Water is the most ubiquitous substance in the chemical reactions of life.  The interactions of various aqueous solutions, solutions in which water is the solvent, are continuously monitored and adjusted by a large suite of interconnected feedback systems in our body. Understanding the ways in which the body maintains these critical balances is key to understanding good health.

1. The Renal System & Homeostasis:
Water, Electrolyte &
Acid-Base Balance
Rajendra Dev Bhatt, PhD Scholar
Asst. Professor
Clinical Biochemistry & Laboratory Medicine
Dhulikhel Hospital-Kathmandu University Hospital
Fellow: Translational Research (2018-2022) in CVD in Nepal, NIH, USA

2. Water is the most abundant component in
our body
Need for water is vital and more urgent than
any other nutrient
We may survive a month without food but
may not survive a week without water

3. Homeostasis, or the maintenance of constant
conditions in the body, is a fundamental property of
all living things.
In the human body, the substances that participate in
chemical reactions must remain within narrows
ranges of concentration.
Too much or too little of a single substance can
disrupt our bodily functions. Because metabolism
relies on reactions that are all interconnected, any
disruption might affect multiple organs.

4. Water is the most ubiquitous substance in the
chemical reactions of life.
The interactions of various aqueous solutions,
solutions in which water is the solvent, are
continuously monitored and adjusted.
Understanding the ways in which the body
maintains these critical balances is key to
understanding good health.

5. Body Fluids and Fluid Compartments
The chemical reactions of life take place in aqueous
solutions.
The dissolved substances in a solution are called
solutes. In the human body, solutes vary in different
parts of the body, AND it may include proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates, and, very importantly,
electrolytes.
Often in medicine, a mineral dissociated from a salt
that carries an electrical charge (an ion) is called and
electrolyte.

6. In the body, water moves through semi-permeable
membranes of cells and from one compartment of
the body to another by a process called osmosis.
Osmosis is basically the diffusion of water from
regions of higher concentration to regions of lower
concentration, along an osmotic gradient across a
semi-permeable membrane
As a result, water will move into and out of cells
and tissues, depending on the relative concentrations
of the water and solutes found there.

7. Body Water Content

8. In human beings water ranging from about 75
percent of body mass in infants, about 50–60
percent in adult men and women, as low as 45
percent in old age.
.
Our brain and kidneys have the highest proportions
of water, which composes 80–85 percent of their
masses. In contrast, teeth have the lowest proportion
of water, at 8–10 percent.

9. Fluid Compartments
The intracellular fluid
(ICF) compartment is the system that
includes all fluid enclosed in cells by
their plasma membranes.
Extracellular fluid (ECF) surrounds
all cells in the body. Extracellular
fluid has two primary constituents:
the fluid component of the blood
(called plasma) and the interstitial
fluid (IF) that surrounds all cells not
in the blood.

10. Fluid Movement between Compartments
Hydrostatic pressure, the force exerted by a fluid against a
wall, causes movement of fluid between compartments. The
hydrostatic pressure of blood is the pressure exerted by blood
against the walls of the blood vessels by the pumping action of
the heart.
Hydrostatic pressure is especially important in governing the
movement of water in the nephrons of the kidneys to ensure
proper filtering of the blood to form urine.

11. As hydrostatic pressure in the kidneys increases, the
amount of water leaving the capillaries also increases,
and more urine filtrate is formed.
If hydrostatic pressure in the kidneys drops too low, as
can happen in dehydration, the functions of the kidneys
will be impaired, and less nitrogenous wastes will be
removed from the bloodstream. Extreme dehydration
can result in kidney failure.

12. Diffusion: movement of the particles in a solution from
the area of high concentration to the area of lower
concentration
Osmosis: diffusion of solvent molecules (water) into
region in which there is a higher concentration of a
solute (electrolyte) to which the membrane is
impermeable or semi-permiable.
Osmotic pressure: the pressure necessary to prevent
solvent migration
Osmol: concentration of osmotic active particles

13. Osmolarity : number of osmoles per liter of solution
Osmolality: number of osmoles per kilogram of solvent
Tonicity: Tonicity is the capability of a solution to modify
the volume of cells by altering their water content. The
movement of water into a cell can lead to hypotonicity or
hypertonicity.
Colloids: high molecular weight particles (> 20000 D)
Oncotic pressure (colloid osmotic pressure): the pressure
necessery to prevent diffusion of solvent molecules
(water) into region in which there is a higher concentration
of a colloid to which the membrane is impermeable

14. Water balance is achieved in the body by ensuring that
the amount of water consumed in food and drink (and
generated by metabolism) equals the amount of water
excreted. The consumption side is regulated by
behavioral mechanisms, including thirst and salt
cravings.
One way the kidneys can directly control the volume of
bodily fluids is by the amount of water excreted in the
urine. Either the kidneys can conserve water by
producing urine that is concentrated relative to plasma,
or they can rid the body of excess water by producing
urine that is dilute relative to plasma.

