1) The document discusses advances in seed production methodology for bitter gourd, ridge gourd, and leafy vegetables. It covers topics such as the floral biology, hybrid breeding methods, seed extraction, and popular varieties/hybrids for several cucurbit crops. 2) Key information provided includes the centers of origin and diversity for cucurbits, advantages of hybrid varieties, techniques for hybridization including use of gynoecious lines and chemical sex modification, and standards for seed quality. 3) Popular hybrids mentioned are Pusa Hybrid 1 and 2 for bitter gourd and Naga, Mallika, Rama for ridge gourd. The recently released ridge gourd variety Ar

1. Advances in Seed Production Methodology
in Bitter gourd, Ridge gourd and Leafy
Vegetables
Dr. B. Varalakshmi,
Principal Scientist
Division of Vegetable Crops

2. Cucurbits : Largest vegetable family with 119 genera and 825 species
Major centers of diversity: Africa, Persia, Southern Russia, Iran, Afghanistan, India, China
Major cucurbits in India
Several
indigenous
to India
Used as salad (cucumber, gherkin, long melon) for cooking
(all gourds) or sweet (ash gourd) or pickles (gherkin, bitter
gourd, ivy gourd), desserts (melons).

3. Bitter gourd
• Tropical vegetable
• Cultivated mainly in the Asian &
African countries.
• Also known by the name, ‘Karela’.
• Has a rough, warty skin.
• Bitter in taste and green, dark green,
white skin.
• Great medicinal value.
• Antidotal, antipyretic tonic,
appetizing, stomachic, antibilious and
laxative properties
• Anti-diabetic
• This is the main reason why the
vegetable is used in a number of
native medicines of Asia and Africa.

4. Ridge gourd
• Ridge gourd [Luffa acutangula (L)
Roxb] is a very popular vegetable
for tropical and sub tropical parts
of the country.
• India is considered as centre of
the origin of luffa.

5. Area, Production and Productivity of Cucurbits
Cucurbits
Area
(Lakh ha)
Production
(Lakh tons)
Productivity
(t/ha)
World India World India World India
Pumpkin, Squash, Gourds 18.01 5.10 246.79 49.00 13.7 9.6
Cucumber and Gherkins 21.24 0.27 713.65 1.68 33.6 6.3
Muskmelons 11.88 0.44 294.62 10.00 24.8 22.5
Watermelons 34.91 0.28 1092.78 4.00 31.3 14.04
Total 86.05 6.09 2347.84 64.68
Share in world cucurbits (%) 7.08 2.76
Share in Indian Vegetables (%) 6.48 3.97
Indian Vegetable Scenario 95.75 1666.08 17. 04
Bitter gourd 0.90 9.83 10.92
Ridge gourd 0.73 6.85 9.3
Source: www.faostat.fao.org (2013)
NHB Database (2013-14)
Agricultural Statistics at a glance (2016)

6. Reasons to low productivity
- limited availability of quality seed
- lack of improved production technology and
- environmental factors like high temperature and
long photoperiod.
“Seed is a basic input, therefore the effect of
application of other inputs like fertilizer, irrigation for
increasing yield and productivity is also depend upon
the quality of seed”

7. Hybrid Seed Production Technology of Gourds
Why hybrids in cucurbits
Very high genetic diversity: resulting in heterosis as high as 150%
in some cases
Majority of agronomic traits possessing over-dominance gene
action: better heterosis
No inbreeding depression: resulting in robust inbred parents and
ease in maintenance of parental lines
Higher number of seeds/pollination and Low seed rate /unit area :
efficiency of seed production
Availability of pollination control mechanisms: MS, Gynoecy,
monoecy and also chemical sex modification.
Entomophily: Attraction to insect as a means of pollen transfer
resulting in savings on manual pollination

8. Crop OP Varieties
(T/ha)
Hybrids
(T/ha)
% Yield
advantage
Bitter gourd 15 20 33.33
Ridge gourd 20 30 50.00
Potential yield advantage of hybrids in cucurbits
Extent of heterosis in Gourd Vegetables
Source Yield/plant
Sirohi and Choudhury (1978) 84.0%
Sirohi et al. (2000) 58%
Dey (2008 ) using gynoecious parent 126.41%
Bitter gourd
Source Yield/plant
Hedau (2002) 93.09%,
Ram et al (2004) using hermaphrodite line 121.74%
Girwani et al. (2008) 218.97%
Hegade et al. (2009) 77.7%
Ridge gourd

10. Floral biology
Cucurbitaceae:
• 119 genera and 825 species
• Inflorescence axillary /solitary or clustered on
racemes
• Flowers are large, showy (white or yellow colour
petal)
• Staminate flowers mostly in long peduncles are
borne singly-bitter gourd, bottle gourd, clusters
in Luffa & Cucumber
• Pistillate flowers are borne singly in short
peduncles. More staminate flowers than
pistillate flowers
• Fruit is a berry, seeds many with characteristic
shapes and colours

