3
1
A Complete Dissertation
The Big Picture
OVERVIEW
Following is a road map that briefly outlines
the contents of an entire dissertation. This is
a comprehensive overview, and as such is
helpful in making sure that at a glance you
understand up front the necessary elements
that will constitute each section of your
dissertation. This broad overview is a prelude
to the steps involved in each of the chapters
that are described and demonstrated in Part II.
While certain elements are common to most
dissertations, please note that dissertation
requirements vary by institution. Toward
that end, students should always consult
with their advisor and committee members
to ascertain any details that might be specific
or particular to institutional or departmental
requirements.
FRONT MATTER
Order and format of front matter may vary
by institution and department.
• Title page
• Copyright page (optional)
• Abstract
• Dedication (optional)
• Acknowledgments (optional)
• Table of contents
• List of tables and figures (only those in
chapters, not those in appendices)
1. Title Page
The title gives a clear and concise descrip-
tion of the topic/problem and the scope of
the study. The title page will show the title;
Chapter 1 Objectives
• Provide a cursory glance at the constitution of an entire dissertation.
• Offer a comprehensive outline of all key elements for each section of the dissertation—that is,
a precursor of what is to come, with each element being more fully developed and explained
further along in the book.
• For each key element, explain reason for inclusion, quality markers, and frequent or common
errors.
Objectives
PART I. TAKING CHARGE OF YOURSELF AND YOUR WORK4
the author’s full name; the degree to be con-
ferred; the university, department, and col-
lege in which the degree is earned; and the
month and year of approval. Margins for the
title page and the entire document are
left—1.5 inches; right, top, and bottom—
1 inch. Also, the title should be in all capitals.
Reason
The title both guides and reflects the pur-
pose and content of the study, making its
relevance apparent to prospective readers.
The title is also important for retrieval pur-
poses enabling other researchers to locate it
through a literature search.
Quality Markers
A well-crafted title conveys the essence
and purpose of the study. The title should
include the type of study (“An Analysis”)
and the participants. Use of keywords will
promote proper categorization into data-
bases such as ERIC (the Education Resources
Information Center) and Dissertation
Abstracts International.
Frequent Errors
Frequent title errors include the use of
trendy, elaborate, nonspecific, or literary
language, and grandiose or unrealistic expec-
tations (e.g., “Finally, a
Solution
to . . .”).
2. Copyright Page (optional)
Copyright is the legal right of an owner of
created material to control copying and own-
ership of that mate.
BA634 Current & Emerging Technology Research Paper 1 .docxjasoninnes20
BA634 Current & Emerging Technology
Research Paper
1
Understanding Evolving Technologies
As we all know technology is evolving at a rate that, to some, seems
overwhelming. These technologies often evolve to offer higher quality products and
services at lower prices causing a disruption in markets that is sometimes perceived as
unwelcome. These disruptive technologies are sometimes the results of innovative
business models that are also part of the evolving processes of a competitive
marketplace.
This is an individual research paper required from BA634 students.
As a Research Project, select one of the following research areas:
Cloud Computing (Intranet, Extranet, and Internet)
Machine Learning
Artificial Intelligence
Internet of Things (IoT)
Robotics
Medical Technology
1) Your research paper needs to be between 12-15 pages.
2) It needs be submitted as a WORD document.
3) The research paper must only include materials from peer reviewed
journals and peer reviewed conference proceedings. APA formatted
citations are therefore required for the final submission. Newspapers,
websites (URLs), magazines, technical journals, hearsay, personal
opinions, and white papers are NOT acceptable citations.
4) Each submission will be checked for plagiarism. All plagiarized
documents will results in a grade of zero for the exercise.
5) If there is extensive synonym use or not understandable, long
sentences, the document will results in a grade of zero for the
exercise.
6) The final research paper must include your through analysis and synthesis
of the peer reviewed literature used in your research paper.
7) There will be a limit of 3 images, tables, figures are to be included in the
BA634 Current & Emerging Technology
Research Paper
2
appendices and DO NOT count for page limit requirements.
8) Long quotations (i.e. paragraphs) are NOT permitted. Only one quoted
sentence is permitted per page.
9) Footnotes are NOT permitted.
Document Details
Chapter 1 Introduction
Background/Introduction
In this section, present enough information about the proposed work such that the reader
understands the general context or setting. It is also helpful to include a summary of how the rest
of this document is organized.
Problem Statement
In this section, present a concise statement of a research-worthy problem addressed (i.e., why the
work should be undertaken – don’t say required for the class). Follow the statement of the
problem with a well-supported discussion of its scope and nature. The discussion of the problem
should include: what the problem is, why it is a problem, how the problem evolved or developed,
and the issues and events leading to the problem.
Goal
Next, include a concise definition of the goal of the work (i.e., what the work will accomplish).
Aim to define a goal that is measurable.
Research Questions
Research que ...
Scientific writing is not just writing about science; it is the technical writing that scientists do to communicate their research to others. Scientific writing is predicated on the rigors of scientific inquiry, so it must reflect the same precision as that demanded in the research process.
Running head RESEARCH PROPOSALTitleNameLake.docxtoltonkendal
Running head: RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Title
Name
Lakeland College
address
city, state
telephone
email
Dr. Edward Jedlicka
Master of Arts in Counseling
Date
Research Paper Guidelines
Understanding the process that undergirds principles of research is a primary objective for this course. This project includes a thorough review of literature related the Counseling field. This project should include (1) a title page; (2) an abstract; (3) an introduction to the paper; (4) the review of literature; (5) a methods section; (6) a complete list of references used.
The paper that you will submit should be organized to carefully review research done on a particular topic of your choosing. In the review of literature, you will find it easier and more consistent to use the past tense when describing studies because they have already been completed. Therefore, you should write in the past tense for a scholarly audience, and should use clear and short sentences that generally avoid the use of personal pronouns (e.g., “I”). APA guidelines specify that your manuscript should be double spaced throughout, left justified (with regular “ragged right” margins), and margins should be set to 1 inch on all sides. Please check the Publication Manual of the APA.
Structure of the Paper
Title Page
Title. The title should summarize the main idea of the paper and include the main topic and actual theoretical issue investigated. Good titles are short (< 20 words) and would serve as a type of index of the main issues covered, including the nature of the tasks, participants, or other important variables. Type the title centered, in upper and lower cases, double-spaced.
Running head. Each page of your manuscript has a brief “title” (running head) printed in the upper right hand corner of the manuscript. It should be a maximum of 50 characters, and be followed by the specific page number for that page. A notation as to the specific Running head should be located in all caps, flush left at the top of the title page. For example, on your title page you would show (in the upper left hand corner):
Running head: RESEARCH PROPOSAL - 1
RESEARCH PROPOSAL - 1
Running head: RESEARCH PROPOSAL
On every subsequent page the running head would be right-justified with the page number. [Note: your running head would specify the content of your selected review] For example:
Research Proposal: - 2
Abstract
(This is your section header; centered on the page)
Page two is the Abstract for the paper. It is a brief (150-200 words) comprehensive summary of the research proposal. The Running head and the number 2 are typed in the upper right-hand corner of the page. The word “Abstract” is centered as the first line of type on this page. Type the abstract as a single paragraph in block format (i.e., without paragraph indentation). You may also want to list keywords from your paper in your abstract. To do this, center the text and type Keywords: (it ...
BA634 Current & Emerging Technology Research Paper 1 .docxjasoninnes20
BA634 Current & Emerging Technology
Research Paper
1
Understanding Evolving Technologies
As we all know technology is evolving at a rate that, to some, seems
overwhelming. These technologies often evolve to offer higher quality products and
services at lower prices causing a disruption in markets that is sometimes perceived as
unwelcome. These disruptive technologies are sometimes the results of innovative
business models that are also part of the evolving processes of a competitive
marketplace.
This is an individual research paper required from BA634 students.
As a Research Project, select one of the following research areas:
Cloud Computing (Intranet, Extranet, and Internet)
Machine Learning
Artificial Intelligence
Internet of Things (IoT)
Robotics
Medical Technology
1) Your research paper needs to be between 12-15 pages.
2) It needs be submitted as a WORD document.
3) The research paper must only include materials from peer reviewed
journals and peer reviewed conference proceedings. APA formatted
citations are therefore required for the final submission. Newspapers,
websites (URLs), magazines, technical journals, hearsay, personal
opinions, and white papers are NOT acceptable citations.
4) Each submission will be checked for plagiarism. All plagiarized
documents will results in a grade of zero for the exercise.
5) If there is extensive synonym use or not understandable, long
sentences, the document will results in a grade of zero for the
exercise.
6) The final research paper must include your through analysis and synthesis
of the peer reviewed literature used in your research paper.
7) There will be a limit of 3 images, tables, figures are to be included in the
BA634 Current & Emerging Technology
Research Paper
2
appendices and DO NOT count for page limit requirements.
8) Long quotations (i.e. paragraphs) are NOT permitted. Only one quoted
sentence is permitted per page.
9) Footnotes are NOT permitted.
Document Details
Chapter 1 Introduction
Background/Introduction
In this section, present enough information about the proposed work such that the reader
understands the general context or setting. It is also helpful to include a summary of how the rest
of this document is organized.
Problem Statement
In this section, present a concise statement of a research-worthy problem addressed (i.e., why the
work should be undertaken – don’t say required for the class). Follow the statement of the
problem with a well-supported discussion of its scope and nature. The discussion of the problem
should include: what the problem is, why it is a problem, how the problem evolved or developed,
and the issues and events leading to the problem.
Goal
Next, include a concise definition of the goal of the work (i.e., what the work will accomplish).
Aim to define a goal that is measurable.
Research Questions
Research que ...
Scientific writing is not just writing about science; it is the technical writing that scientists do to communicate their research to others. Scientific writing is predicated on the rigors of scientific inquiry, so it must reflect the same precision as that demanded in the research process.
Running head RESEARCH PROPOSALTitleNameLake.docxtoltonkendal
Running head: RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Title
Name
Lakeland College
address
city, state
telephone
email
Dr. Edward Jedlicka
Master of Arts in Counseling
Date
Research Paper Guidelines
Understanding the process that undergirds principles of research is a primary objective for this course. This project includes a thorough review of literature related the Counseling field. This project should include (1) a title page; (2) an abstract; (3) an introduction to the paper; (4) the review of literature; (5) a methods section; (6) a complete list of references used.
The paper that you will submit should be organized to carefully review research done on a particular topic of your choosing. In the review of literature, you will find it easier and more consistent to use the past tense when describing studies because they have already been completed. Therefore, you should write in the past tense for a scholarly audience, and should use clear and short sentences that generally avoid the use of personal pronouns (e.g., “I”). APA guidelines specify that your manuscript should be double spaced throughout, left justified (with regular “ragged right” margins), and margins should be set to 1 inch on all sides. Please check the Publication Manual of the APA.
Structure of the Paper
Title Page
Title. The title should summarize the main idea of the paper and include the main topic and actual theoretical issue investigated. Good titles are short (< 20 words) and would serve as a type of index of the main issues covered, including the nature of the tasks, participants, or other important variables. Type the title centered, in upper and lower cases, double-spaced.
Running head. Each page of your manuscript has a brief “title” (running head) printed in the upper right hand corner of the manuscript. It should be a maximum of 50 characters, and be followed by the specific page number for that page. A notation as to the specific Running head should be located in all caps, flush left at the top of the title page. For example, on your title page you would show (in the upper left hand corner):
Running head: RESEARCH PROPOSAL - 1
RESEARCH PROPOSAL - 1
Running head: RESEARCH PROPOSAL
On every subsequent page the running head would be right-justified with the page number. [Note: your running head would specify the content of your selected review] For example:
Research Proposal: - 2
Abstract
(This is your section header; centered on the page)
Page two is the Abstract for the paper. It is a brief (150-200 words) comprehensive summary of the research proposal. The Running head and the number 2 are typed in the upper right-hand corner of the page. The word “Abstract” is centered as the first line of type on this page. Type the abstract as a single paragraph in block format (i.e., without paragraph indentation). You may also want to list keywords from your paper in your abstract. To do this, center the text and type Keywords: (it ...
This powerpoint reviews parts of academic paper, such as the Title, Abstract, Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Findings, Discussion, and Conclusion
Scientific Writing should be fun. It is not for only science students but also for all the person who are associated with education or literature or any type of writing. For students also it is useful for paper writing. Dr. Daxaben N. Mehta
A compilation of points from various text books.
Report writing, oral presentation. Meaning and objectives, significance, attributes of good report, literature review, methodology, mechanics of writing a good report, steps in writing a report. Guidelines
by K. T. Thomas, Assistant Professor, Christ University, Pune Lavasa
MMC 6950_Fall B 2018 Professor Heather Radi-Bermudez S.docxpauline234567
MMC 6950_Fall B 2018 Professor Heather Radi-Bermudez
Structuring a Scholarly Research Paper (Project B) – GSC Program
A Master’s Project B combines both primary and secondary research. Primary
research means you are conducting your own study, experiment, or investigation. The
information you are gaining is original with you. Secondary research means you are
studying the works of others. The information comes from published books, articles, and
other sources. In Project B, your secondary research is your literature review, and your
primary research is described in your methods and your results.
PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Literature Review
5. Methods
6. Results
7. Discussion
8. References
9. Appendices (if applicable)
1. Title Page (APA Style)
Select an academic-style title that previews the content of the paper. Readers use such
academic titles to select articles and to get a quick sense of what an article is about.