16. The water that leaves the body, as exhaled air, sweat, or
urine, is ultimately extracted from blood plasma. As the
blood becomes more concentrated, the thirst
response—a sequence of physiological processes—is
triggered.
Osmoreceptors are sensory receptors in the thirst center
in the hypothalamus that monitor the concentration of
solutes (osmolality) of the blood.
If blood osmolality increases above its ideal value, the
hypothalamus transmits signals that result in a
conscious awareness of thirst.

17. The hypothalamus of a dehydrated person also releases
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) through the posterior
pituitary gland.
ADH signals the kidneys to recover water from urine,
effectively diluting the blood plasma. To conserve
water, the hypothalamus of a dehydrated person also
sends signals via the sympathetic nervous system to the
salivary glands in the mouth.
The signals result in a decrease in watery, serous output
(and an increase in stickier, thicker mucus output).
These changes in secretions result in a “dry mouth” and
the sensation of thirst.

18. Decreased blood volume resulting from water loss has
two additional effects. First, baroreceptors, blood-
pressure receptors in the arch of the aorta and the
carotid arteries in the neck, detect a decrease in blood
pressure that results from decreased blood volume. The
heart is ultimately signaled to increase its rate and/or
strength of contractions to compensate for the lowered
blood pressure.

19. Second, the kidneys have a renin-angiotensin hormonal
system that increases the production of the active form
of the hormone angiotensin II, which helps stimulate
thirst, but also stimulates the release of the hormone
aldosterone from the adrenal glands. Aldosterone
increases the reabsorption of sodium in the distal
tubules of the nephrons in the kidneys, and water
follows this reabsorbed sodium back into the blood.
Circulating angiotensin II can also stimulate the
hypothalamus to release ADH.

20. Regulatory Mechanisms
• Baroreceptor reflex
• Volume receptors
• Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism
• Antidiuretic hormone

21. Baroreceptor Reflex
Baroreceptors are specialized stretch receptors located
in certain blood vessels, particularly in the walls of the
carotid arteries in the neck and the aortic arch in the
chest. These receptors are sensitive to changes in blood
pressure.
Respond to a fall in arterial blood pressure
Located in the atrial walls, vena cava, aortic arch and
carotid sinus
Constricts afferent arterioles of the kidney resulting in
retention of fluid

22. Volume Receptors
Volume receptors, also known as volume-sensitive
receptors, are sensory receptors that detect changes in
the volume of body fluids, particularly blood volume.
Respond to fluid excess in the atria and great vessels
Stimulation of these receptors creates a strong renal
response that increases urine output

23. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
• Renin
–Enzyme secreted by kidneys when arterial
pressure or volume drops
–Interacts with angiotensinogen to form
angiotensin I (vasoconstrictor)

24. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
• Angiotensin
–Angiotensin I is converted in lungs to
angiotensin II using ACE (angiotensin
converting enzyme)
–Produces vasoconstriction to elevate
blood pressure
–Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete
aldosterone

25. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
• Aldosterone
–Mineralocorticoid that controls Na+ and K+
blood levels
–Increases Cl- and HCO3- concentrations and
fluid volume

26. Aldosterone Negative Feedback Mechanism
• ECF & Na+ levels drop  secretion of
ACTH by the anterior pituitary  release of
aldosterone by the adrenal cortex  fluid
and Na+ retention

27. Antidiuretic Hormone
• Also called vasopressin
• Released by posterior pituitary when there is a
need to restore intravascular fluid volume
• Release is triggered by osmo-receptors in the thirst
center of the hypothalamus
• Fluid volume excess  decreased ADH
• Fluid volume deficit  increased ADH

28. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as
vasopressin, controls the amount of water reabsorbed
from the collecting ducts and tubules in the kidney.
This hormone is produced in the hypothalamus and is
delivered to the posterior pituitary for storage and
release.
When the osmo-receptors in the hypothalamus detect
an increase in the concentration of blood plasma, the
hypothalamus signals the release of ADH from the
posterior pituitary into the blood.