11. Flowering habits
Monoecious: where staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers are
separately produced on the same plant.
Eg: Gourds, muskmelon, watermelon, cucumber
Hermaphrodite: where only bisexual or perfect flowers are produced
Eg: Satputia variety of ridge gourd
Dioecious: where staminate and pistillate flowers are produced
separately on separate plants.
Eg: pointed gourd, ivy gourd

12. Crop Anthesis Dehiscence Pollen Fertility Stigma Receptivity
Bitter gourd 9-13.30 hr. 7-8 hr. 5-12 hr.
one day before
one day after
Ridge gourd 17-20 hr. 17-20 hr.
day of anthesis to
2 to 3 days in
6 hr. before to 84 hr.
after anthesis
Sponge gourd 4-8 hr. 4-8 hr.
on the day of
anthesis
10 hr. before to 120
hr. after anthesis
Anthesis, dehiscence, pollen fertility and stigma receptivity
Sex ratio
 Ranges from 25 to 30:1 to 15:1
 Greater no. of pistillate flowers/plant, consequently higher fruit
set and yield.
 Highly sensitive to environment- high N, long days and high
temperature - male flowers.
Flowering starts in 40-45 days after sowing

13. Pollination behaviour
• Anthesis, pollen dehiscence and fruit set are
influenced by environmental factors
• Cucurbits are cross pollinated by nature
• Extent of cross pollination ranges from 60 to 80%
• Main pollinating agents are bees - Apis florea, A. dorsata
• One bee colony per acre for maximum fruit set and seed yield
• Seed crop should be raised in such a seasons which remain dry at the time of
seed maturity and seed extraction.
• Summer season is preferred for raising seed crop.
Major seed production regions in India
Crop Areas Region
Bitter gourd Eastern U.P., Faizabad and Jaunpur Northern Region
Ridge gourd
West Bengal (South West)
Ranibennur (Karnataka)
Eastern Region
Sponge gourd
Telangana, Karnool and (North A.P.)
Ranibennur (Karnataka)
Southern Region
Bitter gourd Costal districts of A.P. Southern Region

14. Hybrid breeding
Female line
(A-1-2-1-2-3)
X
Male line
(B-2-1-3-2-3)
F1

15. Hybrid development in Gourd Vegetables
Breeding objectives/
Market trends
Fruit Shape
Ridge gourd: Long, medium long, uniform
Bitter gourd: Medium long (8-10 cm) free from bitterness
Flesh Texture: Should not become fibrous quickly at edible maturity
Fruit colour and texture
Ridge gourd: dark green, continuous ridges
Bitter gourd: Blunt tubercles, whitish green, light green, dark green
High Yield
• Medium vine length
• Sex ratio: higher female to male (1:15)
• Early female flower
Biotic stresses: Downy mildew
Powdery mildew
Fruit fly
Virus resistance

16. Ridge gourd Germplasm (109 lines)-Variability

17. Bitter gourd Germplasm (140 lines)-Variability

18. Seed Production practices
• Released varieties
• Notified varieties for certified seed production
• Truthfully Labeled Seed (TFL)- any kind/variety can be
multiplied
Isolation requirements
Certified Seed production - 400 m
Foundation Seed production - 800 m
Breeder seed production - 1000 m
Rouging
• Before flowering to avoid natural cross-pollination.
• Fruit set and complete fruit development stages
• Fruit shape, colour, stripe, neck etc.

19. Hybridization

20. Selfing & Crossing in Ridge gourd
Female Flower
Bagged selfed/ crossed
female flower
Male Flower
Male Flower
PollinationCovering crossed flower
Male to female parent ratio = 1:3 to1:4

21. Selfing & Crossing in Bitter gourd
Pollination
Bagged
selfed/ crossed female
flower
Selfed / Crossed fruit
development
Female Male Flower
Male to female parent ratio = 1:3 to1:4

22. Increasing the fruit set and seed yield
• Use the first or second pistillate flower buds opened on a
vine as in later stages the fruit-setting is poorer.
• Cutting the length of the vine on which the crossed or
selfed pistillate flower is situated
• Removing other female flower buds or other set fruits
from the vine on which the hand-pollinated flower is
placed
• Applying growth-regulating substances.

23. Other lesser adopted hybridization
techniques in Gourds

24. A. Pinching of male flowers and pollination by insects:
• Male flowers from female parent are pinched off day before of anthesis
• The fruit set on female lines are hybrids
• Male and female lines are grown in alternate rows in ridge gourd
• Female-male parents ratio in bitter gourd is 3:1
• Pinching of male flowers in bitter gourd is easy- large & single
• Cluster male flowers-may not be complete and effective in ridge gourd

25. B. Use of gynoecious sex forms:
 Bitter gourd: : DBGY-201,202
 Ridge gourd : IIHR-24gy, IIHR-44gy & IIHR-46gy.
Gynoecious plants- Ridge gourd and Bitter gourd
IIHR-44Gy
Gynoecious lines maintained by inducing male flowers using Silver nitrate
/silver thiosulphate sprays @300-500ppm at 2-4 leaf stage
At any stage of the growth – induces hermaphrodite flowers after 15 days
C. Use of morphological markers:
• Bitter gourd: -
White flowered