Academic titles can state the research question, summarize the thesis or purpose, or be
written as a two-part title with a colon. The title page should contain the title of the
paper, the author's name, and the institutional affiliation. Include the page header flush
left with the page number flush right at the top of the page. Please note that on the title
page, your page header should look like this-> Running head: TITLE OF YOUR
PAPER. Type your title in upper and lowercase letters centered in the upper half of the
page. APA recommends that your title be no more than 12 words in length and that it
should not contain abbreviations or words that serve no purpose. Your title may take up
one or two lines. All text on the title page, and throughout your paper, should be double-
spaced. Beneath the title, type the author's name: first name, middle initial(s), and last
name. Beneath the author's name, type the institutional affiliation, which should indicate
the location where the author(s) conducted the research. Please look online for samples
of APA style title pages.
2. Abstract
This is a brief (75-120 words) comprehensive summary of the paper, which allows the
reader to survey the contents of the paper quickly. The abstract should address the
background, purpose of study (i.e. the research questions or hypotheses), methods
used, results and conclusion. Model the abstract of your paper after the abstracts of the
research articles you have read in peer reviewed journals.
3. Introduction
All documents must be able to stand on their own by including an introduction to orient
MMC 6950_Fall B 2018 Professor Heather Radi-Bermudez
the reader. The purpose of the introduction is to establish a context (general
background information), preview the content of the paper, and frame the significance of
the research. You may tell why this problem has been a problem or why you think this
particular slant or angle to the .
5 to 8 sentence each 1. Declining marriage rates have led many .docxdomenicacullison
5 to 8 sentence each
1. Declining marriage rates have led many to conclude that Americans no longer place a high value on marriage. Use data and arguments to advocate for and against this conclusion.
2. Discuss the varied causes and ramifications of cohabitation among couples who choose it as a living arrangement before marriage, instead of marriage, or after divorce.
.
5-7 PagesYou will craft individual essays in response to the pro.docxdomenicacullison
5-7 Pages
You will craft individual essays in response to the provided prompts. You must use the current Turabian style with default margins and 12-pt Times New Roman font. For each essay, include a title page and reference page, also in current Turabian format. You must include citations to a sufficient number of appropriate scholarly sources to fully support your assertions and conclusions (which will likely require more than the minimum number of citations). Each paper must contain at least 5 7 scholarly sources
original to this paper
,
The UN— “A More Perfect Union?”
Considering the readings, video presentations, and your own research, draft a quality 6–7-page research paper on the role, legitimacy, and authority of the UN according to the following prompts, answering in a separate or integrated manner as you wish.
Identify at least 3reasons that states might defend the intrinsic legitimacy of the UN as a governing authority. In reverse, identify at least 3reasons that states might criticize its legitimacy and authority.
In short, make an argument for the limits and possibilities of the UN as a legitimate governing authority in a world of sovereign states.
What is the relationship of the UN to the current international system of states?
Considering the reasons for the creation of the UN after WWII, does it seem driven by political necessity or the political utility? In plainer English, do states need the UN more than the UN needs the states? Or do states both large and small find the UN a useful tool for improving their relative power and legitimacy vis-à-vis other states and global institutions? Is there some position in-between?
Using other sources and extra-Scholar sources (The commentaries, teachings, other writings, etc.) to inform your own reasoning, comment on the compatibility with the idea of
World Government
. [
Attention
: The Instructor does not view the question as rhetorical, nor the answer self-evident. So, reason carefully.] For example, if the logic of collective action under the
Articles of Confederation
—the logic of state sovereignty—failed to secure American liberties as well as the ‘more perfect union’, the new Constitution established by the Framers in 1787 to replace it, effectively requiring states to cede sovereignty to a larger collective authority, why would the same logic of collective action not justify the UN as a ‘more perfect union’ to replace an anarchic system of sovereign states putting the world at risk in a nuclear age?
.
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A compilation of points from various text books.
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MMC 6950_Fall B 2018 Professor Heather Radi-Bermudez S.docxpauline234567
MMC 6950_Fall B 2018 Professor Heather Radi-Bermudez
Structuring a Scholarly Research Paper (Project B) – GSC Program
A Master’s Project B combines both primary and secondary research. Primary
research means you are conducting your own study, experiment, or investigation. The
information you are gaining is original with you. Secondary research means you are
studying the works of others. The information comes from published books, articles, and
other sources. In Project B, your secondary research is your literature review, and your
primary research is described in your methods and your results.
PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER
1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Literature Review
5. Methods
6. Results
7. Discussion
8. References
9. Appendices (if applicable)
1. Title Page (APA Style)
Select an academic-style title that previews the content of the paper. Readers use such
academic titles to select articles and to get a quick sense of what an article is about.
Academic titles can state the research question, summarize the thesis or purpose, or be
written as a two-part title with a colon. The title page should contain the title of the
paper, the author's name, and the institutional affiliation. Include the page header flush
left with the page number flush right at the top of the page. Please note that on the title
page, your page header should look like this-> Running head: TITLE OF YOUR
PAPER. Type your title in upper and lowercase letters centered in the upper half of the
page. APA recommends that your title be no more than 12 words in length and that it
should not contain abbreviations or words that serve no purpose. Your title may take up
one or two lines. All text on the title page, and throughout your paper, should be double-
spaced. Beneath the title, type the author's name: first name, middle initial(s), and last
name. Beneath the author's name, type the institutional affiliation, which should indicate
the location where the author(s) conducted the research. Please look online for samples
of APA style title pages.
2. Abstract
This is a brief (75-120 words) comprehensive summary of the paper, which allows the
reader to survey the contents of the paper quickly. The abstract should address the
background, purpose of study (i.e. the research questions or hypotheses), methods
used, results and conclusion. Model the abstract of your paper after the abstracts of the
research articles you have read in peer reviewed journals.
3. Introduction
All documents must be able to stand on their own by including an introduction to orient
MMC 6950_Fall B 2018 Professor Heather Radi-Bermudez
the reader. The purpose of the introduction is to establish a context (general
background information), preview the content of the paper, and frame the significance of
the research. You may tell why this problem has been a problem or why you think this
particular slant or angle to the .
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1. Declining marriage rates have led many to conclude that Americans no longer place a high value on marriage. Use data and arguments to advocate for and against this conclusion.
2. Discuss the varied causes and ramifications of cohabitation among couples who choose it as a living arrangement before marriage, instead of marriage, or after divorce.
.
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You will craft individual essays in response to the provided prompts. You must use the current Turabian style with default margins and 12-pt Times New Roman font. For each essay, include a title page and reference page, also in current Turabian format. You must include citations to a sufficient number of appropriate scholarly sources to fully support your assertions and conclusions (which will likely require more than the minimum number of citations). Each paper must contain at least 5 7 scholarly sources
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The UN— “A More Perfect Union?”
Considering the readings, video presentations, and your own research, draft a quality 6–7-page research paper on the role, legitimacy, and authority of the UN according to the following prompts, answering in a separate or integrated manner as you wish.
Identify at least 3reasons that states might defend the intrinsic legitimacy of the UN as a governing authority. In reverse, identify at least 3reasons that states might criticize its legitimacy and authority.
In short, make an argument for the limits and possibilities of the UN as a legitimate governing authority in a world of sovereign states.
What is the relationship of the UN to the current international system of states?
Considering the reasons for the creation of the UN after WWII, does it seem driven by political necessity or the political utility? In plainer English, do states need the UN more than the UN needs the states? Or do states both large and small find the UN a useful tool for improving their relative power and legitimacy vis-à-vis other states and global institutions? Is there some position in-between?
Using other sources and extra-Scholar sources (The commentaries, teachings, other writings, etc.) to inform your own reasoning, comment on the compatibility with the idea of
World Government
. [
Attention
: The Instructor does not view the question as rhetorical, nor the answer self-evident. So, reason carefully.] For example, if the logic of collective action under the
Articles of Confederation
—the logic of state sovereignty—failed to secure American liberties as well as the ‘more perfect union’, the new Constitution established by the Framers in 1787 to replace it, effectively requiring states to cede sovereignty to a larger collective authority, why would the same logic of collective action not justify the UN as a ‘more perfect union’ to replace an anarchic system of sovereign states putting the world at risk in a nuclear age?
.
5.1 Assignment Reading and RemediationGetting Start.docxdomenicacullison
5.1 Assignment: Reading and Remediation
Getting Started
Viewing the videos and practicing using the practice Excel file with its video can prepare you for the work needed on the research report.
In order to successfully complete this exercise, you should be able to:
Review videos about statistics fundamentals.
Practice with the Excel file provided.
Resources
File: WS5Practice
File: WS5Homework
Video: Chi-Square
Video: Chi-Square Testing
Textbook:
OpenIntro Statistics
File: Chi-Square_10by10.xlsx
Background Information
Providing background and descriptive statistics is like a literature review section of a dissertation. You review and communicate the analysis on the raw data. You present visual representations of the data to give meaning to the raw data.
Instructions
Watch the following video on chi-square:
Watch the Excel remediation videos on chi-square testing:
Chi-Square Testing
using the
Chi-Square_10by10.xlsx
file.
An optional supplementary textbook is
OpenIntro Statistics
, and you can read the concepts there.
Use the lab file
WS5Practice
to practice the Excel skills (includes an Excel hands-on video inside the spreadsheet as a link).
Use the file
WS5Homework
to demonstrate the Excel skills. Each of the three problems is worth 20 points, for a total of 60 points possible for this assignment.
When you have completed your assignment, save a copy for yourself and submit a copy to your instructor by the end of the workshop.
=================================================
5.2 Assignment: Summarizing Raw Data
Getting Started
Being able to summarize data using pivot tables is a crucial skill to develop in business and research. Excel provides a powerful pivot table tool that is heavily used in finance, accounting, information technology, and other business areas. In this course, the skill is used to support a chi-square analysis.
In order to successfully complete this assignment, you should be able to:
Summarize data into a contingency table from raw data using pivot tables.
Resources
File: WS5-2_PivotTables
File: WS5-2_PivotAssignment
Instructions
Review the rubric to make sure you understand the criteria for earning your grade.
Read the file
WS5-2_PivotTables
.
After reading the Word document, open the file
WS5-2_PivotAssignment
.
Create the appropriate summary tables called contingency tables.
Turn in an Excel file showing the pivot table you have created.
When you have completed your assignment, save a copy for yourself and submit a copy to your instructor by the end of the workshop.
===============================================
5.4 Assignment: Create Categorical Hypothesis
Getting Started
After the prior activities, the analysis section can be written for the research report. Since there are three analyses to perform, this is a partial assignment for the analysis section.
In order to successfully complete this assignment, you should be able to:
Wri.
4TH EDITIONManaging and UsingInformation Systems.docxdomenicacullison
4TH EDITION
Managing and Using
Information Systems
A Strategic Approach
KERI E. PEARLSON
KP Partners
CAROL S. SAUNDERS
University of Central Florida
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
To Yale & Hana
To Rusty, Russell &Kristin
VICE PRESIDENT & EXECUTIVE PUBLISHER Don Fowley
EXECUTIVE EDITOR Beth Lang Golub
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Lyle Curry
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Copyright ! 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as
permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without
either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of
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!Preface
Information technology and business are becoming inextricably interwoven. I
don’t think anybody can talk meaningfully about one without the talking about the
other.1
Bill Gates
Microsoft
I’m not hiring MBA students for the technology you learn while in school, but for
your ability to learn about, use and subsequently manage new technologies when
you get out.
IT Executive
Federal Express
Give me a fish and I eat for a day; teach me to fish and I eat for a lifetime.
Proverb
Managers do not have the luxury of abdicating participation in information
systems decisions. Managers who choose to do so risk limiting their future business
options. Information systems are at the heart of virtually every business interaction,
process, and decision, especially when one considers the vast penetration of the
Web in the last few years. Managers who let someone else make decisions about
their information systems are letting someone else make decisions about the
very foundation of their business. This is a textbook about managing and using
information, written for current and future managers as a way of introducing the
broader implications of the impact of information systems.
The goal of this book is to assist managers in becoming knowledgeable par-
ticipants in information systems decisions. Becoming a knowledgeable participant
means lear.
5. The Holy Trinity is central to Catholic beliefs about God. We acc.docxdomenicacullison
5. The Holy Trinity is central to Catholic beliefs about God. We accept it as both a reality and a great mystery. Throughout history there have been many artists who have tried to represent this belief in their artworks. Choose one of the images from the following pages and explain, in the space that follows, why it best symbolises our central Catholic belief about the relationship between God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit.
.
5.1 Provide a brief definition of network access control.5.2 W.docxdomenicacullison
5.1 Provide a brief definition of network access control.
5.2 What is an EAP?
5.3 List and briefly define four EAP authentication methods.
5.4 What is EAPOL?
5.5 What is the function of IEEE 802.1X?
5.6 Define cloud computing.
5.7 List and briefly define three cloud service models.
5.8 What is the cloud computing reference architecture?
5.9 Describe some of the main cloud-specific security threats.
Complete your answers on a WORD Document,
.
