2012 METU Lecture 2 Precision Sensors for Measurement of Strain Displacement and Acceleration.pdf
1. • Lecture 1: Introduction to Smart Materials and
Systems
• Lecture 2: Sensor technologies for smart systems
and their evaluation criteria.
• Lecture 3: Actuator technologies for smart
systems and their evaluation criteria.
• Lecture 4: Piezoelectric Materials and their
Applications.
• Lecture 5: Control System Technologies.
• Lecture 6: Smart System Applications.
S. Eswar Prasad,
Adjunct Professor, Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering,
Chairman, Piemades Inc,
⎋Piemades, Inc.
1
2. Precision sensors for measurement of
strain, displacement and acceleration
S. Eswar Prasad,
Adjunct Professor, Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering,
Chairman, Piemades Inc,
⎋Piemades, Inc.
2
3. Sensors for Smart Systems
Sensors ?
Physical Principles - How they work ?
Selection of sensors and evaluation criteria
Examples
3
4. Need for Sensors
Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in our
bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular telephones,
radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and countless
other applications.
Without the use of sensors, there would be no
automation !
4
5. Need for sensors
• determine the load on the structure
• forces acting on the body
• nature of vibrational excitations
• magnitude of displacements to be controlled
Sensors for Smart Systems
5
6. • American National Standards Institute
A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified
measurand.
• Sensors are devices that produce an output signal for the purpose
of sensing a physical phenomenon. Sensors are also referred to as
transducers.
• A transducer is a device that converts a signal from one physical
form to a corresponding signal that has a different form. Quantities
at the input level are different from the output level. Generally the
output is in the form of an electrical signal.
• Sensors are used for measuring and recording a quantity.The
measured quantity can be just recorded or further processed for
controlling a system.
Sensors - Definition
6
7. Types of Sensors : Analog, Digital, Active, Passive
• Analog: Output is continuous, output is a function of input. Requires ADC
for interfacing.
• Digital:The output is in the form of a digital signal. Can be directly
connected to a computer. PWM, serial, parallel, etc.
• Active Sensors:Need separate power source to obtain the output.
• Passive Sensors:These are self generating in the sense that they
produce (electrical) signals when subjected to the sensed quantity.
Piezoelectric, thermoelectric, radioactive, ....
Sensor output is generally in the form of resistance change or voltage change or
capacitance change or current change when input quantity is changed.Appropriate
circuit is required to measure the above changes.
7
8. Sensors - Basic Characteristics
Sensitivity: It is the ability of the measuring instrument to respond to changes in a
measured quantity. It is the ratio of change of the output to change of the input. The
sensitivity K is defined as the rate of change of the output (O) with respect to the input (I).
I - input, quantity to be sensed.
O - output, signal which can be recorded.
Sensitivity = ∂O/∂I
For a linear sensor:
∂O/∂I = k = constant
For a non-linear sensor:
∂O/∂I = K÷ a1I + a2I2 + a3I3 + ...
Transducer O
I
Energy Source
8
10. Bull’s Eye
Target Plate
a. High precision with
poor accuracy
b. Good average accuracy
with poor precision
c. High accuracy with
high precision
d. Poor accuracy with
poor precision
Quality of a sensor
Resolution: It is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can
be detected. Resolution is defined as the largest change in I that can occur without
a corresponding change in O.!
Accuracy: It is a measure of the difference between the measured value and the
actual value. Generally, it is defined as percentage of actual value.
Precision: Precision is the ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of
readings within a given deviation.
Repeatability: It is the ability to reproduce the output signal exactly when the
same measured quantity is applied repeatedly under the same environmental
conditions.
10
11. Quality of a Sensor
Resolution: It is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can be
detected. Resolution is defined as the largest change in input (I) that can occur
without a corresponding change in output (O).!
∆IR
I
O
11
12. Quality of a Sensor
• Range & span:The range of input physical signals
which may be converted to electrical signals by the
sensor. Signals outside of this range are expected to
cause unacceptably large inaccuracy.!
• Span is maximum value minus the minimum value of the
input.
• Stability (drift)-It is the ability to give the same
output when a constant input is measured over a period
of time. Drift is expressed as a percentage of full range
output.
• Dead band: It is the range of input values for which
there is no output.
• Backlash: It is defined as the maximum distance or
angle through which any part of a mechanical system can
be moved in one direction without causing any motion of
the attached part.
• Hysteresis: Different outputs corresponding to a
single value of the input.
12
13. • Error: The discrepancy between the
instrument reading and the true value is called error.