30. ADH has two major effects. It constricts the arterioles
in the peripheral circulation, which reduces the flow of
blood to the extremities and thereby increases the blood
supply to the core of the body.
ADH also causes the epithelial cells that line the renal
collecting tubules to move water channel proteins,
called aquaporins, from the interior of the cells to the
apical surface, where these proteins are inserted into the
cell membrane.
.

31. The result is an increase in the water permeability of
these cells and, thus, a large increase in water passage
from the urine through the walls of the collecting
tubules, leading to more reabsorption of water into the
bloodstream.
When the blood plasma becomes less concentrated and
the level of ADH decreases, aquaporins are removed
from collecting tubule cell membranes, and the passage
of water out of urine and into the blood decreases.

33. Summary
• Homeostasis requires that water intake and output be
balanced. Most water intake comes through the digestive
tract via liquids and food, but roughly 10 percent of water
available to the body is generated at the end of aerobic
respiration during cellular metabolism.
• Urine produced by the kidneys accounts for the largest
amount of water leaving the body. The kidneys can adjust
the concentration of the urine to reflect the body’s water
needs, conserving water if the body is dehydrated or making
urine more dilute to expel excess water when necessary.
• ADH is a hormone that helps the body to retain water by
increasing water reabsorption by the kidneys.

34. Review Questions
1. The largest amount of water comes into the
body via….
a. Food
b. Humidifier air
c. Liquid
d. Metabolism

35. 2. Insensible water loss is water lost via..
a. Vomiting and Diarrhea
b. Urine
c. Excessive sweating
d. Air from the lungs

36. 3. How soon after drinking a large glass of water
will a person start increasing their urine output?
a. 15 minutes
b. 30 minutes
c. 60 minutes
d. 120 minutes

37. THANK YOU

38. Electrolyte Balance
The body contains a large variety of ions, or
electrolytes, which perform a variety of functions. Some
ions assist in the transmission of electrical impulses
along cell membranes in neurons and muscles.
Other ions help to stabilize protein structures in
enzymes. Still others aid in releasing hormones from
endocrine glands. All of the ions in plasma contribute
to the osmotic balance that controls the movement of
water between cells and their environment.

39. Electrolytes in living systems include sodium,
potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, phosphate,
magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, manganese,
molybdenum, copper, and chromium. In terms of body
functioning, six electrolytes are most important:
sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, and
phosphate.

40. Roles of Electrolytes
These six ions aid in nerve excitability, endocrine
secretion, membrane permeability, buffering body
fluids, and controlling the movement of fluids between
compartments. These ions enter the body through the
digestive tract.
More than 90 percent of the calcium and phosphate that
enters the body is incorporated into bones and teeth, with
bone serving as a mineral reserve for these ions.
In the event that calcium and phosphate are needed for
other functions, bone tissue can be broken down to
supply the blood and other tissues with these minerals.

41. Excretion of ions occurs mainly through the kidneys,
with lesser amounts lost in sweat and in feces.
Excessive sweating may cause a significant loss,
especially of sodium and chloride.
Severe vomiting or diarrhea will cause a loss of
chloride and bicarbonate ions. Adjustments in
respiratory and renal functions allow the body to
regulate the levels of these ions in the ECF.

42. Sodium
Sodium is the major cation of the extracellular fluid. It
is responsible for one-half of the osmotic pressure
gradient that exists between the interior of cells and
their surrounding environment.
This excess sodium appears to be a major factor in
hypertension (high blood pressure) in some people.
Excretion of sodium is accomplished primarily by the
kidneys.

43. Sodium is freely filtered through the glomerular
capillaries of the kidneys, and although much of the
filtered sodium is reabsorbed in the proximal
convoluted tubule, some remains in the filtrate and
urine, and is normally excreted.
Hyponatremia is a lower-than-normal concentration of
sodium, usually associated with excess water
accumulation in the body, which dilutes the sodium. An
absolute loss of sodium may be due to a decreased
intake of the ion coupled with its continual excretion in
the urine.