26. D. Use of male sterile lines:
• Ridge gourd: CMS system
IIHRRGMS -1(Long fruit)
IIHRRGMS -2(Medium long fruit)
Male sterile line, IIHR-28MS
sterile
pollen
Male sterile
Male sterile
Male fertile
Male fertile
Male Fertile
Rudimentary
male flowers
IIHRRGMS -1
IIHRRGMS -2

27. E. Chemical sex modification
Crop Chemical Stage of
application
Effect
Ridge gourd Ehtrel (2-choloro-
ethyl-phosphonic
acid) 200-300ppm
2-4 leaf stage and
before flowering
Female flower comes first
and higher fruit set
Bitter gourd Silver nitrate 500 ppm
Silver thiosulphate
300-400 ppm
At any time during
reproductive stage
Induces hermaphrodite
flowers in gynoecious lines
for maintenance

28. Crop Variety Period in days (seed to seed)
Bitter gourd
Arka Harit,
Pusa Vishesh
65 days
Ridge gourd
Arka Prasan
Arka Sujat
90 days
105 days
Maturity of fruit:
Besides days to maturity, some other parameters like
change in colour also used as criteria of maturity index.
Bitter gourd : Fruit turn to bright yellow.
Luffa : Complete drying/fruit turn to gray colour.

29. Change in colour of matured fruits

30. Seed Extraction
Dry method:
• Dried fruits are cut at blossom end
and seeds come out by shaking
Eg: sponge gourd, ridge gourd
Wet method:
• Fruits are cut longitudinally and seed
is scooped out
Eg: bitter gourd

31. In wet method, the seed extraction done by three ways :
Mechanical Extraction:
• Fruits are cut into pieces and macerated by machine.
• seeds are separated out from pulp by floating with water.
• quick, less expensive and seeds retain good luster, but require good
amount of water.
Eg: bottle gourd and ash gourd.
Natural Fermentation:
• Scooped material kept in wooden/plastic or steel vessel for 48 hours at
room temperature and stirred 2-3 times
• Then seed is washed thoroughly with water 2-3 times.
• Main problem with this method are discoloration and poor luster of seed.
Chemical Extraction:
• 25-30 ml. of HCL or 8-10 ml. of H2SO4 added per 5 kg of pulp and some
quantity of water is mixed,
• Stirring of pulp is done to enhance the separation and left for 30 minutes.
The impurities will float and seed will sink.
• seed should be washed thoroughly with clean water.
• quick method but accuracy of acid and time is important

32. Seed Yield
• Seed yield depends upon the crop, variety, location, season and
management of the seed crops.
Crop
Seed yield
kg/ha
No of seed/
fruit (g)
1000 Seed
wt.(g)
Ridge gourd 300-400 248 110-120
Bitter gourd 250-300 21 160-170

33. Seed standards
Factor Standards for each class
Foundation Certified
Off types Maximum permitted 0.10 % 0.20%
Pure seed (minimum) 98.0% 98.0%
Inert matter (maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seeds (maximum) None None
Weed seeds (maximum) None None
Other distinguishable varieties
(maximum)
5 / kg 10 / kg
Germination (minimum) 60% 60%
Moisture (maximum) 7.0% 7.0%
For vapour-proof containers
(maximum)
6.0% 6.0%

34. Popular Bitter gourd hybrids
Pusa Hybrid-1
glossy-green.
Yield 18-20 t/ ha.
Pusa Hybrid-2
Fruits dark green,
Yield 15-18 t/ha
Indra
Maya
Palee
Other Hybrids: Phule Priyanka, Co Bg H1, NBGH-167, NBTH-101, MBTH-102, Vivek
Private sector hybrids

35. • East-west: Rama, Naga, Mallika
• Namdhari seeds: NS-3
• IIHR Pre-released hybrids: IIHRG-27, IIHRG-43
NagaMallika
IIHRGH-10/43
IIHRGH-10/27
Rama
Popular Ridge gourd hybrids

36. Arka Prasan (IIHR-53-1-3) :
• Ridge gourd variety has been identified for
release by VTIC during December, 2016.
• It is an open pollinated variety developed by
inbred selection from the segregating
germplasm, IIHR-53.
• Early flowering variety, first female flower
appears at 9th node, takes 42-45 days for first
picking,
• Green, long, tender fruits, excellent cooking
quality
• Nutritionally rich in antioxidant activity and
minerals like phosphorus, Calcium and zinc.
• Yields 26.0 t/ha in 120-135 days duration
ICAR-IIHR recently released Ridge gourd variety
Pre-IRC
Arka Prasan
31/01/2017

37. Ridge gourd hybrid, Arka Vikram (RGH-63)
 Ridge gourd hybrid identified
for release by VTIC during
December, 2016.
 It is developed by crossing
the inbreds, IIHR-6-1-1 x IIHR-
53-1-3.
Early flowering and female
flower at 9th node
 Takes 40 days for the first
female flower appearance and
46 days for first picking of fruits
 Green, long, tender fruits
 Yields 34.1 t/ha in 120-135
days duration
31/01/2017 Pre-IRC

38. Advances in Production technology

40. Soil and Climate
• Select deep, well drained soil with sandy or sandy loam
texture.
• pH : 5.5 - 6.5.
• A long period of warm, dry weather with 30-35° C,
temperature should not be below 18° C.
• Slightly wet to semi dry ecological condition is suitable.
• Night and day temperature of 18°-22° c and 30°-35° C
respectively is optimum for its proper growth and high fruit
set.
• It grows very well in a warm hot climate, the optimum
temperature being 25°-30° C.
• Very high and low temperature affects the growth of this
crop.