Absolute error = measured value - actual value
Relative error = absolute error / true value
• For many transducers a linear relationship between
the input and output is assumed over the working range.
Few transducers, however, have a truly linear relationship
and thus errors often occur as a result of the assumption
of linearity.
• Various methods are used for the numerical expression of the non- linearity error
- End-range values
- Best straight line for all values
- Best straight line through zero point
Error and Non-Linearity
13
16. Error Bands
It is often impractical to separate and determine nonlinearity, resolution
and other such effects in these cases, non ideal performance is classified
by one broad term: the error band
Accuracy
Generally defined as the largest expected error between actual and ideal
output signals.
h
O(I) = Oideal ± h
16
17. Sensor Characteristics
• Static characteristics are the values given when steady state
conditions occur. Input is not varying and output is constant. Output
changes only due to drift.
• Dynamic characteristics refer to time varying signal with
corresponding time varying output.
• Response time: time which elapses after a
step input, when the sensor reaches the output
corresponding to some specified percentage of its
steady state value e.g. 95%.
• Time constant:This is 63.2 % of the response
time.
• Rise time:Time taken for the output to rise to
some specified percentage of the steady state
output. From 10% to 90%.
• Settling time:This is the time taken for the
output to settle to within some percentage e.g.
2% of steady state value.
17
18. • Smart System response can fall into five categories -
mechanical, electrical, magnetic, thermal or chemical.
Electrical response is the easiest to monitor and
analyze.
• Discuss types of sensors - that measure mechanical
response and temperature.
• Scope is limited to a few types of sensors for each
type.
Sensors for Smart Systems
18
20. Examples of Physical Principles Used
• Amperes’s Law
A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a
force (e.g. galvanometer)
• Curie-Weiss Law
There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic
materials exhibit paramagnetic behaviour
• Faraday’s Law of Induction
A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an opposing
voltage/current (e.g. transformer)
• Photoconductive Effect
When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the
resistance of the material decreases (e.g. photoresistor)
20
25. • Potentiometers are variable resistance sensors.
• A wiper contact is linked to a mechanical shaft.
• Linear or rotational movement.
• Output is proportional to resistance and thence the
position.
Displacement (Proximity) Sensors - Potentiometers
25
32. Popularly known as “LVDT”
No mechanical wear
Very accurate
Linear output
Expensive compared to potentiometers
Displacement (Proximity) Sensors -
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
32
36. • Detection of metallic objects in front of the sensors
without physical contact.
• Useful in wet and dirty environments.
• Small range.
• Used in traffic signals, bicycle computers, exercise
machines etc.
Non-contact Sensors -
Inductive (Proximity) Sensors
36
38. • Generates square pulses using photo or infra red cell
arrangement.
• Convert mechanical movement into electrical signal.
• High resolution.
• Used in computer hard drives, CD/DVD etc.
Non-contact Sensors - Rotary Encoders
38
39. Output ! = 360/n
where n is the number of segments on coded disc.
Non-contact Sensors - Rotary Encoders
39
40. • Measure the change in capacitance.
• Convert mechanical movement into electrical signal.
• High precision.
• Metrology, multi-axis measurements, out of plane
measurements.
Non-contact Sensors - Capacitive Sensors
40
51. • Strain gages convert mechanical motion into electrical
signal.
• A change in resistance, inductance or capacitance is
proportional to the strain induced.
• Strain can be bending, torsional or poisson.
Strain Sensors
51
52. Measurements Using Strain Gauge Elements
Stress
Force (by measuring the strain of a flexural element)
Position
Pressure (by measuring strain in a flexible diaphragm)
Temperature (by measuring thermal expansion of a material)
The strain Gage has a finite size
and thus a measurement reflects
an average of strain over a small
area.
52
53. • The metallic foil-type strain gage consists of a grid of wire
filament bonded directly to the strained surface by a thin
layer of epoxy resin.
• When a load is applied to the surface, the electrical
resistance of the foil wire varies linearly with strain.
• The adhesive also serves as an electrical insulator
between the foil grid and the surface.
Strain Sensors
53
56. • Strain Gages are generally mounted on cantilevers and diaphragms and
measure the direction of these.
• More than one strain gage is generally used and the readout generally
employs a bridge circuit.
56
57. • Bending Strain (also known as moment strain) is
based on bending produced by the applied force.
• Shear Strain is based on the angular distortion
produced.
• Torsional strain is the ratio of torsional stress to the
torsional modulus of elasticity.
• Poisson strain is defined as the negative ratio of the
strain in the transverse direction to the strain in the
longitudinal direction.
