feeds?
1. Alter physical form
2. Alter particle size
3. Prevent spoilage
4. Isolate particular portion of plant
5. Improve palatability
6. Inactivate toxins or antinutritional
factors
7. Ease of handling
8. Increase digestibility
4. How does processing increase
digestibility?
• Improve intake
– How does this affect digestibility?
– How does this affect nutrient uptake?
• Increase surface area of particles
– More surface area for chemical and enzymatic
reactions
• Alters molecular structure
– Denaturing, cooking starch, etc…
6. Grain Processing
• Cold or Hot Processing
– Cold
• Cracking, grinding, soaking, reconstitution, high
moisture grain, acid preservation
– Hot
• Steam rolling or flaking, pelleting, extrusion, popping,
micronizing, roasting
• Dry or Wet Processing
7. Grinding/Cracking – Cold Processing
• Various scales of grinding
– Hammer mill or Roller Mill
• Most common method
• Inexpensive
• Simple
8. Cracking & Grinding - Roller Mills
Act on grain by compressing it
between two corrugated rolls
that can be screwed together
to produce smaller and
smaller particles.
Figure 11.3
Top. One type of a roller mill used for
processing grain.
Right. The large corrugated rolls that
physically crush the grain as shown.
Courtesy of Automatic Equipment Mfg. Co.
Pender, NB.
9. Roller Mills
• Products can range in size
– cracked grain to a fine powder = corn, wheat, or
milo
– Flattened to powder = course grains (barley, oats)
• The hulls won’t grind into powder well with roller mills
• Roller mills produce a less dusty feed than a
hammer mill.
– If the grain is not ground too finely, the physical
texture is very acceptable to most species.
• Swine diets - very finely ground
– Roller mills are not used with roughage.
10. Hammer Mills
• Process feed using rotating metal
bars (hammers) that blow the ground product
through a metal screen.
– Particle size is controlled by changing the screen
size.
Figure 11.5
One example of a portable grinder
(hammer mill) and mixer available
for on-the-farm use.
Courtesy of Richard Kellems.
11. Grinding - Summary
• Grinding improves nutrient utilization by disrupting the outer
protective coating and increasing the accessibility of the digestive
secretion to the materials inside.
• Coursely ground grains are preferred for ruminants
– Not palatable when fine, or dusty
• Fine ground common for poultry and swine
• Grinding is comparable to other processing methods when intake of
grain is low.
12. Soaking Grain – Cold/Hot Method
• Grain soaked for 12 to 24 hours in water
• Soaking, (may also be heat), softens the grain, which
swells, making a palatable product that should be rolled
before use in finishing rations.
– Research does not show any marked improvement in
feed efficiency as compared to other processing.
• Space requirements, handling problems and potential
souring discourage large-scale use.
13. Reconstitution – Cold Method
• Reconstitution is somewhat similar to soaking.
– Water is added to mature, dry grain to raise the
moisture content to 25% to 30%.
– Stored in an oxygen-limiting silo for 14 to 21 days.
• Improved gain and feed conversion by beef cattle
fed high-concentrate rations when whole grain
used (milo and corn)
– Does not work well if grain is ground prior to
reconstitution. Milo should be rolled after.
– Some fermentation takes place during holding.
– Disadvantage is in regard to capacity and holding
14. High-Moisture Grain
• High-moisture grain refers to grain harvested at a high moisture
content ( 20 to 35%) & stored in a silo or under plastic to preserve the
grain.
• Can be further processed before or after ensiling.
– May be useful when weather doesn’t allow for drying in the field
• High-moisture grain produces good feedlot results, with feed
conversion particularly improved over dry grain.
– Disadvantages
• mold if weather is not cold, mishandled, or improperly stored,
not chemically treated.
• Storage costs may be high.
• More difficult to dispose of than dry grains
15. High-Moisture Grain –
Acid Preservation
• 1 – 1.5% addition propionic acid, mixtures
of acetic & propionic acid, or formic &
propionic acid
– Prevent mold and spoilage
– Won’t affect animal performance if mixed
correctly
16. Hot Processing Methods
• Methods for heat processing include:
– Common: Steam rolling and flaking;
extruding, pelleting
– Uncommon: Popping, micronizing, and
roasting.
• Some methods are time, equipment and
cost prohibitive
– Micronizing, popping, roasting
17. Popping, Micronizing, Roasting
• Popped corn is produced by action of dry
heat, causing a sudden expansion that
ruptures the endosperm of the grain.
– Increases gut and rumen starch utilization but
results in a low-density feed.
– Popped feed usually is rolled to reduce bulk.
• Micronizing is essentially the same as
popping, but heat is provided by infrared
energy.
18. Steam Rolling – Hot Process
• Steam rolling has been used since the 1940s, partly
to kill weed seeds.