4Discussion 6 Review of Four Indiana State Policies.docxdomenicacullison
4
Discussion 6: Review of Four Indiana State Policies
Author’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Course Name
Instructor
Due Date
Discussion 6: Review of Four Indiana State Policies
In Chapter 9, St. John, Daun-Barnett, and Moronski-Chapman (2013) discuss four state policies in Indiana, which ensure low-income students have better chances of getting higher education opportunities. These state policies are the 21st Century Scholars (TFCS) program, Core 40, Indiana Project on Academic Success (IPAS), and the DREAM Act Bill. The State of Indiana and tuition facilitates the financing of these policies. Specifically, funding is attained through need-based student aid and public tuition charges. This coordination ensures that neither the parents nor the state is overwhelmed with funding the learners. Higher education institutions play a limited role in supporting these four state policies. These policies rely on financial incentives for students, colleges, and schools. Higher education systems play a tiny part in offering support services to students in this regard. Nevertheless, they have tried to implement retention projects through policies such as IPAS.
Regarding the outcome of these policies, for starters, they have improved academic preparation among students in high school. These students are better prepared to succeed in higher learning institutions. However, despite the academic preparation facilitated by the policies, there have been no notable improvements in high school graduation rates among the different racial/ethnic groups. Nevertheless, the SAT scores in Indiana have been considerably better compared to other states in the country (St. John, Daun-Barnett, & Moronski-Chapman, 2013). Also, degree completion, college access, and diversity have been remarkably good in Indiana due to these policies. Out of the four policies, the one that I feel has had the greatest success in eradicating inequalities, supporting students’ progress, and enhancing learners’ access to higher education is the TFCS program. This program not only funds needy students but also prepares them from an early age to be model citizens who do not engage in vices such as drug abuse. It guides both parents and students to take practices that will facilitate good learning outcomes.
Reference
St. John, E. P. S., Daun-Barnett, N., & Moronski-Chapman, K. M. (2013). Public policy and higher education: Reframing strategies for preparation, access, and college success. Routledge.
Vera Discussion:
Hello all,
In higher education financing a student’s tuition is a critical part of enrollment and admissions. The principal component of the funding for state colleges and universities comes from the state government, and ultimately tax dollars. Federal money is available through loans and grants to students, but the schools are primarily depending on state support. Our textbook presented four different higher education plans from California, Indiana, M.
4pagesone is assginmentthe other 3 essays are related wo.docxdomenicacullison
4pages
one is assginment
the other 3 essays are related work for this English class.
The main themes of the course are the ethics of land (proposed by Leopold), the climate crisis, the ecological crisis, the carbon footprint, and the path of sustainable development.
.
4To Replace with name Comment by Sharon Rose Use down ar.docxdomenicacullison
4
To: Replace with name Comment by Sharon Rose: Use down arrow to expand all comments below.
Remove all comments in paper before submitting to earn a better grade. One way to do this, right click on each comment, select ‘Delete Comment’.
All Papers will be checked using SafeAssign. Please focus on keeping the SafeAssign percentage to approximately 20%. Comment by James Manning: From: Replace with nameDate: Replace with dateSubject: Replace with subject of memo Introduction Comment by Sharon Rose: The CEO challenge is for an internal employee provide recommendation of new IT system to remove or bring the Shadow IT projects under the IT department.
Include how this assignment will communicate how your project proposal satisfied the CEO's concern.
Remember Shadow IT from the Week 1 Discussion. The Shadow IT has to either be adopted by the organization, or it has to be removed by the organization. Comment by James Manning:
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Vestibulum et nisl ante. Etiam pulvinar fringilla ipsum facilisis efficitur. Maecenas volutpat risus dignissim dui euismod auctor. Nulla facilisi. Mauris euismod tellus malesuada dolor egestas, ac vulputate odio suscipit. Comment by Sharon Rose: Replace Latin text with your writing for this assignment. Enter your content where the Latin text appears.
The Introduction is a short overview of your memo.
Comment by James Manning:
Sed pellentesque sagittis diam, sit amet faucibus diam lobortis quis. Sed mattis turpis ligula, in accumsan ante pellentesque eu. Quisque ut nisl leo. Nullam ipsum odio, eleifend non orcinon, volutpat sollicitudin lacus. (Beetle Baily Cartoon) Proposed Information System Comment by Sharon Rose: Identify the main functions of your proposed information system and why they are important to the business.
To earn an ‘A’ in this section you must (From Grading Rubric):
Proposed an original information system. Identified the main functions of the system. Explained the importance of each function to the business.
Explained the stylistic choices for architecture of information system. Connected main functions of system to business needs and shadow IT.
Donec tincidunt ligula eget sollicitudin vehicula. Proin pharetra tellus id lectus mollis sollicitudin. Etiam auctor ligula a nulla posuere, consequat feugiat ex lobortis. Duis eu cursus arcu, congue luctus turpis. Sed dapibus turpis ac diam viverra consectetur. Aliquam placerat molestie eros vel posuere.
Comment by Sharon Rose: Add diagrams when applicable.
If a diagram is added, it should show the proposed information system. Comment by James Manning:
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
Figure 1. Title (Source: www.source-of-graphic.edu ) Comment by Sharon Rose: Include source if applicable, remove when diagram is original) Comment by James Manning: Functions Important to Business Comment by James Manning:
To earn an “A” in this section (From Grading Rubric):
Exp.
5 pages in length (not including title page or references)This.docxdomenicacullison
5 pages in length (not including title page or references)
This week’s journal article focuses on attribution theory and how it influences the implementation of innovation technologies. Two types of employee attributions are noted in the article (intentionality and deceptive intentionality), please review these concepts and answer the following questions:
1. Provide a high-level overview/ summary of the case study
2. Note how constructive intentionality impacts innovation implementations
3. Find another article that adds to the overall findings of the case and note how attribution-based perspective enhances successful innovation implementations. Please be explicit and detailed in answering this question.
4. Discuss what ethical leadership is and how it impacts the organizational culture.
5. What are the various dimensions of ethical leadership?
6. Note some failures in ethical leadership, please find an example, explain the failure and note possible solutions to fix the issue with leadership.
(Question 1, 2 and 3 below Journals):
Journal Article 3.1: Lucas, J.W. and Baxter, A.R. (2012) ‘Power, influence, and diversity in organizations’, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 639(1): 49–70.
Journal Article 3.2: Martinez, A.D., Kane, R.E., Ferris, G.R. and Brooks, C.D. (2012) ‘Power in leader–follower work relationships’, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 19(2): 142–151.
Journal Article 4.1: Petty, M.M., Beadles, N.A., Chapman, D.F., Lowery, C.M. and Connell, D.W. (1995) ‘Relationships between organizational culture and organizational performance,’ Psychological Reports, 76(2): 483–492.
Journal Article 4.2: Bonavia, T. (2006) ‘Preliminary organizational culture scale focused on artifacts’, Psychological Reports, 99(3): 671–674.
Journal Article 4.3: Walker, R.C. and Aritz, J. (2015) ‘Women doing leadership: leadership styles and organizational culture,’ International Journal of Business Communication, 52(4): 452–478.
(Question 4, 5 and 6 below Journals):
Journal Article 5.1:Bormann, K.C. and Rowold, J. (2016) ‘Ethical leadership’s potential and boundaries in organizational change: a moderated mediation model of employee silence,’ German Journal of Human Resource Management, 30(3–4): 225–245.
Journal Article 5.2:Haney, A.B., Pope, J. and Arden, Z. (2018) ‘Making it personal: developing sustainability leaders in business,’ Organization & Environment. DOI: 10.1177/1086026618806201
Please be sure that journal articles are peer-reviewed and are published within the last five years.
The paper should meet the following requirements:
• 5 pages in length (not including title page or references)
• APA guidelines must be followed. The paper must include a cover page, an introduction, a body with fully developed content, and a conclusion.
.
5 to 7 DAY EXERCISE LOG Exercise Log Name___Hejin Lin__.docxdomenicacullison
5 to 7 DAY EXERCISE LOG
Exercise Log
Name___Hejin Lin__________________________ Section # __2____ Start Date _4/7_________ End Date _4/12_______
I. Cardio Respiratory Endurance
Day
Type of Exercise
Duration
(Time)
Intensity (Peak Target Heart rate or Rate of Perceived Exertion)
Cardio Comments for the week- a short descriptive comment for each workout or one long comment summarizing the week on how you felt after each workout
1
Running
25 mins
175
I felt tired, and end up fast walking
2
Running
25 mins
170
kind of tired
3
Running
30 mins
168
Feeling better, also gain more times
4
Running
30 mins
172
much better
5
Swimming
25 mins
176
I felt tired at first, and then gets better
II. Muscular Strength/Endurance
Number of Sets ___2__
Rest Period __3 mins___
Exercise
Sunday Wt/Reps
Monday Wt/Reps
Tuesday Wt/Reps
Wednesday Wt/Reps
Thursday Wt/Reps
Friday Wt/Reps
Saturday Wt/Reps
Push up
/20
/
/
/25
/25
/
/30
Arm curl
25/10
/
/
25/12
30/8
/
30/10
Crunches
/25
/
/
/30
/30
/
/30
Heel raise
/
/
95/12
/
/
100/15
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
Descriptive Strength Comments for the week (Mandatory) on how you felt after each workout
I felt my stomach muscles working when I am doing the exercise, and my muscles were sore, I think I am going get used to it.
III. Flexibility
Number of Sets ___1_____
Reps ____10____
Duration ___35 sec_____
Check each exercise performed
Exercise
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Shoulder rolls
10
10
10
10
Lateral abdominal
10
10
10
10
Hamstring stretch
10
10
Descriptive Flexibility Comments for the week: (Mandatory) on how you felt after each workout
Feels great that after stretching, my muscles still felt a little bit sore, but much better.
5 to 7 DAY EXERCISE LOG
Exercise Log
Name________Hejin Lin__________________Section # __3____ Start Date ____4/15_______ End Date ____4/20____
I. Cardio Respiratory Endurance
Day
Type of Exercise
Duration
(Time)
Intensity (Peak Target Heart rate or Rate of Perceived Exertion)
Cardio Comments for the week- a short descriptive comment for each workout or one long comment summarizing the week on how you felt after each workout
1
Running
30 mins
Not very tired, almost get used to it
2
Running
35 mins
Gains 5 more mins, feels good
3
Running
35 mins
Woke up in the morning, had more energy
4
Running
40 mins
Gains 5 more mins to 40 mins, felt a little bit tired
5
Running
40 mins
Much better
II. Muscular Strength/Endurance
Number of Sets ___2 to 3_
Rest Period __2 mins___
Exercise
Sunday Wt/Reps
Monday Wt/Reps
Tuesday Wt/Reps
Wednesday Wt/Reps
Thursday Wt/Reps
Friday Wt/Reps
Saturday Wt/Reps
Crunches
/35
/35
/
/35
/
/35
/
Push up
/25
/25
/
/25
/
/25
/
Triceps
30/10
30/10
/
30/10
/
30/10
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
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/
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/
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5 Pages 1. Should nonprofit organizations be viewed principally .docxdomenicacullison
5 Pages
1. Should nonprofit organizations be viewed principally as businesses with a social purpose or are they inherently different from for-profit companies? Compare and contrast in your explanation.
2. What are the five general and complementary approaches to judging the effectiveness of nonprofit organizations?
Identify which of these you might find more challenging as a nonprofit leader and explain why.
3. Provide a brief summary of the legal accountability, roles, and responsibilities of nonprofit leadership.
.
5 pagesResearch either a wildfire and mass movement (one tha.docxdomenicacullison
5 pages
Research either a wildfire and mass movement (one that has actually occurred and been reported on).
Instructions:
essay between 1,250 and 1,750 words (5 pages in length) identifying:
· the type and origin of the natural disaster,
· the magnitude of the damage, including structural damage and harm to humans and the environment,
· agency response (governmental or private agencies) and ethical dimension,
· lessons learned and any resulting changes in regulations related to building code modifications, siting requirements, procedural changes, etc.,
· your opinion as to the effectiveness of any corrective actions taken to minimize the chance of recurrence.
· APA Format, place citations for work in the body and provide reference page
.
5 Establishing Organizational Objectives
iStock/Thinkstock
Ah, but a man’s reach should exceed his grasp,
Or what’s a heaven for?
—Robert Browning
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Describe the nature of objectives and the important role of—and management by—objectives in an HCO.
• Discuss the characteristics of good objectives.
• Delineate the types of objectives that are included in a strategic plan, and include examples of objectives for
key result areas.
• Provide an example of how to use data from an internal and external environmental analysis to set good
objectives.
• Explain how to perform a periodic review of objectives for measuring progress and making updates
as needed.
Section 5.1The Nature and Role of Objectives
Introduction
An HCO cannot achieve goals if none exist for the organization. Although this idea is quite
simple, many people overlook it. To accomplish anything, an organization must have a clear
understanding of what is to be accomplished. Strategic objectives are the tool by which
organizations define their goals and sketch out a specific road map for achieving them. If we
fail to set specific objectives, we simply waste our time and energy by going in circles. Later,
we look back at what we accomplished and wonder where the time went. Just being busy and
involved in activities does not mean that we are accomplishing what we need to accomplish.
This chapter focuses on the need to establish objectives, the characteristics of good objec-
tives, and the process of writing objectives. After the vision and mission of the HCO have been
defined, and the internal and external analyses completed, relevant objectives are developed
for the strategic plan.
5.1 The Nature and Role of Objectives
Objectives can be defined as clear, concise written statements outlining what is to be accom-
plished in key result areas in a certain time period, in measurable terms. Peter Drucker argues
that “objectives are not fate; they are direction. They are not commands, but they are com-
mitments. They do not determine the future, but they are the means by which the resources
and energies of the operation can be mobilized for the making of the future” (Drucker, 1954,
p. 102).