41. Land preparation
• Bring the soil to a fine tilth after 2-
3 ploughings and harrowings.
• Broadcast 25 tonnes of farm yard
manure/ha after the first
ploughing.
• Prepare the irrigation channels
along the slope to irrigate the
sowing channels.
• Make shallow furrows in the
sowing channels at the bottom of
the ridges with the help of a pick
axe.
• Apply the fertilizer mixture in the
shallow furrows made in the
sowing channels and cover it
with soil.
• Irrigate the sowing channels two
days before sowing.

42. Crop Seed
Rate
(kg/ha)
Spacing
(trellis)
Fertilizer requirement
(kg/ha)
N P2O5 K2O
Bitter gourd 5-8 1.5x0.5m 75 100 35-70
Ridge gourd 3 1.5x0.5m 75 100 35-70
Seed Rate & Fertilizer requirement

43. Sowing in the channel and training on the ground

44. Nutrient enrichment in FYM
Trichodermma viridi
+ PSB + Multi K
15 days old enriched FYM
Nutrient enrichment of FYM-
Before application , to main field
as basal dose (100 kg of FYM
(sieved) + Add 1kg of each
Trichogramma viridi + PSB +
Multi-K +wet it + Covered with
polythene sheet for 15 days then
this would be mixed with 9 tons
of well rotten FYM /acre)

45. Sowing:
• Prepare sowing hills on the inner-side of the ridges of the sowing
channel, 8-10 cm above the place where fertilizer has been applied
• Sow 4-5 seeds per hill and cover them with soil and give a light
irrigation.
Seedling trays:
• Coco-peat @ 2.5kg/tray
• Single seed/hole,
• Keep one above the other, tie 10 trays together with black polthene
• Remove after 4-8 days and spread over poythene sheet
• Keep in poly/net house
• Transplant after 12-15 days of sowing
Advantages:
• Easy to manage nursery
• Better establishment
• Less seed rate

46. Quality seedling production
Coco peat Seed placement in
peg trays
Trays covered with
mulch
Seed emergence15 days old seedlingTransplanted to field

47. Intercultural operations:
• Irrigate once in 4-5 days depending upon the soil and weather
conditions
• Do the weeding and hoeing during the first 45 days of plant growth
• Thinning of plants should be done 25-30 days after sowing, retaining 2
good seedlings in each hill.

48. • Top-dress the crop with nitrogen (25 kg/ha),
(DAP+urea in 3:1 ratio) 30-35 days after
sowing.
• When the plants start vining (35-40 days
after sowing), vine guiding should be done
on trellis. This facilitates intercultural
operations and minimizes disease incidence
and fruit rot
• Fruit rot control: Spray Borax @25mg/l +
urea 1% or Vegetable special @ 2g/lit three
times, starting from 15 days after sowing at
10- 15 days interval

49. Insect & Disease Management

50. Disease & Pest resistance breeding at IIHR –Ridge gourd
Downy mildew: It is a serious disease during Kharif season and yield loss
is up to 80-90%.
Resistant lines developed :
• IIHR-7-5-1, IIHR-17-2-1 and IIHR-17-1-7-3 with green, medium long fruits
• Source of resistance is confirmed
• genetics of resistance – two dominant complementary genes and
recessive epistsis
• molecular maker identification- RAPD-SCAR- polymorphism is lost
Tomato leaf curl New Delhi Virus (Begomo): Of late, It is becoming very
serious problem and the yield loss is almost 60-70%. If the infection occurs
in the early stages, then the loss is >90%.
Tolerant lines developed :
• IIHR-25-6-3, IIHR-30-4-4, IIHR-34-1-5, IIHR-34-3-2 and IIHR-25-2-5
• Confirmation of resistance through artificial screening by whitefly
transmission of begomo virus is done
Fruit fly : It is a very serious pest causing >80% damage
Tolerant lines identified :
• IIHR-28, IIHR-31, IIHR- 43 and IIHR- 60
• Confirmation of tolerance under no-choice test –results are not consistant

51. • IIHR-7-5-1 (PDI-10.3 and 13.6t/ha),
IIHR-17-2-1 (PDI-10.1 and
10.8t/ha) - downy mildew resistant
with moderate yield (10-15t/ha)
• These two had low AUDPC (417
and 430 respectively) and also low
‘r’ values (3.3 and 3.9 respectively)
compared to susceptible checks,
IIHR-52-1-30 (1263 and 8.5
respectively) and IIHR-23-8-10
(1808 and 10.8 respectively).
IIHR-23-8-10 (HS)
IIHR-7-5-1 (R)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
AUDPC value
AUDPC for Downy mildew in ridge
gourd Advanced inbred lines
Artificial screening against
Downy mildew