44. A relative decrease in blood sodium can occur because
of an imbalance of sodium in one of the body’s other
fluid compartments, like IF, or from a dilution of
sodium due to water retention related to edema or
congestive heart failure.
At the cellular level, hyponatremia results in
increased entry of water into cells by osmosis,
because the concentration of solutes within the cell
exceeds the concentration of solutes in the now-
diluted ECF.

45. Hypernatremia is an abnormal increase of blood
sodium. It can result from water loss from the blood,
resulting in the hemoconcentration of all blood
constituents. This can lead to neuromuscular irritability,
convulsions, CNS lethargy, and coma. Hormonal
imbalances involving ADH and aldosterone may also
result in higher-than-normal sodium values.
The excess water causes swelling of the cells; the
swelling of red blood cells—decreasing their oxygen-
carrying efficiency and making them potentially too
large to fit through capillaries—along with the
swelling of neurons in the brain can result in brain
damage or even death.

46. Potassium
Potassium is the major intracellular cation. It helps
establish the resting membrane potential in neurons and
muscle fibers after membrane depolarization and action
potentials. In contrast to sodium, potassium has very little
effect on osmotic pressure.
Potassium is excreted, both actively and passively,
through the renal tubules, especially the distal
convoluted tubule and collecting ducts. Potassium
participates in the exchange with sodium in the renal
tubules under the influence of aldosterone, which also
relies on basolateral sodium-potassium pumps.

47. Hypokalemia is an abnormally low potassium blood
level. Similar to the situation with hyponatremia,
hypokalemia can occur because of either an absolute
reduction of potassium in the body or a relative
reduction of potassium in the blood due to the
redistribution of potassium.
An absolute loss of potassium can arise from decreased
intake, frequently related to starvation. It can also come
about from vomiting, diarrhea, or alkalosis.
Hypokalemia can cause metabolic acidosis, CNS
confusion, and cardiac arrhythmias.

48. When insulin is administered and glucose is taken up
by cells, potassium passes through the cell membrane
along with glucose, decreasing the amount of
potassium in the blood and IF, which can cause
hyperpolarization of the cell membranes of neurons,
reducing their responses to stimuli.
Hyperkalemia, an elevated potassium blood level,
also can impair the function of skeletal muscles, the
nervous system, and the heart.

49. For the heart, this means that it won’t relax after a
contraction, and will effectively “seize” and stop
pumping blood, which is fatal within minutes. Because of
such effects on the nervous system, a person with
hyperkalemia may also exhibit mental confusion,
numbness, and weakened respiratory muscles.
In such a situation, potassium from the blood ends up
in the ECF in abnormally high concentrations. This
can result in a partial depolarization (excitation) of the
plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fibers, neurons,
and cardiac cells of the heart, and can also lead to an
inability of cells to repolarize.

50. Chloride
Chloride is the predominant extracellular anion.
Chloride is a major contributor to the osmotic pressure
gradient between the ICF and ECF, and plays an
important role in maintaining proper hydration.
Chloride functions to balance cations in the ECF,
maintaining the electrical neutrality of this fluid. The
paths of secretion and reabsorption of chloride ions in
the renal system follow the paths of sodium ions.

51. Hypochloremia, or lower-than-normal blood chloride
levels, can occur because of defective renal tubular
absorption. Vomiting, diarrhea, and metabolic acidosis
can also lead to hypochloremia.
Hyperchloremia, or higher-than-normal blood
chloride levels, can occur due to dehydration,
excessive intake of dietary salt (NaCl) or swallowing
of sea water, aspirin intoxication, congestive heart
failure, and the hereditary, chronic lung disease.

52. Bicarbonate
Bicarbonate is the second most abundant anion
in the blood. Its principal function is to maintain
your body’s acid-base balance by being part of
buffer systems.
Bicarbonate ions result from a chemical reaction that
starts with carbon dioxide (CO2) and water, two
molecules that are produced at the end of aerobic
metabolism.
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H2CO3
– + H+

53. Regulation of Sodium and Potassium
Sodium is reabsorbed from the renal filtrate, and
potassium is excreted into the filtrate in the renal
collecting tubule. The control of this exchange is
governed principally by two hormones—aldosterone
and angiotensin II.
Recall that aldosterone increases the excretion of potassium
and the reabsorption of sodium in the distal tubule.
Aldosterone is released if blood levels of potassium
increase, if blood levels of sodium severely decrease, or if
blood pressure decreases. Its net effect is to conserve and
increase water levels in the plasma by reducing the
excretion of sodium, and thus water, from the kidneys.