• Steam passes up through a chamber that holds the
grain above a roller mill.
• Grains are subjected to 3- 5 minutes of steam
BEFORE being rolled.
• Does NOT modify the starch but it DOES soften the
seed.
• Less fines and larger flakes than dry/cold rolling –
typically improve animal performance
19. Steam Flaking Grains
• Steam-flaking, used since the 1960s
• Grains subjected to high-moisture steam
for 15 - 30 minutes.
– Rolled
– Feeding value can improve by 12% to 15%.
– The thinner the grain is flaked, the lighter the
bushel weight & faster the rate of in vitro starch
digestion.
20.
21. Steam Flaking
• Steam flaking allows more efficient rupture of starch granules, for a
more desirable physical texture in the finished product.
• Starch becomes gelatinized – intermolecular bonds of starch break
down (water causes swelling) which allows hydrogen binding sites to
engage more water which dissolves the starch granules.
– Corn, barley & sorghum usually give a good response in terms of
increased gain & feed efficiency.
22. Extrusion
• Extruded grains or other feeds are prepared by passing the
feed through a machine with a spiral screw, forcing the feed
through a tapered head.
– Moisture is added
– Heat is added
– Pressure is added
– Starch is gelatinized
– Puffs and changes texture due to loss of heat and moisture at
the end of the process
– Dried but retains the porosity
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MU3PJb2Ngqs
23. HOT Pelleting
• Pellets, available commercially for over 50 years,
come in different diameters, lengths & hardness.
Figure 11.7 One type of pellet mill widely used for pelleting concentrates. A quick-change die is shown at the left.
Roughages can be pelleted, but production is reduced & costs are appreciably higher.
24. Pelleting
• Pelleting is accomplished by grinding feed and
forcing it through a thick, spinning die by rollers.
– Feedstuffs are usually steamed to some extent prior.
– Typically not enough to gelatinize the starch.
• Palatable
– High percentages of poultry, horse & swine feeds are
pelleted.
– Not as palatable for ruminants on high – grain diets.
Will see reduction in feed intake. Works well for
forages.
• Supplemental feeds such as protein concentrates
are often pelleted, so that they can then be fed on
the ground or in windy areas with much less loss.
25. Pelleting - Roughage
Advantages
• Pelleting roughages puts them in free flowing form
• Must be ground prior to pelleting – expense
• Reduce space requirement by as much as 75%
• May increase intake of forages
• Reduces dustiness
• Increase efficiency for low-quality forages
Disadvantages
• Cost of additional processing (more costly for
roughage than for concentrate)
• Reduces the roughage value of hay
26. • Examples of diet effects on VFA production
– Forage:Concentrate
Forage:Concentrate
VFA, Molar% 60:40 40:60 20:80
Acetate 66.9 62.9 56.7
Propionate 21.1 24.9 30.9
Butyrate 12.0 12.2 12.4
Methane, Mcal/d 3.1 2.6 1.8
– Physical form of forage
Alfalfa hay
Grind
VFA, Molar% Long Coarse Fine Pelleted
Acetate 62.5 56.8 47.5 18.2
Propionate 23.8 27.1 28.5 45.7
Butyrate 10.8 13.6 23.9 32.8
27. Poultry - Pellets
• Typically fed crumbles rather than pellets
– More water consumption on pellets (10 – 20%)
– More cannibalism
• Crumbles are rolled pellets
Item Mash Crumble Re-ground
Crumble
Corn soy diet
Avg. weight
(g)
407 471 461
Feed/Gain 2.06 1.90 1.96
28. ROUGHAGE PROCESSING
Pelleting
• Pelleting usually gives greatest relative
increase in performance for low-quality
roughages.
– Increased density, rapid passage through the GI
tract, and reduced digestibility is normal.
– Net nutrient uptake is increased because of the
increased consumption.
• Pelleted, high-quality roughages produce
performance in young cattle or lambs almost
comparable to that yielded by high-grain
feeding.
29. ROUGHAGE PROCESSING
Pelleting
• In ruminants, less cellulose is digested,
relatively less acetic acid is produced, and
relatively more digestion takes place in the
intestines.
– Because pellets pass out of the rumen more
rapidly.
• Feeding finely ground, pelleted rations for long
periods of time may be detrimental to the
rumen.
– Animals fed in this manner will develop
hyperkeratosis of the rumen papillae, which
reduces absorption and performance.
30. ROUGHAGE PROCESSING
Baled Roughage
• Baling is still one of the most common methods of
handling roughage, particularly where it is apt to
be sold or transported some distance.
Figure 11.9 Unloading large bales of hay.
Baling has a considerable
advantage over loose hay
stacked in the field, or in other,
less-dense forms.