As noted in Chapter 2, the words key results, goals, and targets often are used synonymously
when talking about short- and long-term objectives. Whatever the label used, the idea is to
focus on a specific set of target activities and outcomes to be accomplished. Think of the anal-
ogy of the archer used in Chapter 2. An HCO administrator wants the whole organization
aimed at a single target, just as an archer wants every arrow aimed at the bull’s-eye. People
get confused and disorganized if they do not know where they are going. In large measure,
the success or failure of an HCO is based on its ability to set goals, as well as on tools with
which to measure progress toward those.
450+ WordsDiscussion Questions What are the main tenants of.docxdomenicacullison
450+ Words
Discussion Questions
: What are the main tenants of U.S. cyber policy from a civilian and military sector perspective? What are the strengths and weaknesses? This is your opportunity to take a critical look at current US cyber policy and assess it for its positive aspects as well as the negative. How does US policy stand up in light of everything we have learned so far?
.
459- Provide a substantive response to at least two of your pe.docxdomenicacullison
459-
Provide a substantive response to at least two of your peers who presented an example that was not in your response. What did you learn from the examples they presented? Are you now more aware of the challenge of change in health care?
Peer 1.Keneisha
- In health care, the consistency of handling change is constant. Change is an effect of snowball within a healthcare facility. Improvement in one area may or may not impact another establishment area irrespective of the correlations. Eventually, change affects the whole organization.
Electronic health records (EHR) and the Health Insurance Probability and Accountability Act (HIPPA) are two indicators of the healthcare industry. Although many resisted the change within the medical records and implemented EHR, the change made life much easier to navigate through with medical records. The move saved money and didn't have to use as many paper products. EHR made chart access and legibility much faster and easier to navigate through.
Within the change, HIPAA was a little more complex. HIPPA has been introduced to allow an individual to change jobs and not to complicate the coverage of the modified work transaction. HIPAA is meant to protect the protection of patient information and not to be widely distributed. This also included training in patient privacy and security issues for each health care staff members.
Reflecting on these two improvements show that once change is introduced, it can result in substantial change for the better and development of both staff and patients. Both need an open attitude and training, but implement a productive workflow.
Peer 2. Qiana
- Change is not always easy for anyone, and those in the healthcare field. Though change can be good because it can change or make the healthcare delivery systems better and meet those needs of their area. The healthcare environment continues to change and can be a challenge. With changing trends and concerns within healthcare settings, they can show the stages of life cycles within the organization and survival strategies. When rends change, there are changes that occur in case of patients and administrative support. (Liebler & McConnell, 2017). To ensure the survival of any organization change is essential to have a competitive edge in the healthcare environment. Often, for staff managers must be leaders during this process and try to make these changes go smoothly, because it can be difficult for employees.
Healthcare managers must be able to manage change, even though it may be complicated. Being able to manage change can be difficult but all involved must be able to adapt, and it is the job of the manager to inform employees as well as constituents and help them to understand why the change is a necessity and their roles even though it may be difficult.
The two examples of successful change I have chosen are Change as Opportunity: Y2K and A Study in Proactive Change: Electronic Health Records. The trn of the year 2.
4th Grade Science-A Discussion of how Students Learn to Self Assess.docxdomenicacullison
4th Grade Science-A Discussion of how Students' Learn to Self Assess Science
For this assignment, candidate will work alone to research and observe selected videos in their discipline (area of study). Candidate will observe a total of 5 hours of videos.
Candidates will provide a written analysis and/or reflection that responds to the video and selected writing prompt.
.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
31A Complete DissertationThe Big PictureOVERVIEW.docx
1. 3
1
A Complete Dissertation
The Big Picture
OVERVIEW
Following is a road map that briefly outlines
the contents of an entire dissertation. This is
a comprehensive overview, and as such is
helpful in making sure that at a glance you
understand up front the necessary elements
that will constitute each section of your
dissertation. This broad overview is a prelude
to the steps involved in each of the chapters
that are described and demonstrated in Part II.
While certain elements are common to most
dissertations, please note that dissertation
requirements vary by institution. Toward
that end, students should always consult
with their advisor and committee members
to ascertain any details that might be specific
or particular to institutional or departmental
requirements.
FRONT MATTER
Order and format of front matter may vary
by institution and department.
2. • Title page
• Copyright page (optional)
• Abstract
• Dedication (optional)
• Acknowledgments (optional)
• Table of contents
• List of tables and figures (only those in
chapters, not those in appendices)
1. Title Page
The title gives a clear and concise descrip-
tion of the topic/problem and the scope of
the study. The title page will show the title;
Chapter 1 Objectives
• Provide a cursory glance at the constitution of an entire
dissertation.
• Offer a comprehensive outline of all key elements for each
section of the dissertation—that is,
a precursor of what is to come, with each element being more
fully developed and explained
further along in the book.
• For each key element, explain reason for inclusion, quality
markers, and frequent or common
errors.
Objectives
PART I. TAKING CHARGE OF YOURSELF AND YOUR
3. WORK4
the author’s full name; the degree to be con-
ferred; the university, department, and col-
lege in which the degree is earned; and the
month and year of approval. Margins for the
title page and the entire document are
left—1.5 inches; right, top, and bottom—
1 inch. Also, the title should be in all capitals.
Reason
The title both guides and reflects the pur-
pose and content of the study, making its
relevance apparent to prospective readers.
The title is also important for retrieval pur-
poses enabling other researchers to locate it
through a literature search.
Quality Markers
A well-crafted title conveys the essence
and purpose of the study. The title should
include the type of study (“An Analysis”)
and the participants. Use of keywords will
promote proper categorization into data-
bases such as ERIC (the Education Resources
Information Center) and Dissertation
Abstracts International.
Frequent Errors
Frequent title errors include the use of
trendy, elaborate, nonspecific, or literary
language, and grandiose or unrealistic expec-
tations (e.g., “Finally, a
6. and 2 inches from the top.
Reason
The abstract’s inclusion in Dissertation
Abstracts International (which mandates a
350-word limit) makes it possible for other
researchers to determine the relevance of this
work to their own studies. Over 95% of
American dissertations are included in Dis-
sertation Abstracts International.
Quality Markers
Marks of quality include conciseness and
accuracy. The abstract should also be written
Chapter 1. A Complete Dissertation 5
in the third person (active voice without the
personal pronouns I and we). Generally, the
first sentence of an abstract describes the
entire study; subsequent sentences expand on
7. that description.
Frequent Errors
Inclusion of irrelevant material (i.e.,
examples, information extraneous to the dis-
sertation itself), exclusion of necessary mate-
rial (i.e., problem, purpose, scope, research
tradition, data sources, methodology, key
findings, and implications), and incorrect
format are frequent abstract errors.
4. Dedication and
Acknowledgments (optional)
These pages are optional, although most
dissertations include a brief acknowledg-
ment of the contributions of committee
members, colleagues, friends, and family
members who have supported the students’
research. “ACKNOWLEDGMENTS”
should be capitalized and should appear
centered between the left and right mar-
gins, 2 inches from the top. Text should
begin two line spaces after “ACKNOWL-
8. EDGMENTS.”
The dedication page is separate from the
acknowledgments page. If included, the dedi-
cation text should be centered between the
left and right margins and between the top
and bottom margins; it should also reflect a
professional nature. Do not include the title
“DEDICATION” on the dedication page.
5. Table of Contents
An outline of the entire dissertation, list-
ing headings and subheadings with their
respective page numbers, the table of con-
tents lists all chapters and major sections
within chapters and all back matter with
page numbers.
The heading “TABLE OF CONTENTS”
is centered between the left and right mar-
gins, 2 inches from the top of the page. The
listing begins one double space below and
even with the left margin. Leader dots are
placed from the end of each listing to the cor-
9. responding page number. All major titles are
typed exactly as they appear in the text.
When a title or subtitle exceeds one line, the
second and succeeding lines are single-spaced
and indented two spaces. Double spacing is
used between major titles and between each
major title and its subtitle.
The table of contents may be followed by
any of the following, if needed, and any of
these subsequent lists are formatted in the
same manner as the table of contents:
• List of tables
• List of figures
• List of illustrations
• List of symbols
Reason
The table of contents assists the researcher
in organizing the material while promoting
accessibility for the reader.
Quality Markers
10. The headings and subheadings clearly and
concisely reflect the material being presented.
Headings and subheadings are parallel gram-
matically (i.e., “Introduction,” “Review of
Literature” not “Introduction,” “Reviewing
the Literature”). The headings and subhead-
ings in the table of contents are worded
exactly the same as those headings and sub-
headings in the text.
Frequent Errors
Frequent errors include lack of parallelism
in headings and subheadings, as well as
wording in the table of contents that does
not match wording in text.
PART I. TAKING CHARGE OF YOURSELF AND YOUR
WORK6
DISSERTATION CHAPTERS
11. Order and format of dissertation chapters
may vary by institution and department.
1. Introduction
2. Literature review
3. Methodology
4. Findings
5. Analysis and synthesis
6. Conclusions and recommendations
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter makes a case for the signifi-
cance of the problem, contextualizes the
study, and provides an introduction to its
basic components. It should be informative
and able to stand alone as a document.
• Introduction: The introduction includes an
overview of the purpose and focus of the
12. study, why it is significant, how it was con-
ducted, and how it will contribute to pro-
fessional knowledge and practice.
• Problem statement: The problem indicates
the need for the study, describes the issue or
problem to be studied, and situates it in a
broader educational or social context. The
problem statement includes a brief,
well-articulated summary of the literature
that substantiates the study, with references
to more detailed discussions in Chapter 2.
• Statement of purpose: Describing the research
purpose in a logical, explicit manner, the
statement of purpose is the major objective or
intent of the study; it enables the reader to
understand the central thrust of the research.
• Research question(s): Research questions
are directly tied to the purpose. They
should be specific, unambiguously stated,
and open ended. These questions cue read-
ers to the direction the study will take and
help to delineate the scope of the study.
13. • Overview of methodology: This section out-
lines the methodological type or approach,
the research setting, the sample, instrumen-
tation (if relevant), and methods of data
collection and analysis used.
• Rationale and significance: Rationale is the
justification for the study presented as a
logical argument. Significance addresses the
benefits that may be derived from doing
the study, thereby reaffirming the research
purpose.
• Role of the researcher: This section explains
the role of the researcher in planning and
conducting the study.
• Researcher assumptions: This section
makes explicit relevant researcher assump-
tions, beliefs, and biases (if applicable).
• Definition of key terminology: Some terms
may be unfamiliar to readers. Additionally,
14. the meanings of certain terms can vary
depending on the context, conceptual frame-
work, or field of study. Making terms
explicit adds precision and ensures clarity of
understanding. These terms should be oper-
ationally defined or explained; that is, make
clear how these terms are used in your study.
• Organization of the dissertation: This
brief concluding explanation delineates the
contents of the remaining chapters in the
dissertation.
Reason
The introduction sets the stage for the
study and directs readers to the purpose and
context of the dissertation.
Quality Markers
A quality introduction situates the context
and scope of the study and informs the reader,
providing a clear and valid representation of
what will be found in the remainder of the
15. dissertation. Discussion is concise and precise.
Frequent Errors
Errors occur when the introduction does
not clearly reflect the study and/or its rela-
tionship to the proposed problem and
Chapter 1. A Complete Dissertation 7
purpose, or it does not stand alone as a
document.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter situates the study in the con-
text of previous research and scholarly mate-
rial pertaining to the topic, presents a critical
synthesis of empirical literature according to
relevant themes or variables, justifies how
the study addresses a gap or problem in the
literature, and outlines the theoretical or con-
ceptual framework of the study. A disserta-
16. tion does not merely restate the available
knowledge base of a particular topic, but
adds to or augments it.
• Introduction: The introduction describes
the content, scope, and organization of the
review as well as the strategy used in the
literature search.
• Review of literature: This section
− is clearly related to the problem state-
ment, purpose, and research questions;
− states up front the bodies of literature
that will be covered, and why;
− reviews primary sources that are mostly
recent empirical studies from scholarly
journals and publications, as well as
secondary sources;
− is logically organized by theme or sub-
topic, from broad to narrow;
17. − synthesizes findings across studies and
compares and contrasts different
research outcomes, perspectives, or
methods;
− notes gaps, debates, or shortcomings in
the literature and provides a rationale
for the study; and
− provides section summaries.
• Conceptual framework: The conceptual
framework draws on theory, research, and
experience, and examines the relationship
among constructs and ideas. As such, it
is the structure or heuristic that guides
your research. In essence, the conceptual
framework provides the theoretical and
methodological bases for development of
the study and analysis of findings. When
appropriate, a graphic depiction of the
model is included, showing the relation-
ships between concepts, ideas, or vari-
ables to be studied.
18. • Summary: A comprehensive synthesis of
the literature review should complete this
section.
Reason
This chapter provides a strong theoreti-
cal basis for the dissertation by analyzing
and synthesizing a comprehensive selec-
tion of appropriate related bodies of lit-
erature. The review of literature should
build a logical framework for the research,
justify the study by conceptualizing gaps
in the literature, and demonstrate how the
study will contribute to existing knowl-
edge. The review serves to situate the
dissertation within the context of current
ongoing conversations in the field.
The conceptual framework guides the
research, and plays a major role in analy-
sis of findings.
Quality Markers
19. A comprehensive and thoughtful selec-
tion of resources that cover the material
directly related to the study’s purpose and
background, not the full scope of the field,
is considered a mark of a quality literature
review. All relevant primary sources and
empirical research studies are cited (these
are preferable to secondary sources, which
are interpretation of the work of others).