52. Inheritance of downy mildew resistance in ridge gourd
• Analysis of F2 and backcross
populations of IIHR-23-8-10 x
IIHR-7-5-1 revealed that the
inheritance of downy mildew
resistance is governed by two
Dominant Complementary
genes (9:7 ratio).
• In the cross, IIHR-52-1-30 x
IIHR-17-1-7-4 it is governed by
Dominant suppression
Epistasis (3:13 ratio)
• At least 4 additive genes and
the narrow sense heritability
was 69.63%. (Xie-WenHua
and Xie-DaSen, 1999)
Downy mildew screening block

53. • 8 advanced resistant inbred lines along with a susceptible line, IIHR-102 were
artificially screened with virulent whiteflies under the controlled conditions
• Out of 80 plants screened, only 11 IPS of four advanced lines viz., IIHR-25-6-3-
1-1 (2,10), IIHR-25-6-3-1-2(3,4,5,6,10), IIHR-34-1-5-1-6 (8,9) and IIHR-25-2-
5-1 (1,8) were free from the virus symptoms throughout the crop growth period.
• DSG-6 and DSG-7, the sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica) germplasm Sabina
Islam et al (2010)
IIHR-25-6-3-1-1
IIHR-34-1-5-1-6
Source of resistance to Tomato Leaf Curl New Delhi Virus (ToLCNDV)

54. • At ICAR-IIHR, Bengaluru, IIHR-144-1 was highly resistant to powdery
mildew with PDI=1.4 and IIHR-80-1-3 (PDI=0.00) was immune
• Powdery mildew resistance in IIHR-144-1 is governed by Dominant
inhibitory epistasis
• One powdery mildew resistant gene linked Simple Sequence Repeat
(SSR) marker (McSSR 57) was identified
Source of resistance to Powdery mildew in bitter gourd
IIHR- 80-1-3 (R) IIHR- 144-1 (R)IIHR Sel.5 (HS)

55. Integrated Pest Management
Leaf Miner:
• Apply neem cake 250 kg/ha to soil
immediately after germination and repeat at
flowering.
• Destroy cotyledon leaves infected with leaf
miners after germination as the primary
infestation occurs on cotyledon leaves.
• Clip leaves infected by leaf miner at weekly
intervals up to 20 DAS. If the incidence is high
remove all severely infested leaves and
destroy.
Pumpkin beetles:
• Mechanically collect and destroy pumpkin
beetles
• Spray (only if unavoidable) neem formulations
with azadirachtin 2ml/l or NSPE (neem seed
powder extract) 4%, once in 10 days.
Fruit borer
Aphids

56. Fruit fly damage

57. • Fruit fly control: crush pumpkin 1 kg and add 100g jaggery + 10ml
malathion and keep in the plot (4-6 places/acre). Adults of fruit fly
get attracted to the fermenting pumpkin and lay eggs and get
killed.
• Repeat 2-3 times in cropping season. Alternatively erect cuelure
traps at 10 traps/acre to annihilate male flies or spray
deltamethrin 1ml/l + 1% Jaggery or Carbaryl 50 WP at 3g/l +1%
Jaggery at fruit formation/ ripening stage.
• Collect and destroy all infested fruits by burning or burying deep
in the soil.
Fruit fly trap

58. • Mite control: mix neem soap or
Pongamina soap at 10g/l with
Ethion 50 EC at 1ml/l.
• Thrips control: spray Acephate
75 WP 0.75g/l +Pongamia oil
(2ml/l) + sticker 1ml/l (for
emulsification)
• Leaf eating caterpillar control:
- Spray Bacillus thuringiensis
formulation at 1ml/l when
oviposition is noticed on the
leaves.
- Spray contact insecticide
carbaryl 50 WP at 3g/l or
Indoxacarb 14.5 SC at 0.5ml/l.
alternatively spray Neem or
Pongamia soap at 7.5g/l.

59. Integrated Disease management
• Raise the seedlings using portrays under
nylon net/poly house.
• Seed treatment with Captaf / Thiram
(0.2%) or with Trichoderma harzianum at
5g/kg.
• Apply Trichoderma enriched FYM at
1kg/10kg FYM to the basins.
• Foliar application of Mancozeb (0.2%) or
Fosetyl Al (0.2%) or Cymoxanil Mancozeb
(0.2%) at 10 days intervals from the onset
of downy mildew disease.
• Foliar application of Dinocap (0.1%) or
Hexaconazole (0.075%) at 15 days interval
when powdery mildew disease is
observed.
• Foliar application of Mancozeb (0.25%) or
Chlorothalonil (0.25%) to control
Alternaria blight.
Downy mildew

60. Powdery mildew

61. Cucurbit aphid borne Yellow virus
(CABYV/ Namamarako)
• In the Philippines, the East-West Seed Company initiated the screening
of bitter gourd germplasm for CABYV resistance in 2002
• EW 1696 was identified as a reliable source of resistance to CABYV.
• Inheritance -Two partially dominant genes.
• In 2008, they released the first hybrid bitter gourd with intermediate
resistance to CABYV named ‘Galactica F1.