Large bales are becoming more
common.
31. Baled Roughage
• Although handled mechanically for the
most part, it still requires more hand labor
than many other feedstuffs.
• Considerable waste may occur in feeding,
depending on how it is fed, and level of
feeding.
– Heavily fed animals such as dairy cows may
be quite selective, so that coarse stems will
not be consumed.
32. ROUGHAGE PROCESSING
Chopped and Ground Roughage
• Chopping or grinding puts roughage in a physical
form handled readily by mechanical equipment.
– Also tends to provide a more uniform product and
usually reduces feed refusal & waste.
– Many feed trucks are now able to chop hay in the
mixing chamber.
• Additional expense is incurred by grinding, and
loss of dust may be appreciable from grinding with
a hammer mill.
– To reduce dust loss, fat or molasses is sometimes
sprayed on bales before they are ground.
33. Figure 11.10 An example of a tub grinder, a type that is very useful for grinding roughages coarsely.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HR9yFOnihdc&feature=related
34. • Ground hays are, as a rule, quite dusty
and may not be consumed readily.
– Adding moisture helps.
• Chopping produces a physical texture of a
more desirable nature for ruminants or
horses than does grinding.
– Chopped hay does not lend itself as well to
incorporation into mixed feeds as does
ground hay.
35. Figure 11.11 The effect of baling (left), grinding in a hammer mill (center), or grinding and pelleting (right)
on the volume of alfalfa hay after processing. Each pile contains 5 lb of hay.
36. ROUGHAGE PROCESSING
Dried, Dehydrated Roughages
• Alfalfa meal is produced in the U.S., mostly
for export, and some is produced in Europe.
• Dehydrated alfalfa, Bermuda grass, and other
forages are harvested at an early stage of
growth when protein content is high and the
fiber content relatively low.
– Also a high content of carotene and xanthophylls.
• Cost is relatively high, so it is used in limited
amounts for poultry or swine as a source of
carotene, vitamins, or unidentified growth
factors.
38. EFFECT OF PROCESSING ON
NUTRITIVE VALUE - Heating
• Heat
– dry a feedstuff to a point allowing storage without
refrigeration, use of preservatives, or ensiling.
– Reduce microbial content (sterilization)
– Alter the chemistry (denature proteins, gelatinize
starch, inactivate toxins)
• With regard to proteins, excessive heating in the
presence of sugars may result in browning.
– As a consequence of the Maillard reaction, lysine
reacts with the sugars and becomes partially
unavailable to the animal.
39. NUTRITIVE VALUE - Heating
• Overheating fish or animal proteins makes them less
efficient.
• Heating of cereal grains to a moderate degree for
short periods of time may result in a slight
improvement in protein utilization for ruminants.
– But little if any improvement for nonruminants.
• Heating legume seeds results in an improvement in
protein quality, degrading anti-quality factors.
– Soybeans
• Increase the metabolizable energy value
• Reduces solubility of soy protein for less degradation of protein
in the rumen.
40. Nutritive Value - Heating
• In cereal grains, heat, especially with moisture,
results in partial gelatinization of the starch.
– More efficient utilization of grains, particularly if
mechanical rupture of starch granules takes place,
especially for ruminants on high-grain diets.
• Any treatment that increases exposure to air,
heat or light normally results in some
deterioration of most of the vitamins.
– Fat-soluble vitamins and thiamin, pantothenic acid,
folic acid, and biotin are particularly susceptible to
destruction by heat and light.
41. NUTRITIVE VALUE - Grinding and
Pelleting
• Grinding results in a substantial reduction in
particle size and exposure of much more
surface area to the action of chemicals, as well
as to the digestive juices.
• Storage of ground grains or other feedstuffs
results in destruction of readily oxidized
nutrients.
– Unsaturated fats, especially in the presence
of trace minerals such as iron and manganese.
• Digestibility of nutrients in pelleted feeds is
usually increased when retention time in the
digestive tract is the same.
42. HIGH-MOISTURE GRAIN
• Harvesting grains earlier may avoid losses to bad
weather or, in the case of sorghum grains, large
amounts of damage from birds.
– Early-harvested corn or sorghum may be expected
to have a moisture content of 25% to 30%.
– It is then necessary to dry, ensile, or treat them
with chemicals if the grains are to be stored.
– Early harvested grain requires less energy to grind or
roll, and are quite palatable to livestock.
– Protein & starch fractions are more soluble and more
completely digested, or digested at a more rapid rate
by ruminants.
43. Economics of Processing
• Relatively higher energy costs have increased
interest in minimizing feed processing costs or
obtaining maximum return per unit of cost for
processing or preservation.
Costs in megacalories of fossil
fuel (oil, coal, gas) per ton of
processed feed have been
estimated and are shown at
right.