The writer adopts a critical perspective in
discussing the work of others, and provides
a clear analysis of all available related
research. Relevant literature is critiqued,
not duplicated, and there is a clear connec-
tion between the purpose of this study and
the resources included. The conceptual
framework’s role and function are clear:
The conceptual framework clearly draws on
PART I. TAKING CHARGE OF YOURSELF AND YOUR
WORK8
theory, research, and experience, providing
20. conceptual coherence to the research.
Another quality marker is the correct use of
American Psychological Association (APA)
format, citations, and references throughout.
Frequent Errors
Frequent errors include insubstantial
breadth of review (i.e., insufficient number
or range of resources; failure to include rel-
evant primary sources) and insubstantial
depth of review (i.e., use of nonscholarly
material; inability to demonstrate clear
understanding of resources). Another error
is that the review reads more like a catalog
of sources than a synthesis and integration
of relevant literature. There is also a ten-
dency to eliminate literature that contra-
dicts or questions the findings of the disser-
tation’s study. Other errors include incor-
rect or insufficient citation of sources,
resulting in accidental plagiarism, and pre-
sentation of a diagrammatic conceptual
framework with no accompanying narrative
explanation.
21. Chapter 3: Methodology
This chapter situates the study within a
particular methodological tradition, pro-
vides a rationale for that approach, describes
the research setting and sample, and des-
cribes data collection and analysis methods.
The chapter provides a detailed description
of all aspects of the design and procedures of
the study.
• Introduction: The introduction restates the
research purpose and describes the organi-
zation of the chapter.
• Rationale for research approach: This sec-
tion describes the research tradition or
paradigm (qualitative research) and the
research methodology (phenomenology,
case study, action research, etc.) with a
rationale for their suitability regarding
addressing the research questions, and cit-
ing appropriate methodological literature.
22. • Research setting/context: This section
describes and justifies selection of the
research setting, thereby providing the his-
tory, background, and issues germane to
the problem.
• Research sample and data sources: This
section
− explains and justifies the sample used
and how participants were selected
(including population and sampling pro-
cedures);
− describes the characteristics and size of
the sample, and provides other pertinent
demographic information; and
− outlines ethical considerations pertain-
ing to participants, shedding light on
how rights of participants were pro-
tected, with reference to conventions of
research ethics and the IRB (institutional
review board) process.
23. • Data collection methods: This section
describes and justifies all data collection
methods, tools, instruments, and proce-
dures, including how, when, where, and by
whom data were collected.
• Data analysis methods: This section
describes and justifies all methods and tools
used for analysis of data (manual and/or
computational).
• Issues of trustworthiness: This section dis-
cusses measures taken to enhance the study,
as well as credibility (validity) and depend-
ability (reliability).
• Limitations and delimitations: This section
identifies potential weaknesses of the study
and the scope of the study. Limitations are
external conditions that restrict or con-
strain the study’s scope or may affect its
outcome. Delimitations are conditions or
parameters that the researcher intentionally
imposes in order to limit the scope of a
24. study (e.g., using participants of certain
ages, genders, or groups; conducting the
research in a single setting). Generalizability
is not the goal of qualitative research;
rather, the focus is on transferability—that
Chapter 1. A Complete Dissertation 9
is, the ability to apply findings in similar
contexts or settings.
• Summary: A comprehensive summary over-
view covers all the sections of this chapter,
recapping and highlighting all the important
points. Discussion is concise and precise.
Reason
The study is the basis for the conclusions
and recommendations. In many ways, it is
what makes the difference between a disser-
tation and other forms of extended writing.
A clear description of the research sample,
25. setting, methodology, limitations, and delim-
itations and acknowledgement of trustwor-
thiness issues provide readers with a basis for
accepting (or not accepting) the conclusions
and recommendations that follow.
Quality Markers
A quality study achieves the purposes
outlined in the introduction’s research prob-
lem and research questions. The relationship
of the research paradigm and type of data
collection and analysis used in this study is
clear. All relevant information is clearly
articulated and presented. Narrative is
accompanied by clear and descriptive visuals
(charts, figures, tables).
Frequent Errors
Errors occur when data are not clearly
presented; the study is not applicable to pur-
poses outlined in the introduction; and meth-
ods of gathering and analyzing data and
trustworthiness issues are insufficient or not
26. clearly explained.
Chapter 4: Findings
This chapter organizes and reports
the study’s main findings, including the pre-
sentation of relevant quantitative (statistical)
and qualitative (narrative) data. Findings
are often written up in different ways depen d-
ing on the research tradition or genre
adopted.
• Introduction: The introduction provides a
brief summary of and rationale for how
data were analyzed. It describes the organi-
zation of the chapter according to research
questions, conceptual framework, or the-
matic categories.
• Findings build logically from the problem,
research questions, and design.
• Findings are presented in clear narrative
form using plentiful verbatim quotes, and
27. “thick description.” Narrative data are
connected and synthesized through sub-
stantive explanatory text and visual dis-
plays, if applicable, not simply compiled.
Some tables and figures may be deferred to
the appendices.
• Headings are used to guide the reader
through the findings according to research
questions, themes, or other appropriate
organizational schemes.
• Inconsistent, discrepant, or unexpected
data are noted with discussion of possible
alternative explanations.
• Summary: This section explains in sum-
mary form what the chapter has identified,
and also prepares the reader for the chap-
ters to follow, by offering some foreshad-
owing as to the intent and content of the
final two chapters.
Reason
28. The challenge of qualitative analysis lies
in making sense of large amounts of data,
reducing raw data, identifying what is sig-
nificant, and constructing a framework for
communicating the essence of what the data
reveal. The researcher, as storyteller, is able
to tell a story that is vivid and interesting,
and at the same time accurate and credible.
This chapter is the foundation for the analy-
sis, conclusions, and recommendations that
will appear in the next/forthcoming chapters.
PART I. TAKING CHARGE OF YOURSELF AND YOUR
WORK10
Quality Markers
Markers of a quality findings chapter
include clear, complete, and valid representa-
tion of the data that have emerged as a result
of the study and effective use of graphs,
charts, and other visual representations to
illustrate the data. Findings are presented
29. objectively, without speculation—that is, free
from researcher bias. Presentation and struc-
ture in this chapter are neat and precise,
and related to the study’s qualitative tradition
or genre.
Frequent Errors
Errors occur when study findings are
manipulated to fit expectations from research
questions, or when researcher bias and/
or subjectivity is apparent. Other frequent
errors include poor or invalid use of visual
representation, and findings not overly
generalized.
Chapter 5: Analysis and Synthesis
This chapter synthesizes and discusses the
results in light of the study’s research ques-
tions, literature review, and conceptual frame-
work. Finding patterns and themes is one
result of analysis. Finding ambiguities and
inconsistencies is another. Overall, this chapter
offers the researcher an opportunity to reflect
30. thoroughly on the study’s findings, and the
practical and theoretical implications thereof.
• Introduction: The introduction provides an
overview of the chapter’s organization and
content.
• Discussion: This section provides an
in-depth interpretation, analysis, and
synthesis of the results/findings.
− Analysis is a multilayered approach.
Seeking emergent patterns among findings
can be considered a first round of analysis.
Examining whether the lite rature corre-
sponds with, contradicts, and/or deepens
interpretations constitutes a second layer
of interpretation.
− Issues of trustworthiness are incorpo-
rated as these relate to and are applied
throughout the analysis process.
− Discussion may include interpretation of
31. any findings that were not anticipated
when the study was first described.
Establishing credibility means that you
have engaged in the systematic search
for rival or competing explanations and
interpretations.
− This section restates the study’s limita-
tions and discusses transferability of the
findings to broader populations or other
settings and conditions.
Reason
Analysis is essentially about searching
for patterns and themes that emerge from
the findings. The goal is to discover what
meaning you can make of them by compar-
ing your findings both within and across
groups, and with those of other studies.
Interpretation that is thoughtful and com-
pelling will provide the opportunity to
make a worthwhile contribution to your
academic discipline.
32. Quality Markers
There is no clear and accepted single set
of conventions for the analysis and interpre-
tation of qualitative data. This chapter
reflects a deep understanding of what lies
beneath the findings—that is, what those
findings really mean. Interpretation is pre-
sented systematically, and is related to the
literature, conceptual framework, and inter-
pretive themes or patterns that have emerged.
A key characteristic of qualitative research is
willingness to tolerate ambiguity. As such,
examining issues from all angles in order to
demonstrate the most plausible explanations
is an indication of high-level analysis. Integ-
rity as a researcher is given credence by
Chapter 1. A Complete Dissertation 11
inclusion of all information, even that which
challenges inferences and assumptions.
33. Frequent Errors
Frequent errors include analysis that is
simple or shallow. Synthesis is lacking; there
is no clear connection to other research litera-
ture, or theory. Credibility and/or plausibility
of explanations is in question. The chapter is
poorly structured, presented, and articulated.
Chapter 6: Conclusions and
Recommendations
This chapter presents a set of concluding
statements and recommendations. Conclu-
sions are assertions based on findings, and
must therefore be warranted by the findings.
With respect to each finding, you are asking
yourself, “Knowing what I now know, what
conclusion can I draw?” Recommendations
are the application of those conclusions. In
other words, you are now saying to yourself,
“Knowing what I now know to be true, I
recommend that . . .”
• Conclusions are based on an integration of
34. the study findings, analysis, interpretation,
and synthesis.
• Concluding statements end the dissertation
with strong, clear, concise “takeaway mes-
sages” for the reader.
• Conclusions are not the same as findings;
neither are conclusions the same as inter-
pretations. Rather, conclusions are essen-
tially conclusive statements of what you
now know, having done this research, that
you did not know before.
• Conclusions must be logically tied to one
another. There should be consistency
among your conclusions; none of them
should be at odds with any of the others.
• Recommendations are actionable; that is,
they suggest implications for policy and
practice based on the findings, providing
specific action planning and next steps.
• Recommendations support the belief that
35. scholarly work initiates as many questions
as it answers, thus opening the way for
further practice and research.
• Recommendations for research describe
topics that require closer examination
and that may generate new questions for
further study.
Reason
This chapter reflects the contribution the
researcher has made to the knowledge and
practice in his or her field of study. In many
ways, it provides validation for the research-
er’s entrance into the ranks of the body of
scholars in the field.
Quality Markers
Clearly stated and focused concluding
statements reflect an integration of the study
findings, analysis, interpretation, and synthe-
sis. Recommendations must have implica-
tions for policy and practice, as well as for
36. further research, and must be doable. The
reasonableness of a recommendation depends
on its being logically and clearly derived
from the findings, both content and context
specific, and most important, practical and
capable of implementation.
Frequent Errors
Overgeneralization of importance or rele-
vance sometimes leads to grandiose state-
ments. Other frequent errors include the lack
of a clear link to the review of literature, or
recommendations that have no clear useful-
ness for practice and future research; that is,
they are not “doable.”
Epilogue, Afterword, or Final Thoughts
This final section offers the researcher
an opportunity to reflect on the overall
PART I. TAKING CHARGE OF YOURSELF AND YOUR
37. WORK12
process, review the findings that have
emerged, and share any new learning and
insights that she or he has developed over
the course of the research and writing
process. How do you personally value the
research experience? What are the lessons
you have learned from conducting the
study? What insights, knowledge, and
inspiration have you derived from con-
ducting this study?
BACK MATTER
Appendices
Appendices contain all research instru-
ments used, as well as any relevant additional
materials such as sample interview tran-
scripts, sample coding schemes, summary
charts, and so forth. Each item that is
included as an appendix is given a letter or
number and listed in the table of contents.
38. References
…
Running head: IMPACT OF CHANGE MANAGEMENT IN
HEALTHCARE1
IMPACT OF CHANGE MANAGEMENT IN HEALTHCARE 6
The Impact of Change Management in Healthcare
Name:
Institution:
Date:
Introduction
Change management is one of the pressing issues every
organization is confronted with especially in an environment
where change is associated with success or failure. The
healthcare organizations are not left out in this change frenzy as
they also seek to succeed through successful change
implementation. Rapid change is being recorded in the health
care organizations, mostly as they try to adopt new technologies
and improve the quality of patient care, as well as manage the
performance of the healthcare personnel. The best way to deal
with the change, as literature reveals, is helping the employees
39. adopt new ways of doing things (Campbell, 2008).
By definition, change management entails the process leading to
the realization of the ideal state of the organization. In other
words, change management in an organization entails
overseeing the transition from the current state to the desired
state. The process of change begins with the creation of a vision
for the change. This is then followed by empowering the people
responsible with the change to act as agents of the change and
help attain the change. The change management process often
involves many participants with roles that are clearly defined.
These may include the owners of the change, the managers of
the change, and the owners of the processes among others.
Change management often impacts on various people
differently. The stakeholders in a change management are
varied and this includes the participants to the change and other
groups that affected directly and indirectly by the change. In the
healthcare organizations, these impacts will be felt depending
on the type of change and the result of change. For example, the
change might be concerned with the introduction of new
technologies, and this will mean new skills for the personnel
and possibly a new structure for the entire organization. Change
management in healthcare organizations, therefore, requires that
the managers fully understand change and its impacts before
making efforts to implement the change.
Problem statement
40. The changes in the organizational environment in the healthcare
can force the organizations to adopt new structures, strategies
and business models and requirements among other core
aspects. The environment in the healthcare sector cannot be said
to be stable, but one characterized by a high rate of volatility.