62. Fig. A: Incidence of BiGYMV disease on bitter gourd (Variety Preethi) in field
showing severe curling of leaves with yellow mosaic
Fig, B: Bitter gourd plant showing upward curling of leaves
Fig, C: Symptoms of yellow mosaic on bitter gourd leaves
Fig, D: Crinkling, curling thickening of veins on leaves of bitter gourd
Fig, E: Rat tail type of symptom observed on severely infected bitter gourd leaf in field
ToLCND Virus

63. Integrated Disease Management- contd…
Harvesting should be done only after 10 days (at least) of
insecticide / fungicide application.
Powdery mildewDowny mildew.
ToLCND virus.

64. Advances in Seed Production
Methodology in Amaranth & Palak

65. Amaranth (Amaranthus species)
• Most common and cheapest leafy vegetable because of its low
production cost and high yield
• Amaranth leaves & tender stems are rich in protein, minerals,
vitamin A and C
• Origin : India
• Taxonomy: Genus Amaranthus -Amaranthaceae
65 genera and 250 species.
50 to 60 edible species of the genus Amaranthus.
• Important species of leafy amaranth are
Amaranthus tricolor L,
A. dubius Mart exThell ,
A. lividus,
A. blitum, A tristis L.,
A. spinosus L and A. viridis.
Introduction

66. A. blitum
A. Cruentus – dual purposeA. spinosus
A. viridis
Important species

67. Component & RDA Amaranth Palak
Protein (g) 60 4 3.4
Minerals (g) 2.7 2.2
Fibre (g) 1.0 0.7
Calcium (mg) 400 397 380
Phosphorus (mg) 83 30
Iron (mg) 28 25.5 16.2
Vitamin A (I.U) 5250 9200 9770
Vitamin C (mg) 50 99 70
Nutrient Composition - Leafy Vegetables (per 100g)

68. • Two sections in Amaranthus i.e., Amaranthus and Blitopsis with equal
numbers of species in each.
• Amaranthus: only terminal flower clusters and includes important grain
types
• Blitopsis: the species which have flower clusters in axils and includes
the green types.
• All amaranth species have diploid chromosome number
2n=32 (n=16) or 2n=34 (n=17)
• A. blitum which has x = n = 8 and
• A. dubius which is a tetraploid (2n=64).
Botany

69. • Annual, erect or trailing herb with deep tap root
system.
• Stem green to purple with mixed shades of these two
colours,
• glabrous and succulent leaves are simple and
alternate, opposite, exstipulate, entire, lanceolate to
obovate, with green to purple colours of petiole and
lamina.
• The basic unit of inflorescence is dichasial cyme
called glomerule.
• Flowers are small, mostly unisexual, monoecious,
pentamerous, bracteate and bracteiolate, perianth
parts are 4-5,
• stamens 2-5, carpels 2-3, syncarpous, ovary superior
with one ovule, style single to 2 or 3 branched,
• fruit utricle, indehiscent, seed varying in colour,
black, brown or white, compressed, smooth, shiny
with floury endosperm.
Botany

70. • The monoecious species have two types of
arrangement of the staminate and pistillate
flowers
I. first flower of each flower cluster is staminate, and
all the secondary ones are pistillate.
Eg: All species except A. spinosus
II. all flowers of each cluster are of same sex but
the clusters of pistillate flowers develop only in
the axils of the branches and at the base of the
terminal inflorescence, while staminate flower
clusters are borne terminally on the main axis
and lateral branches.
Eg: A. spinosus.
Floral Biology

71. • The percentage of male flowers per
glomerule 10 to 25 in leafy types.
• The vegetable types are predominantly self
pollinated due to the presence of a number
of male flowers per glomerule, small
non showy terminal inflorescence and
greater development of axillary glomerules.
• The method of pollen transfer is generally
through wind, some times by honey bees
and bugs.
• The stigma of pistillate flowers is receptive
2-3 days prior to the opening of staminate
flowers.
• Anthesis starts from the base of the
inflorescence and proceeds towards the tip.

72. • Techniques of selfing and crossing: As
vegetable types are predominantly self
pollinated, covering the inflorescence with
butter paper bags when the first basal flower
starts opening is enough for effective self
pollination.
• But, from the breeding point of view, the small
closely grouped flowers in glomerules make
emasculation extremely difficult.
• For making crosses, the receptive stigmas
are heavily pollinated and the staminate
flowers are removed. Kauffman (1979)
reported in detail the crossing technique.
• The lower florets which are already fertilized
must be trimmed with a razor and similarly the
apical portion.
•

73. • Emasculation is done in the middle portion of inflorescence.
• Pollen from previously bagged inflorescence of male parent is collected by
shaking the stamens into half a size gelatin capsules, which is then placed
over the emasculated flower head.
• High seed set was obtained when pollination was done on three
successive days.
• For covering the pollinated flower heads gelatin capsules were found to be
the best.
• The flower heads are wrapped with a wisp of cotton which keeps the
capsule in place until the head swells sufficiently to fill the capsule.