55. In a negative feedback loop,
increased osmolality of the ECF
(which follows aldosterone-
stimulated sodium absorption)
inhibits the release of the
hormone.
Angiotensin II causes
vasoconstriction and an increase in
systemic blood pressure. This action
increases the glomerular filtration
rate, resulting in more material
filtered out of the glomerular
capillaries and into Bowman’s
capsule. Angiotensin II also signals
an increase in the release of
aldosterone from the adrenal cortex.

56. • In the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of
the kidneys, aldosterone stimulates the synthesis and
activation of the sodium-potassium pump.
• Sodium passes from the filtrate, into and through the
cells of the tubules and ducts, into the ECF and then
into capillaries.
• Water follows the sodium due to osmosis. Thus,
aldosterone causes an increase in blood sodium levels
and blood volume.
• Aldosterone’s effect on potassium is the reverse of that
of sodium; under its influence, excess potassium is
pumped into the renal filtrate for excretion from the
body.

58. Summary
• Electrolytes serve various purposes, such as helping to conduct
electrical impulses along cell membranes in neurons and
muscles, stabilizing enzyme structures, and releasing
hormones from endocrine glands.
• The ions in plasma also contribute to the osmotic balance that
controls the movement of water between cells and their
environment.
• Imbalances of these ions can result in various problems in the
body, and their concentrations are tightly regulated.
Aldosterone and angiotensin II control the exchange of sodium
and potassium between the renal filtrate and the renal
collecting tubule.
• Calcium and phosphate are regulated by PTH, calcitrol, and
calcitonin.

59. Review Questions
1. Bone serves as a mineral reserve for which two
ions?
a. Chloride and Bicarbonate
b. Sodium and potassium
c. Calcium and phosphate
d. Calcium and bicarbonate

60. 2. Electrolytes are lost mostly through
a. Renal function
b. Respiration
c. Feces
d. Sweating

61. 3. The major cation in extracellular fluid is
a. Potassium
b. Sodium
c. Bicarbonate
d. Chloride

62. Acid-Base Balance
• The buffer systems in the human body are
extremely efficient, and different systems work at
different rates. It takes only seconds for the
chemical buffers in the blood to make adjustments
to pH.
• The respiratory tract can adjust the blood pH
upward in minutes by exhaling CO2 from the
body. The renal system can also adjust blood pH
through the excretion of hydrogen ions (H+) and
the conservation of bicarbonate, but this process
takes hours to days to have an effect.

63. Renal Regulation of Acid-Base Balance
• The renal regulation of the body’s acid-base balance
addresses the metabolic component of the buffering system.
Whereas the respiratory system (together with breathing
centers in the brain) controls the blood levels of carbonic
acid by controlling the exhalation of CO2, the renal system
controls the blood levels of bicarbonate.
• A decrease of blood bicarbonate can result from the
inhibition of carbonic anhydrase by certain diuretics or from
excessive bicarbonate loss due to diarrhea.
• Blood bicarbonate levels are also typically lower in people
who have Addison’s disease (chronic adrenal insufficiency),
in which aldosterone levels are reduced, and in people who
have renal damage, such as chronic nephritis.
• Finally, low bicarbonate blood levels can result from
elevated levels of ketones (common in unmanaged diabetes
mellitus), which bind bicarbonate in the filtrate and prevent
its conservation.

64. • Step 1: Sodium ions are reabsorbed from the filtrate in
exchange for H+ by an antiport mechanism in the apical
membranes of cells lining the renal tubule.
• Step 2: The cells produce bicarbonate ions that can be
shunted to peritubular capillaries.
• Step 3: When CO2 is available, the reaction is driven to
the formation of carbonic acid, which dissociates to form
a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion.
• Step 4: The bicarbonate ion passes into the peritubular
capillaries and returns to the blood. The hydrogen ion is
secreted into the filtrate, where it can become part of new
water molecules and be reabsorbed as such, or removed in
the urine.

66. • It is also possible that salts in the filtrate, such as sulfates,
phosphates, or ammonia, will capture hydrogen ions. If this
occurs, the hydrogen ions will not be available to combine
with bicarbonate ions and produce CO2. In such cases,
bicarbonate ions are not conserved from the filtrate to the
blood, which will also contribute to a pH imbalance and
acidosis.
• The hydrogen ions also compete with potassium to exchange
with sodium in the renal tubules. If more potassium is present,
potassium, rather than the hydrogen ions, will be exchanged,
and increased potassium enters the filtrate.
• When this occurs, fewer hydrogen ions in the filtrate
participate in the conversion of bicarbonate into CO2 and less
bicarbonate is conserved. If there is less potassium, more
hydrogen ions enter the filtrate to be exchanged with sodium
and more bicarbonate is conserved.