The change management in these organizations has not always
been successful – the success rate of the implementation of new
changes is quite low. This can be partly because the people
responsible do not fully understand the nature of the change and
its impacts on the various stakeholders. The low rates of success
in change implementation call for some deliberate efforts to
examine what changes take place in the healthcare
organizations, the people responsible for the change, and the
impacts of these changes on the various stakeholders. More so,
managing change will include managing the resistance to
change, and this presents another reason for understanding
change and its impact on the stakeholders
Objectives
The primary objective of this research is to present an
understanding of the change management in healthcare
organizations. The focus in on the impact of change
management practices on stakeholders such as nurses,
physicians, and doctors among others. The specific objectives
are as outlined below:
· To establish the key types of change experienced in the
41. healthcare organizations.
· To establish the people involved in the change management
process in the healthcare organizations.
· To establish the impact of change management in healthcare
organizations.
· To establish the role of management and leadership in change
management in healthcare organizations.
· Establish the implications of change management on nurses
and other professionals.
Research questions
The research questions are derived from the research objectives
presented above. As such, the primary research question is what
is the impact of change management in healthcare
organizations? The research questions are as follows?
· What are the key types of change experienced in the
healthcare organizations?
· What groups of people involved in the change management
process in the healthcare organizations?
· What is the impact of change management in healthcare
organizations?
· What is the role of management and leadership in change
management in healthcare organizations?
· What are the implications of change management on nurses
and other professionals?
42. Literature review
There are several major types of changes explained in the
literature that are experienced in the healthcare industry. In this
case, literature has revealed that technological changes,
strategic changes and innovations in pursuit of better patient
care are among the most influential ones. Change management,
it has been hypothesized, will entail managing the change
process itself and the people who most likely to resist the
change.
It is acknowledged that the healthcare managers today tend to
occupy an extremely challenging position requiring them to
maintain a competitive edge in a healthcare market while
leading the organization through a constant change (Campbell,
2008). Organizations today, regardless of the industry or
sector, are experiencing rapid technological change. The
healthcare organizations are also subject to this phenomenon
whereby technology is the key driver of change. The healthcare
organizations are adopting new technologies as they try to
implement quality improvement initiatives and performance
management initiatives such as pay-for-performance (Campbell,
2008). Technology can be disruptive in that it can completely
change the face and operations of the organizations, and the
change management in healthcare will need to take into account
that new models and structures might result. In such a case, the
biggest challenge is often preparing the nurses to cope with
43. such changes which could have huge impacts in the nature of
their careers. For example, they could not be required to have
IT skills for them to handle the new IT systems being
implemented.
Besides the technology changes, the change management in
healthcare is also concerned with the shifts in the environment
which tend to compel the healthcare organizations to change
their strategies (Caldwell, Chatman, O'Reilly III, Ormiston, &
Lapiz, 2008). Research in change management in healthcare has
revealed that strategic change often fails owing to the inability
of the individuals to adopt the necessary behaviors for the
successful implementation of the new strategy. The healthcare
management and leadership, therefore, are seen to be deficient
in terms of proper change implementation. A change in strategy
is something that would require a change in behavior, meaning
that the behavioral change should be the first thing to
implement. The behavioral change should lay the foundation for
the strategy change whereby everyone is brought on board.
Literature has established that this form of change requires a
unique approach. The hypotheses set out by Caldwell, Chatman,
O'Reilly III, Ormiston, & Lapiz (2008) include that the
management and leadership should gain support for the strategic
change and introduce norms for change readiness. According to
Klein, Conn, and Sorra (2001), a successful change
implementation will require an ‘implementation climate’, a term
44. defined as support for the specific change. Their study was
concerned with the application of advanced computerized
manufacturing technology, but the principle applies to all
organizational contexts. An implementation climate in a
healthcare organization would probably be that climate where
the organizational members are not only ready for the change,
but also support the change entirely.
Teamwork in change management in healthcare has also been
found to facilitate a successful change implementation.
Researchers like Markóczy (2001) have established that when
the members of the management team are in agreement or have
a consensus on the change direction, there is a greater
likelihood of success. This leads to another hypothesis that
there will be greater performance improvements where the
members agree on the nature of the new strategy. The healthcare
management is, therefore, presented with a challenge of
achieving this unity that will drive the speed and effectiveness
of the change process. Team leadership becomes a necessity
because, as research has established, the senior leaders may
have a critical role in the identification and implementation of
the new strategy, the middle managers leading the various
groups have the ability to enhance or undermine this
implementation (House & Aditya, 1997). This means that the
middle managers and the nurses collectively and individually
have an influence on the success of change implementation.
45. Each individual must be brought on board, a challenge for the
managers who need to overcome the resistance to change.
According to Kodama & Fukahori (2017), the nurse managers
are the first-line managers who are responsible for inducing
change in the clinical environment.
According to Al- Abri (2007, p. 9), the change management in
healthcare has to contend with the fact that the healthcare
professionals, including nurses, are obligated to acquire and
maintain the expertise requisite for their tasks as they will only
be given tasks falling within their individual competencies.
With the change occurring frequently, all these professionals
may be required to update continuously their expertise in order
to remain relevant to this sector. This is why researchers like
Al- Abri (2007, p. 9) argue that change management entails
managing the complexity of the processes – that is, planning,
evaluating, and implementing operations, strategies and tactics
that ensure that the change is relevant and worthwhile.
Managing resistance is especially important at the lower levels
where professionals like the nurses could face and resist a
change in the nature of their careers.
The pursuit of patient safety initiatives is another reason why
the healthcare organizations have to be worried about change
management. There are often some unintended consequences
when these organizations pursue patient safety without
undertaking effective change management (Ramanujam, Keyser,
46. & Sirio, 2005, p. 455). Herein, the management and leadership
in the healthcare organizations need to understand the inputs
shaping the strategy (both internal and external) before
developing strategies to achieve specified outcomes. According
to these researchers, the senior management and leadership has
an active role in the change initiation, and are also responsible
for energizing the process of change. This leadership must also
make sure that on board are senior administrators, clinicians,
nurses, and opinion leaders among others. In other words, all
members of the organization have to participate in the change
process.
The improvement of patient care has been a top priority in
almost all healthcare organizations and this exerts a lot of
pressure. Ducharme, Buckley, Alder, and Pelletier (2009, p. 70)
establish that among the challenges facing Ontario healthcare
organizations include overcrowding and long wait times that
degrade the quality of care. Innovative and timely solutions to
such challenges are a priority. A literature review presented by
Antwi and Kale (2014, p. 1) also indicates that the Canadian
healthcare organizations were in need for solutions to problems
such as long wait hour and timely access to care. This literature
review reveals that the patient care is a critical factor affecting
the changes in the healthcare. The pursuit of better patient care
means pursuing innovations in both systems, structures,
technologies, etc. These researchers express the need for the
47. managers and decision makers to understand how change occurs
in order for them to create a conducive environment for the
innovations.
Theoretical framework
Today, several theories have been developed in the field of
change management. Models have also been developed by
several of the world’s renowned thinkers like John Kotter and
William Bridges. Kotter, for example, developed a model
expressing eight steps of managing change:
· Increasing urgency
· Building guiding teams
· Getting the vision right
· Communicating for buy-in
· Enabling action
· Creating short term wins
· Making sure not to let up
· Making the change stick
Lippitt, Watson, and Westley (1958) present a change
management theory focusing on the role and responsibilities of
the change agents. There are seven steps in this theory – 1)
diagnosing the problem; 2) assessing the motivation and
capacity for the change; 3) assessing the resources and
motivation for the agent of change; 4) choosing progressive
change objects, strategies and plans for action; 5) clarifying the
roles and expectations of all parties; 6) maintaining change
48. through actions such as feedback, communication, and
coordination; and 7) withdrawal from the change agent. This
theory is basically a collective development of behavioral
change setting up the change environment.
Significance to nursing
Nursing profession is particularly affected by the various types
of changes highlighted herein. They are faced with a situation
whereby their occupation is subjected to change and where the
changes often result into new structures, perspectives, and even
environments. This research will be particularly important to
the nurses as they learn how the changes affect them and their
careers. This will help them to appreciate the fact that the
change is necessary and that they need to facilitate it through
creating a conducing implementation environment. They will
learn to anticipate the change and get ready for it.
Research design and method
Introduction
The research methods, by definition, entail the tools and
techniques used in doing the research (Willian, 2011, p. 1).
They are a range of tools used for the various types of inquiry,
reasoning that a research is basically an inquiry or search of
knowledge (Kothari, 2004). This section of the proposal
presents an overview of these tools and how they will be
methodically used to answer the research questions presented
earlier on. It is important to emphasize on the nature of the
49. research – it will involve an inquiry into the change
management practices in the healthcare sector to establish its
impacts, types of change, stakeholders, and implications among
other aspects.
A qualitative approach will be used for this study owing to the
fact that it will involve collection and analysis of qualitative
data. A qualitative research has been hailed as the best way to
explore various dimensions of social life, including the weave
and texture of the everyday life of the society (Mason, 2002, p.
1). The qualitative research can be defined as a systematic and
empirical inquiry into meaning (Ospina, 2004). Since the
qualitative research involves both naturalistic and interpretive
settings, it can be said that qualitative researchers are concerned
with studying the subjects in their natural settings as they try to
make sense of or interpret phenomena.
An institutional ethnographic design will be adopted for this
research. The ethnographic research is indeed a genre of
qualitative research developed out the anthropological
methodology (Shagrir, 2017). This type of research often seeks
to investigate cultures and societies through the examination of
the human, social ad interpersonal aspects. It is closely
associated with the core qualitative methods of observation and
interviewing. It is important to notice that ethnography emerged
and developed as a social science tool. The researcher in an
ethnographic research is a social scientific observer. Other
50. participants in an ethnography are the observed and the
audience to whom the reports (in the form of text) are made
(Naidoo, 2012, p. 1).
The institutional ethnography can simply be described as
ethnographic practices in specific institutional contexts.
According to Gerhard (2011), institutional ethnography is an
inquiry method describing the institutional situations in detail
and analysing the actions and interpretations of the people make
these situations recognizable institutional contexts. As an
institutional ethnography, this research will involve the
researcher (or the scientific observer) interacting with the
healthcare organizations or institutions to learn about the
change management practices.
Research participants
The research participants, besides the researcher, will be the
two organizations selected and their employees and
management/leadership. The people with whom the researcher
interacts with will be selected on the convenience criteria, the
rationale being that an organization with very many employees
might not be easy to make contacts and spend adequate time
with each employee. The researcher’s interest is on the change
management practices and their impacts on the various
stakeholders, a select few of which the researcher will interact
with to learn all that is necessary.
The targeted sample for this research will be 100 participants
51. from the various levels of the organization. The nurses, being
the greater focus of the research, will be allocated 40% of this
figure. The physicians and line managers will be allocated
another 40%, and the remaining 20% will go to the executives
and top management. Stratified random sampling method will
be used whereby the participants will be selected as per the
three groups, and randomly selected until the desired figures are
reached. Taking into account the voluntary nature of the
research, rejected requests will be replaced by other requests
until the researcher obtains a full 100 research participants.
Protection of participants
The protection of the participant will be facilitated through the
researcher observing the various ethical principles in a research.
The researcher will make sure not to harm in any way the
research participants, physically, mentally, or otherwise. The
anonymity of the responses will be maintained and the
researcher shall not link any employee or participant with any
observation or interview response. The personal information
shall not be disclosed to protect the privacy of the participants.
Lastly, the researcher will make sure to obtain consent of the
participants before engaging them in any research activity.
Data collection
Two methods of data collection will be used for this research –
observations and interviews. Much of the data collection this
design is collected through observation. In this method, a
52. checklist of the researcher’s expectations and hypotheses will
be used as the framework for data collection. The researcher
will make the relevant notes to keep record of all observations
related to the research. However, there are cases where it is not
easy to observe what is being done, especially during secluded
boardroom executive meetings where much of the change
management decisions will be made. This means that the
interview method will be of equal importance to the researcher.
The interviews will be conducted on face-to-face basis where
the institutional ethnographer will prepare a set of questions for
the interviews. Open-ended questions are preferred because they
allow the respondents to freely express themselves and provide
as much information as possible. There are more than one
occupations in a healthcare institution, and this means that the
researcher will have to prepare a different set of questions for
each occupation or level in the organizational hierarchy. These
questions will be aligned with the primary theme of the research
– that is, the change management practices and their
implications. The interviews will be tape-recorded for
reference.
Credibility
Credibility entails the truth of the data and/or the participant
views, their interpretations and representation. The researcher
will adopt various techniques to improve the research rigor.
Firstly, the research will adhere to the research guidelines and
53. ethics as prescribed. The researcher will also ensure that the
findings are valid and reliable, and this will mean overcoming
various challenges like consistency. The researcher will give the
research adequate time and resources, seek feedback where
necessary, and work within a specified framework that keeps the
study focused on achieving the research objectives. The
credibility of the research will be achieved through
demonstrating engagement, audit of trails and the methods of
observation. Sections of the recorded interviews and original
field notes will feature occasionally in the report as proof of the
information collected.
Dissemination of findings
The dissemination of the findings will follow a simple
procedure. The researcher will first understand the audience of
the findings and select the best tools and techniques for analysis
and presentation that yields results understandable by the
audience. The dissemination will be in the form of a research
report addressed to these audiences that will highlight the aim
of the research, the methods and procedures, and the results of
the research.