74. • Presently there are three points for amaranth germplasm collection,
breeding and research:
• USA: Rodale Organic Gardening and Farming Research Center,
Pennsylvania and National Seed Storage Laboratory, Colorado, USA,
• Nigeria: National Horticultural Research Institute and other Institutes at
Ibadon.
• India, NBPGR, New Delhi, TNAU, Coimbatore, Kerala Agricultural
University, Trichur, IIHR, Bangalore, (working collections) and IARI, New
Delhi.
Genetic Resources
Total Amaranth Germplasm at IIHR : 202
Sources:
Indigenous:- farmer’s fields, Institutes, seed shops
Exotic:- AVRDC, Pakistan, Nepal etc.,

75. 5131
75 45
636
62 29
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
A
m
aranth
P
alakC
oriander
C
om
m
on
M
ethi
K
asuriM
ethi
B
asella
germplasm number
Leafy Vegetable Germplasm Status in National Seed Gene Bank

76. Salient features of Amaranth variety, Arka Suguna
• It is a pure line selection from an exotic
collection from Taiwan (IIHR-47).
• The variety was released in 1996 and notified
for Karnataka in 2006
• It has broad, light green foliage and succulent
stem.
• First harvest in 25-30 days after sowing and 5-6
cuttings can be taken without the stem being
fibrous in 90 days
• It has got excellent cooking quality.
• It is rich in dry matter content, protein,
Carotenes, Vitamin C, and minerals like
Phosphorus and Potassium.
• Yield is 25- 30 t/ha. Moderately resistant to
white rust
Arka Suguna
IIHR released amaranth varieties

77. • This variety has been developed by pure line
selection (IIHR –49).
• It is released in 1998
• It is a multi-cut variety and about 3 cuttings
can be taken without the stem being fibrous.
• It has broad, succulent and purple leaves and
stem
• Yields about 26-28t/ha over a period of 60
days. It is resistant to white rust.
• It has low oxalate and nitrate contents.
• It has got excellent cooking quality and is rich
in dry matter content, protein and minerals
like Potassium.
Arka
Arunima
Salient features of Amaranth variety, Arka Arunima

78. Salient features of Amaranth variety, Arka Samraksha
• It has been developed by the
modified bulk method of selection
from the segregating population of
the cross, IIHR – 4 x IIHR – 70 in
F6 generation.
• Pulling type amaranth with green
stem, medium large, lanceolate
shaped green leaves
• Yields 10.9 t/ha in 30- 35 days
duration.
• Antioxidant activity is 500mg and
Nitrate content is 27.3mg /100g FW
• Oxalate content is 1.34g / 100g FW
Leaf protein is 4.0 %

79. Salient features of Amaranth variety, Arka Varna
• It has been developed by the
modified bulk method of selection
from the segregating population of
the cross, IIHR - 7 x IIHR - 30 in F6
generation.
• Pulling type amaranth with pink stem,
petiole and veins. Small ovate shaped
pinkish green leaves
• Yields 10.58 t/ha in 30-35 days
duration
• Antioxidant activity is 417 mg (AEAC
units) and Nitrate content is 37.6 mg /
100 g FW.
• Oxalate content is 1.42g / 100 g fr. wt.
Leaf protein is 4.1 %
Arka Varna

80. • IARI: It has released Choti Chawlai, Badi Chawlai, which are pulling types.
• PUSA KIRTI: The leaf and stem both are edible. The Leaves are green with
broad ovate lamina, 30-35 days, yield 55 tonnes/ha.
• PUSA KIRAN: Leaves are glossy green with broad ovate lamina, 70-75
days, yield 35 tonnes/ha.
• PUSA LAL CHAULAI: Leaves are purplish-red and stem is deep-red in
colour. 33 days, yield is 49 tonnes/ha
PUSA KIRAN
PUSA KIRTI
PUSA LAL CHAULAI

81. • Co.1 (A. dubius): retains succulence even at mature stage, 30-35 days, Yield is
10t/ha.
• Co. 2 (A. tricolor): Suited for `tender green’ harvest. 20-25 days, Yield is 13t/ha.
• Co. 3 (A. tricolor var. tristis): It is cutting type Totally yields about 30t/ha of
green yield in 90 days with 10 clippings.
• Co.4 (A. hypochondriacus): It is dual purpose variety useful for grain and leaf.
Yields about 8t/ha. of green leaf in 35 to 40 days
• Co-5: Greenish purple leaves
TNAU
Co.5
Co.3
Co.1
Co.2

82. The normal agronomic practices followed for a vegetable
crop are also usually employed for seed production.
Amaranth responds well to the fertilizer schedule of 50kg
each N and P and 30 kg K per hectare in respect of seed
yield.
Spraying urea at the rate of 12kg N/ha and micro nutrients
at the rate of 400g/ha once in 10days from first flowering,
increases the yield and quality of seed.
An isolation distance of about 400m has been
recommended between two cultivars.
10-12 weeks time is required for the seed production from
sowing.
 In cutting types, only few last cuttings can be omitted to
produce seeds.
Seed Production