67. Summary
• A variety of buffering systems exist in the body that helps
maintain the pH of the blood and other fluids within a narrow
range—between pH 7.35 and 7.45.
• A buffer is a substance that prevents a radical change in fluid
pH by absorbing excess hydrogen or hydroxyl ions. Most
commonly, the substance that absorbs the ion is either a weak
acid, which takes up a hydroxyl ion (OH–), or a weak base,
which takes up a hydrogen ion (H+).
• Several substances serve as buffers in the body, including cell
and plasma proteins, hemoglobin, phosphates, bicarbonate
ions, and carbonic acid. The bicarbonate buffer is the primary
buffering system of the IF surrounding the cells in tissues
throughout the body. The respiratory and renal systems also
play major roles in acid-base homeostasis by removing
CO2 and hydrogen ions, respectively, from the body.

68. Disorders of Acid-Base Balance
• Normal arterial blood pH is restricted to a very narrow range
of 7.35 to 7.45. A person who has a blood pH below 7.35 is
considered to be in acidosis (actually, “physiological acidosis,”
because blood is not truly acidic until its pH drops below 7),
and a continuous blood pH below 7.0 can be fatal. Acidosis
has several symptoms, including headache and confusion, and
the individual can become lethargic and easily fatigued.
• A person who has a blood pH above 7.45 is considered to be in
alkalosis, and a pH above 7.8 is fatal. Some symptoms of
alkalosis include cognitive impairment (which can progress to
unconsciousness), tingling or numbness in the extremities,
muscle twitching and spasm, and nausea and vomiting. Both
acidosis and alkalosis can be caused by either metabolic or
respiratory disorders.

69. • he concentration of carbonic acid in the blood is
dependent on the level of CO2 in the body and the
amount of CO2 gas exhaled through the lungs. Thus,
the respiratory contribution to acid-base balance is
usually discussed in terms of CO2 (rather than of
carbonic acid).
• Remember that a molecule of carbonic acid is lost for
every molecule of CO2 exhaled, and a molecule of
carbonic acid is formed for every molecule of
CO2 retained.

71. Metabolic acidosis occurs when the blood is too
acidic (pH below 7.35) due to too little bicarbonate, a
condition called primary bicarbonate deficiency.

72. • Metabolic alkalosis is the opposite of metabolic
acidosis. It occurs when the blood is too alkaline (pH
above 7.45) due to too much bicarbonate (called
primary bicarbonate excess).
• Cushing’s disease, which is the chronic hypersecretion
of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) by the
anterior pituitary gland, can cause chronic metabolic
alkalosis. The over secretion of ACTH results in
elevated aldosterone levels and an increased loss of
potassium by urinary excretion.
• Other causes of metabolic alkalosis include the loss of
hydrochloric acid from the stomach through vomiting,
potassium depletion due to the use of diuretics for
hypertension, and the excessive use of laxatives.

73. Respiratory acidosis occurs when the blood is
overly acidic due to an excess of carbonic acid,
resulting from too much CO2 in the blood.
Respiratory acidosis can result from anything
that interferes with respiration, such as
pneumonia, emphysema, or congestive heart
failure.

74. Respiratory alkalosis occurs when the blood is overly
alkaline due to a deficiency in carbonic acid and
CO2 levels in the blood. This condition usually occurs
when too much CO2 is exhaled from the lungs, as
occurs in hyperventilation, which is breathing that is
deeper or more frequent than normal.
An elevated respiratory rate leading to hyperventilation
can be due to extreme emotional upset or fear, fever,
infections, hypoxia, or abnormally high levels of
catecholamines, such as epinephrine and
norepinephrine.

75. Review Questions
1. Which of the following is a cause of
metabolic acidosis?
a. Diarrhea
b. Excessive HCL loss
c. Prolonged use of probiotics
d. Increased aldosterone

76. 2. Which of the following is a cause of
respiratory acidosis?
a. Emphysema
b. Low blood potassium
c. Increased blood ketones
d. Increased aldosterone