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cs.pdf
58. process for the following:
(1) defining a sample universe, by way of specifying inclusion
and exclusion criteria for
potential participation; (2) deciding upon a sample size, through
the conjoint consider-
ation of epistemological and practical concerns; (3) selecting a
sampling strategy, such
as random sampling, convenience sampling, stratified sampling,
cell sampling, quota
sampling or a single-case selection strategy; and (4) sample
sourcing, which includes
matters of advertising, incentivising, avoidance of bias, and
ethical concerns pertain-
ing to informed consent. The extent to which these four
concerns are met and made
explicit in a qualitative study has implications for its coherence,
transparency, impact
and trustworthiness.
Keywords: case study; purposive sampling; quota sampling;
random sampling; recruit-
ment; sample size; sampling; stratified sampling; theoretical
sampling
Sampling is an important component of qualitative research
59. design that has been given less
attention in methodological textbooks and journals than its
centrality to the process war-
rants (Mason 2002). To help fill this void, the current article
aims to provide academics,
students and practitioners in psychology with a theoretically
informed and practical guide
to sampling for use in research that employs interviewing as
data collection. Recognised
methods in qualitative psychology that commonly use
interviews as a data source include
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), Grounded
Theory, Thematic Analysis,
Content Analysis and some forms of Narrative Analysis. This
article presents theoretical
and practical concerns within a framework of four pan-
paradigmatic points: (1) setting a
sample universe, (2) selecting a sample size, (3) devising a
sample strategy and (4) sam-
ple sourcing. Table 1 summarises the principle features of these.
All of the aforementioned
methods can be used in conjunction with this four-point
approach to sampling.
Point 1: Defining a Sample Universe
60. The first key concern in the four-point approach is defining the
sample universe (also called
“study population” or “target population”). This is the totality
of persons from which cases
Correspondence: Oliver C. Robinson, PhD, University of
Greenwich, Department of Psychology
and Counselling, Southwood Site, Avery Hill Road, London,
SE9 2UG, United Kingdom. E-mail:
[email protected]
25
26 O. C. Robinson
Table 1
The four-point approach to qualitative sampling
Name Definition Key decisional issues
Point 1 Define a sample
universe
61. Establish a sample universe,
specifically by way of a set of
inclusion and/or exclusion
criteria.
Homogeneity vs.
heterogeneity,
inclusion and
exclusion criteria
Point 2 Decide on a sample
size
Choose a sample size or sample
size range, by taking into
account what is ideal and
what is practical.
Idiographic (small) vs.
nomothetic (large)
Point 3 Devise a sample
strategy
Select a purposive sampling
62. strategy to specify categories
of person to be included in the
sample.
Stratified, cell, quota,
theoretical strategies
Point 4 Source the sample Recruit participants from the
target population.
Incentives vs. no
incentives, snowball
sampling varieties,
advertising
may legitimately be sampled in an interview study. To delineate
a sample universe, a set
of inclusion criteria or exclusion criteria, or a combination of
both, must be specified for
the study (Luborsky & Rubinstein 1995; Patton 1990). Inclusion
criteria should specify an
attribute that cases must possess to qualify for the study (e.g., a
study on domestic violence
that specifies that participants must be women who have
suffered partner violence that was
63. reported to the police or social services), while exclusion
criteria must stipulate attributes
that disqualify a case from the study (e.g., a study on exercise
that stipulates that participants
must not be smokers). Together, these criteria draw a boundary
around the sample universe,
as illustrated in Figure 1.
Homogeneity and Heterogeneity in the Sample Universe
The more inclusion and exclusion criteria that are used to define
a sample universe, and
the more specific these criteria are, the more homogenous the
sample universe becomes.
Sample universe homogeneity can be achieved along a variety
of parameters, such as
demographic homogeneity, graphical homogeneity, physical
homogeneity, psychological
homogeneity or life history homogeneity (see Table 2 for
descriptions of these). The
addition of exclusion or inclusion criteria in these different
domains increases sample
homogeneity.
One of these forms of homogeneity, psychological homogeneity,
64. is established if a
criterion for case inclusion is a particular mental ability,
attitude or trait. To make case
selection possible based on this kind of criterion, quantitative
data from questionnaires or
tests can be used as sampling tools (Coleman, Williams &
Martin 1996). For example,
Querstret and Robinson (2013) gained quantitative data on the
extent to which individuals
self-report having a personality that varies across different
social contexts, and used this
data to select individuals who were one standard deviation or
more above the mean for
Sampling in Interview-Based Qualitative Research 27
Sample universe
The total population of
possible cases for the
sample
65. Sample
The selection of cases
from which data is
actually collected
Inclusion criteria
Specify who/what is
permissible for inclusion
in the sample
Exclusion criteria
Specify who/what
cannot be included in
study
66. Figure 1. Sample universe, inclusion/exclusion criteria and
sample.
“cross-context variability.” These persons were then
interviewed for a qualitative study
about the motivations for, and experiences of, varying
behaviour and personality according
to social context.
The extent of sample universe homogeneity that a research
study aims at is influ-
enced by both theoretical and practical factors. Theoretically,
certain qualitative methods
have a preference for homogenous samples; for example
Interpretative Phenomenological
Analysis is explicit that homogenous samples work best in
conjunction with its philosoph-
ical foundations and analytical processes (Smith, Flowers &
Larkin 2009). By maintaining
a measure of sample homogeneity, IPA studies remain
contextualised within a defined set-
ting, and any generalisation from the study is made cautiously
to that localised sample
universe.
67. Conversely, there are approaches that aim to gain samples that
are intentionally het-
erogeneous, for example, the variation sampling technique of
Grounded Theory (Strauss
& Corbin 1998), or the cross-contextual approach described by
Mason (2002). The ratio-
nale for gaining a heterogeneous sample is that any
commonality found across a diverse
group of cases is more likely to be a widely generalisable
phenomenon than a commonality
found in a homogenous group of cases. Therefore, heterogeneity
of sample helps provide
evidence that findings are not solely the preserve a particular
group, time or place, which
can help establish whether a theory developed within one
particular context applies to other
contexts.
Cross-cultural qualitative research is another instance that may
call for a demograph-
ically and geographically heterogeneous sample. Such research
selects individuals from
different cultures in order to compare them and search for
similarities and differences.
An example of qualitative research conducted at such a scale
68. was the EUROCARE study;
the sample universe comprised persons caring for co-resident
spouses with Alzheimer’s in
14 European countries (Murray et al. 1999; Schneider et al.
1999). This influential piece of
28 O. C. Robinson
Table 2
Five types of sample homogeneity
Source of
homogeneity Description
Example hypothetical study and
sample requirement
Demographic
homogeneity
Homogeneity imparted by a
demographic commonality
such as a specific age range,
69. gender, ethnic or
socio-economic group
A study on menopause that
requires participants to be
women between the ages of
50 and 55
Geographical
homogeneity
Refers to sample that is all
drawn from the same
location
A study that evaluates Cognitive
Behavioural Therapy provision
in Birmingham
Physical homogeneity Occurs in a sample who must
share a common physical
characteristic
A study on coping with cystic
fibrosis that requires
70. participants who currently
suffer from the disease
Psychological
homogeneity
Similarity within a sample
imparted when participants
are selected based on the
possession of a particular
trait or ability
A study into gifted children that
requires participants to have an
IQ of over 150
Life history
homogeneity
Homogeneity resulting from
participants sharing a past
life experience in common
A study on motivations for
migration that requires
71. participants to have moved as a
migrant to the UK between the
ages of 20 and 40
research shows that cross-cultural qualitative research can be
successfully conducted with
a culturally heterogeneous sample universe, if resources are
available.
There are, however, challenges inherent in using a
heterogeneous sample. The
first is that findings will be relatively removed from real-life
settings, and the second
is that the sheer diversity of data may lessen the likelihood
meaningful core cross-
case themes being found during analysis. Therefore, all
researchers must consider the
homogeneity/heterogeneity trade-off for themselves and
delineate a sample universe that is
coherent with their research aims and questions and with the
research resources they have
at their disposal.
The sample universe is not only a practical boundary that aids
the process of sampling,
72. but it also provides an important theoretical role in the analysis
and interpretation process
by specifying what a sample is a sample of , and thus defining
who or what a study is about.
The level of generality to which a study’s findings is relevant
and logically inferable is
the sample universe (Mason 2002), thus the more clearly and
explicitly a sample universe
is described, the more valid and transparent any generalisation
can be. If a study does not
define a sample universe, or makes claims beyond its own
sample universe, this undermines
its credibility and coherence.
Sampling in Interview-Based Qualitative Research 29
Point 2: Deciding on a Sample Size
The size of a sample used for a qualitative project is influenced
by both theoretical and
practical considerations. The practical reality of research is that
most studies require a pro-
visional decision on sample size at the initial design stage.
73. Without a provisional number
at the design stage, the duration and required resource-
allocation of the project cannot be
ascertained, and that makes planning all but impossible.
However a priori sample specifi-
cation need not imply inflexibility; instead of a fixed number,
an approximate sample size
range can be given, with a minimum and a maximum.
Interview studies that have a nomothetic aim to develop or test
general theory are to a
degree reliant on sample size to generalise (Robinson 2012).
Sample size is by no means the
only factor influencing generalisability, but it is part of the
picture. O’Connor and Wolfe’s
grounded theory study of midlife transition, which was based on
interviews with a sample
of 64 adults between the ages of 35 and 50 (O’Connor & Wolfe
1987), illustrates this point;
the relatively large sample supports the nomothetic aim of the
study. A way of working
with larger sample sizes in qualitative research, which prevents
analytical overload, is to
combine separate studies together into larger syntheses. For
example, I recently combined
74. findings from a series of three studies on the topic of early adult
crisis into a single analytical
synthesis and article. One contributing study had a sample of 16
cases, the second had a
sample of 8 cases, and the third employed a sample of 26 cases.
These were analysed and
reported as separate studies originally, before being combined
into the synthesis paper with
a total sample of N = 50 (Robinson, Wright & Smith 2013).
Very large-scale qualitative interview projects include hundreds
of individuals in their
sample. For example, the aforementioned EUROCARE project
employed a sample size of
approximately 280 (20 persons of for each of 14 countries)
(Murray et al. 1999), and the
MIDUS study (The Midlife in the United States Study) is a
study that has involved more
than 700 structured interviews (Wethington 2000). While such
projects do require time,
money, many researchers and a robust purposive sampling
strategy (see below), they are
achieved by breaking up the research into smaller substudies
that are initially analysed on
their own terms before being aggregated together.
75. Interview research that has an idiographic aim typically seeks a
sample size that is
sufficiently small for individual cases to have a locatable voice
within the study, and for
an intensive analysis of each case to be conducted. For these
reasons, researchers using
IPA are given a guideline of 3–16 participants for a single
study, with the lower end
of that spectrum suggested for undergraduate projects and the
upper end for larger-scale
funded projects (Smith et al. 2009). This sample size range
provides scope for developing
cross-case generalities, while preventing the researcher being
bogged down in data, and
permitting individuals within the sample to be given a defined
identity, rather than being
subsumed into an anonymous part of a larger whole (Robinson
& Smith 2010a).
Case study design is often referred to as a distinct kind of
method that is separable
from standard qualitative method (e.g., Yin 2009). In relation to
interview-based case-
studies, a more integrative view is taken here in which the
76. decision to do a N = 1 case
study is a sample size decision to be taken as part of the four-
point rubric set out in this
guide. The resulting case study can then be analysed using an
idiographic interview-focused
method such as IPA. There are a number of different reasons for
choosing a sample size
of 1, and Table 3 lists six of these: psychobiography, theoretical
or hermeneutic insight,
theory-testing or construct-problematising, demonstration of
possibility, illustration of best
practice and theory-exemplification. All of these warrant a
sample size of one and require
associated sample strategies, which are discussed later in this
article.
Ta
bl
e
3
Si
148. &
W
es
t1
99
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.
30
Sampling in Interview-Based Qualitative Research 31
These case study objectives are not mutually exclusive. An
example of a paper that
evidences multiple aims is Sparke’s narrative analysis of the
autobiography of cyclist Lance
Armstrong (Sparkes 2004). It includes aspects of
psychobiography, hermeneutic insight and
construct problematising.
149. Pragmatic and Theoretical Justifications for Altering Sample
Size during
Interview-Based Research
In all qualitative studies, there are strong grounds for
monitoring data collection as it
progresses and altering sample size within agreed parameters on
theoretical or practical
grounds (Silverman 2010). Indeed, monitoring and being
responsive to the practical
realities of research is a key skill for the qualitative researcher,
as collecting in-depth data
leads to challenges that are never entirely predictable at the
outset of a project. Mason
(2002) refers to this skill as “organic” sampling. For example,
recruiting participants,
the final and fourth concern discussed in this article, is an
unpredictable business and if
it proves to be more difficult than anticipated, a reduction in
target sample size may be
required. Conversely, recruitment may lead to more potential
cases than was anticipated,
so the researcher may consider at this point expanding the target
sample size, if logistically
manageable. The other major practical reason for changing
150. sample size is if the availability
of resources, funding, time or researcher manpower lessens or
increases during the course
of a project.
Of all qualitative methodologies, Grounded Theory puts most
emphasis on being flex-
ible about sample size as a project progresses (Glaser 1978).