83. Off-type plants should be rogued out at different stages.
Harvesting starts from 35 days after flowering, when the
glumes turn brown in colour and seeds turn black.
Seed spikes are sun dried and threshed with bamboo
sticks.
Seeds are then strained through 2mm sieve.
Seed yield ranges from 400 to 1000kg/ha depending on
the variety.
Dried seed is treated with Bavistin at the rate of 2g/kg seed
and stored.
 The viability of the seeds can be maintained upto 10
months in ordinary containers and over months in moisture
proof 700 gauge polythene bags

84. most common leafy vegetables of tropical and sub tropical
regions
rich and cheap source of vitamin A
Leaves are mildly laxative
Origin: Indo-Chinese region.
Taxonomy: Chenopodiaceae, Beta vulgaris.
 2n=18, like beet root and Swiss chard, which indicates
their close relationship.
Palak (Spinach Beet)
Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis L.

85. • annual with tap root system.
• Leaves are long, entire margin and long
petioles.
• Inflorescence is racemose with bracts of
cymose type and emerges either in the axil
of leaf or from a spurious terminal bud
• Flowers are small, sessile, bisexual, perfect,
bracteate (leafy) and are borne in axil of leaf
in a group of 2-3
• 5 stamens opposite to perianth lobes on a
fleshy disc within unilocular perigynous
ovary.
Botany:

86. • whole phase of flower bud development takes 35 days to come
in bloom.
• anthesis peak period -between 11 A.M and 1P.M.
• Anther dehiscence - peak period between 12.30 and 2.30 P.M
• Stigma receptivity - 8 hrs. before anthesis, continues for
another 10 hrs.
• fruit is a seed ball containing two to three seeds.
• Flowers produce abundant, small and light pollen grains which
are carried by wind leading to wind pollination.
• Hence the crop is highly cross pollinated.
Floral Biology

87. Selfing:
 Entire plant or a few flowering branches are enclosed in a thick muslin
bag or preferably in a craft-paper bag
 Bags must be shaken once or twice daily and must not be opened on windy
days.
Crossing:
 Rogue out the selfed plants with help of a dominant marker gene in
seedling stage and it is not necessary to emasculate flowers
 If the pollen parent does not posses any marker genes it would be
necessary to emasculate the flowers before crossing
 During pollination, great care must be taken to avoid contamination from
foreign pollen by wind.
 The bags covering the plants of the male and female parents should not be
opened on a windy day and pollination must be done when the air is still,
preferably in a glass house or plastic cage.
Selfing and crossing Techniques

88. • All green: released by IARI, New Delhi, produces uniformly green leaves
and yields about 12.5t/ha in 6-7 cuttings.
• Pusa Palak: It is a selection from a cross between Swisschard and local
palak and released by IARI. It is a late bolting cultivar.
• Pusa Jyoti: It is developed through polyploidy breeding and gives
49t/ha in 6-8 cuttings, can be grown through out the year, rich in
nutrition.
• Pusa Harit: A late bolting cultivar developed by hybridization between
sugar beet and local palak at IARI, Regional Station, Katrain.
SAU’s
• Jobner green: Evolved by University of Udaipur as a result of
spontaneous, mutation detected in local collection yields about 29t/ha.
• HS-23: Released by HAU, medium large leaves, green color, high yielding
Varieties- IARI

90. Arka Anupama
• This variety has been developed by crossing IIHR-10
and IIHR-8 followed by pedigree method of selection
up to F7 generation (IIHR-Sel.6)
• The variety was released in 2004 by SVRC and
notified in 2007 by CSC on CSN&RV.
• Area of Adoption (States): Karnataka
Salient features
• It is a multicut, late bolting variety.
• It has dark green, thick, medium large, succulent
foliage.
• Moderately resistant to cercospora leaf spot under
field conditions.
• Yields about 40-42 t/ha in 4 cuts over a period of 65-
70 days
• It has got excellent cooking quality and is rich in dry
matter content, protein, Carotenes, Vitamin C, and
minerals like Phosphorus and Potassium.
• Very good flowering and seed producing ability under
tropical conditions
Arka Anupama- IIHR

91.  Palak is a more prolific seed producer, because of its hermaphrodite flowers.
 For seed crop, field preparation, cultural practices are the same as for green
leaf crop.
 Maximum seed yield can be obtained at a spacing of 60cm x 20cm.
 Usually after taking 3 or 4 cuttings, the crop is left for seed production.
 Application of 20kg N/ha and one cutting gave maximum yield of good
quality seeds.
 Since palak is a highly cross pollinated crop and readily crosses with Swiss
chand and pig weed, an isolation distance of 1600m is recommended.
Seed Production

92. • Off types, early bolters, pig weed plants have to be rogued out carefully
from the seed production plots before flowering.
• Palak crop generally takes 75 days after sowing for bolting and 150-180
days for seed maturity.
• Seeds do not shed, hence the harvesting is done after full ripening of the
whole crop.
• Dried plants are threshed by beating with sticks.
• Seeds are cleaned by winnowing and dried to 9% moisture before storage.
Seed Yield:
600 -800kg/ha
Diseases & Pests:
Damping off- Captaf
Leaf spot – Blitox
Caterpillar- Endosulfan

93. Thank You