According to Grounded
Theory, as the researcher collects data, analysis should proceed
at the same time, not be
left until later. Simultaneous analysis permits a researcher to
make real-time judgements
about whether further data collection is likely to produce any
additional or novel contri-
bution to the theory-development process and therefore whether
further sample acquisition
would be appropriate or not (Strauss & Corbin 1998). Sample
size may be increased if
ongoing data analysis leads the researcher to realise that he/she
has omitted an important
group or type of person from the original sample universe, who
should be added to the sam-
ple in order to enhance the validity or transferability of the
findings or theory (Silverman
151. 2010). Alternatively, if the researcher judges that “theoretical
saturation” has been reached,
it is assumed that further data collection will not bring
incremental benefit to the theory-
development process (Strauss & Corbin), and data collection
will be halted. Guest, Bunce
and Johnson (2006) provide a useful set of guidelines for
determining theoretical saturation
when using interviews.
Point 3: Selecting a Sample Strategy
Once a sample universe is defined and an approximate or exact
sample number decided
upon, a researcher must then ask themselves the question: How
do I select cases for inclu-
sion in the sample? The strategic options available at this point
can be categorised into (a)
random/convenience sampling strategies and (b) purposive
sampling strategies.
Random and Convenience Sampling Strategies
Random sampling is the process of selecting cases from a list of
all (or most) cases within
152. the sample universe population using some kind of random
selection procedure. This pro-
cess is used in opinion polls and social research surveys, typical
methods include random
32 O. C. Robinson
selection of numbers from a phone book or of addresses from
the electoral roll. Quantitative
studies in psychology often claim to use a random sampling
procedure, even when they do
not. Instead they typically locate a nearby source of potential
participants who are con-
venient in their proximity and willingness to participate (i.e.,
psychology students) and
are in all likelihood not a random cross-section of the sample
universe (the sample uni-
verse is typically ‘people in general’). This is called
convenience sampling. It is used in
quantitative research and sometimes in qualitative research as
well. It proceeds by way of
locating any convenient cases who meet the required criteria
and then selecting those who
153. respond on a first-come-first-served basis until the sample size
quotient is full. The prob-
lem of using this approach in quantitative research is that
statistics function on the basis
that samples are random, when they are typically not. For
qualitative research, the danger
of convenience sampling is that if the sample universe is broad,
unwarranted generalisa-
tions may be attempted from a convenience sample. The best
way of justifying the use of
convenience samples in qualitative research is by defining the
sample universe as demo-
graphically and geographically local and thus restricting
generalisation to that local level,
rather than attempting decontextualised abstract claims. For
example, if the convenience
sample is psychology students at a particular university in the
United Kingdom, then by
making the sample universe “young university-educated adults
in the United Kingdom”
rather than “people in general,” the link between sample and
target population is enhanced,
while potential generalisation is narrowed and thus made more
logically justifiable.
154. Purposive Sampling Strategies
Purposive sampling strategies are non-random ways of ensuring
that particular categories
of cases within a sampling universe are represented in the final
sample of a project. The
rationale for employing a purposive strategy is that the
researcher assumes, based on their
a-priori theoretical understanding of the topic being studied,
that certain categories of
individuals may have a unique, different or important
perspective on the phenomenon
in question and their presence in the sample should be ensured
(Mason 2002; Trost
1986). Summarised below are stratified, cell, quota and
theoretical sampling, which are all
purposive strategies used in studies that employ multiple cases.
Following this I describe
significant case, intensity, deviant case, extreme case and
typical case sampling, which
are purposive strategies that are best employed when selecting a
single case study. All of
these are processes for ensuring that certain types of individuals
within a sample universe
definitely end up in a final sample.
155. Stratified Sampling
In a stratified sample, the researcher first selects the particular
categories or groups of cases
that he/she considers should be purposively included in the final
sample. The sample is then
divided up or “stratified” according to these categories, and a
target number of participants
are allocated to each one. Stratification categories can be
geographical, demographic, socio-
economic, physical or psychological; the only requirement is
that there is a clear theoretical
rationale for assuming that the resulting groups will differ in
some meaningful way.
If there are just two stratification criteria in a study, the
resulting framework can be
illustrated as a simple cross-tabulated table, as shown in Figure
2a. In this table, gender and
age provide the basis for the sample stratification of a
hypothetical study on the experience
of life following divorce. If more than two variables are used in
a sampling framework,
an alternative way of illustrating the stratification is using a
156. “nested table,” as shown in
Figure 2b (Trost 1986). Here, the variable of “with
children/without children” is added to
Sampling in Interview-Based Qualitative Research 33
a) Cross-tabulated table illustrating a sample stratified by two
variables: gender and age
b) Nested table illustrating a stratified sample with three
typological variables: gender, age and
presence of dependent children
Male Female
30Ð45 46Ð60 30Ð45 46Ð60
Dependent
children
No
dependent
children
158. Ages
30Ð45
4 4
Ages
46Ð60
4 4
Figure 2. Types of table used for illustrating stratified
sampling.
the divorce study sampling framework. It should be born in
mind from a practical view that
the more stratification criteria one includes in a sample frame,
the more complicated recruit-
ment becomes and the longer the process of finding
participants. Therefore researchers
should devise a sample strategy that takes into account how
much time they have and the
resources at their disposal.
As previously mentioned, to include a purposive sampling
stratification there must be
159. clear theoretical grounds for the categories used. For example,
in this hypothetical study on
postdivorce experiences that Figure 2 refers to, the theoretical
grounds for sampling men
and women could be that women are more likely to get custody
of children than men in
the United Kingdom, and thus a systematic difference between
sexes would be justifiably
expected. Age could be justified as a sampling criterion on the
basis that younger adults typ-
ically find it easy to re-partner than older adults, meaning the
postdivorce experience may
differ by age. The presence or absence of dependent children
could be included because
issues of child custody add a great deal of complexity and
potential stress to postdivorce
proceedings so those with and without children could be
expected to differ. In a real study,
such theoretical rationales for purposive criteria would ideally
have referenced sources.
Cell Sampling
Cell sampling is like stratified sampling insofar as it provides a
series of a priori categories
160. that must be filled when gaining sample. The difference
between cell sampling and stratified
sampling is that the latter employs categories that are discrete
and nonoverlapping; in the
former, cells can overlap like a Venn diagram (Miles &
Huberman 1994). As a hypothetical
example, a study on popular phobias may choose to purposively
select individuals who (a)
have a phobia of a certain animal, (b) have a phobia of heights
or (c) have both types of
phobias. This example is illustrated in Figure 3.
Quota Sampling
The process of quota sampling is a more flexible strategy than
stratified or cell sampling.
Instead of requiring fixed numbers of cases in particular
categories, quota sampling sets out
34 O. C. Robinson
Phobia of animal Phobia of heightsPhobias of both
161. N = 5 N = 5N = 5
Figure 3. A hypothetical example of …
6
Running head: IMPACT OF CHANGE MANAGEMNT IN
HEALTHCARE
Introduction
Change management is one of the pressing issues every
organization is confronted with especially in an environment
where change is associated with success or failure. The
healthcare organizations are not left out in this change frenzy as
they also seek to succeed through successful change
implementation. Rapid change is being recorded in the health
care organizations, mostly as they try to adopt new technologies
and improve the quality of patient care, as well as manage the
performance of the healthcare personnel. The best way to deal
with the change, as literature reveals, is helping the employees
adopt new ways of doing things (Campbell, 2008).
By definition, change management entails the process leading to
the realization of the ideal state of the organization. In other
words, change management in an organization entails
overseeing the transition from the current state to the desired
state. The process of change begins with the creation of a vision
162. for the change. This is then followed by empowering the people
responsible with the change to act as agents of the change and
help attain the change. The change management process often
involves many participants with roles that are clearly defined.
These may include the owners of the change, the managers of
the change, and the owners of the processes among others.
Change management often impacts on various people
differently. The stakeholders within change management are
varied which includes the participants to the change, and other
groups that are either affected directly or indirectly by the
change. In healthcare organizations, these impacts will be felt
depending on the type of change and the result of change. For
example, the change might be concerned with the introduction
of new technologies, and this will mean new skills for the
personnel and possibly a new structure for the entire
organization. Change management in healthcare organizations,
therefore, requires that the managers fully understand change
and its impacts before making efforts to implement the change.
Literature review
There are several major types of changes explained in the
literature that are experienced in the healthcare industry. In this
case, literature has revealed that technological changes,
strategic changes and innovations in pursuit of better patient
care are among the most influential ones. Change management,
it has been hypothesized, will entail managing the change
163. process itself and the people who most likely to resist the
change.
It is acknowledged that the healthcare managers today tend to
occupy an extremely challenging position requiring them to
maintain a competitive edge in a healthcare market while
leading the organization through a constant change (Campbell,
2008). Organizations today, regardless of the industry or
sector, are experiencing rapid technological change. The
healthcare organizations are also subject to this phenomenon
whereby technology is the key driver of change. The healthcare
organizations are adopting new technologies as they try to
implement quality improvement initiatives and performance
management initiatives such as pay-for-performance (Campbell,
2008). Technology can be disruptive in that it can completely
change the face and operations of the organizations, and the
change management in healthcare will need to take into account
that new models and structures might result. In such a case, the
biggest challenge is often preparing the nurses to cope with
such changes which could have huge impacts in the nature of
their careers. For example, they could not be required to have
IT skills for them to handle the new IT systems being
implemented.
Besides the technology changes, the change management in
healthcare is also concerned with the shifts in the environment
which tend to compel the healthcare organizations to change
164. their strategies (Caldwell, Chatman, O'Reilly III, Ormiston, &
Lapiz, 2008). Research in change management in healthcare has
revealed that strategic change often fails owing to the inability
of the individuals to adopt the necessary behaviors for the
successful implementation of the new strategy. The healthcare
management and leadership, therefore, are seen to be deficient
in terms of proper change implementation. A change in strategy
is something that would require a change in behavior, meaning
that the behavioral change should be the first thing to
implement. The behavioral change should lay the foundation for
the strategy change whereby everyone is brought on board.
Literature has established that this form of change requires a
unique approach. The hypotheses set out by Caldwell, Chatman,
O'Reilly III, Ormiston, & Lapiz (2008) include that the
management and leadership should gain support for the strategic
change and introduce norms for change readiness. According to
Klein, Conn, and Sorra (2001), a successful change
implementation will require an ‘implementation climate’, a term
defined as support for the specific change. Their study was
concerned with the application of advanced computerized
manufacturing technology, but the principle applies to all
organizational contexts. An implementation climate in a
healthcare organization would probably be that climate where
the organizational members are not only ready for the change,
but also support the change entirely.
165. Teamwork in change management in healthcare has also been
found to facilitate a successful change implementation.
Researchers like Markoczy (2011) have established that when
the members of the management team are in agreement or have
a consensus on the change direction, there is a greater
likelihood of success. This leads to another hypothesis that
there will be greater performance improvements where the
members agree on the nature of the new strategy. The healthcare
management is, therefore, presented with a challenge of
achieving this unity that will drive the speed and effectiveness
of the change process. Team leadership becomes a necessity
because, as research has established, the senior leaders may
have a critical role in the identification and implementation of
the new strategy, the middle managers leading the various
groups have the ability to enhance or undermine this
implementation (House & Aditya, 1997). This means that the
middle managers and the nurses collectively and individually
have an influence on the success of change implementation.
Each individual must be brought on board, a challenge for the
managers who need to overcome the resistance to change.
According to Kodama & Fukahori (2017), the nurse managers
are the first-line managers who are responsible for inducing
change in the clinical environment.
According to Al- Abri (2007, p. 9), the change management in
healthcare has to contend with the fact that the healthcare
166. professionals, including nurses, are obligated to acquire and
maintain the expertise requisite for their tasks as they will only
be given tasks falling within their individual competencies.
With the change occurring frequently, all these professionals
may be required to update continuously their expertise in order
to remain relevant to this sector. This is why researchers like
Al- Abri (2007, p. 9) argue that change management entails
managing the complexity of the processes – that is, planning,
evaluating, and implementing operations, strategies and tactics
that ensure that the change is relevant and worthwhile.
Managing resistance is especially important at the lower levels
where professionals like the nurses could face and resist a
change in the nature of their careers.
The pursuit of patient safety initiatives is another reason why
the healthcare organizations have to be worried about change
management. There are often some unintended consequences
when these organizations pursue patient safety without
undertaking effective change management (Ramanujam, Keyser,
& Sirio, 2005, p. 455). Herein, the management and leadership
in the healthcare organizations need to understand the inputs
shaping the strategy (both internal and external) before
developing strategies to achieve specified outcomes. According
to these researchers, the senior management and leadership has
an active role in the change initiation, and are also responsible
for energizing the process of change. This leadership must also
167. make sure that on board are senior administrators, clinicians,
nurses, and opinion leaders among others. In other words, all
members of the organization have to participate in the change
process.
The improvement of patient care has been a top priority in
almost all healthcare organizations and this exerts a lot of
pressure. Ducharme, Buckley, Alder, and Pelletier (2009, p. 70)
establish that among the challenges facing Ontario healthcare
organizations include overcrowding and long wait times that
degrade the quality of care. Innovative and timely solutions to
such challenges are a priority. A literature review presented by
Antwi and Kale (2014, p. 1) also indicates that the Canadian
healthcare organizations were in need for solutions to problems
such as long wait hour and timely access to care. This literature
review reveals that the patient care is a critical factor affecting
the changes in the healthcare. The pursuit of better patient care
means pursuing innovations in both systems, structures,
technologies, etc. These researchers express the need for the
managers and decision makers to understand how change occurs
in order for them to create a conducive environment for the
innovations.
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