Strain Sensors
57
58. The resistance of the foil changes when deformed.
The connected metal foil grid lines in the active portion of the gage
can be approximated by a single rectangular conductor.
A is the cross sectional area; A = W x h
ρ is the foil metal resistivity
Total resistance R is given by R= ρ . L / A
[1]
Basic Principle of Measurement
58
59. The gage end loops and the solder tabs have a much
larger cross-section tan the foil lines and thus have a
smaller effect on the gage resistance.
Basic Principle of Measurement
[1] ln R = ln ρ + ln L - ln A [2]
Taking the differential
dR = dρ + dL - dA [3]
! R ρ L A
but A = W . h
dA = W dh + h DW
A w h
dA = dh + dW
A h W
59
61. when the conductor is elongated, εaxial > 0
and T=thus based on [7] dA/A < 0 and R increases.
[3] dR/R = dρ/ρ + εaxial (1 =2 ν)
dR/R = (1 + 2ν)εaxial + d ρ/ρ
dR/R = 1+ 2ν + dl/l [8]
εaxial εaxial
The last term is the effect of strain on resistivity of material
(piezoresistive efffect) and is typically constant over operating
range of typical strain gage metal foils
Principle of Measurement - continued.
61
62. Gage Factor G = (1 + 2ν) + dl/l
εaxial
So dR/R = G εaxial relates to change in resistance to strain. [9]
The strain is determined on the surface of the loaded component in the Z direction
of the gage long axis. G is typically 2 for metal wires or foil. It can be much larger
for semiconductor wires.
So in order to measure strain, the resistance change needs to be measured and is
based on knowing R and G in advance,. The changes in resistance are measured
using a Wheatstone Bridge.
Principle of Measurement - continued.
62
63. There are two modes of operation of a Wheatstone Bridge.
1. Static Balanced Mode (used initially to balance the bridge)
2. Dynamic unbalanced mode(used to measure changes in resistance)
Principle of Measurement - continued.
i
4
i
3
i2
Vi is the input voltage to the bridge and
VAB Voltmeter with high input impedance
R1: Strain gage (measure the change in
resistance)
R3: Precision potentiometer
R2 and R4 are precision resistors
63
64. Step1: Balance the bridge by changing R3 until theVoltageVAB is zero.
Step 2: When the bridge is in balanced state,
i1R1 = i3R3 [10]
Assuming the current going through the voltmeter is essentially zero,
then,
i1 = i2 =Vi/(R1+R2) [11]
i3 = i4 =Vi/(R3+R4) [12]
i
4
i2
Principle of Measurement -
continued.
i
4
i
3
i2
64
65. [10] Vin . R1 = Vin . R3
R1+R2 R3+R4
! R1 = R3
R1+R2! R3+R4
! R1(R3+R4) = R3(R1+R2)
! R1R4 = R3R2
! R1 = R2R3/R4 [13]
So R1 can be determined based on the known values of R2, R3 and R4
such that the bridge is balanced.
Static Balanced Mode - continued
65
66. It is important to note that R1 is independent of input voltageVin.
The static balanced mode of operation can be used to measure an
unknown resistance but usually balancing is used only as a preliminary
step to measure changes in resistance.
Changes in resistance are measured using the dynamic deflection
operation mode.
Static Balanced Mode - continued
66
67. Dynamic Deflection Operation
Amplifier must be high input impedance type
(e.g. instrumentation amplifier with a gain of 1)
R1 represents the strain gage
R4 - potentiometer
V0 = (Vin - R2 i2) - (Vin - R1 i1) [14]
Vin = (R2 + R3) i2 = (R1 + R4) i1 [15]
[14] V0 = - R2 Vin + R1 Vin
R2+R3 R1+R4
V0 = Vin ( R1 - R2 ) [16]
R1+R4 R2+R4
Note that when the bridge is balanced, R1 = R2R4/R3 or R1(R2+R3) = R2(R1+R4)
So when the bridge is balance, V0 = 0 and R1 has a known value.
67
68. When R1 changes value, the bridge is not balanced and the earlier equation cannot be used to
relate changes in output voltage (∆V0) to the change in resistance (∆ R1).
0
[16]! ! V0 + ∆ V0 = Vin ( R1 + ∆R1 - R2 )! ! ! ! [17]
! ! ! R1 + ∆ R1 + R4 R2 + R3
V0 = 0 since this is a deviation from the balanced mode.
[17] ! !∆ V0 = R1 + ∆ R1 - R2
! ! Vin R1 + ∆R1 + R4 R2 + R3
! ! ( ∆V0 + R2 ) ( R1 + ∆R1 + R4 ) = R1 + ∆R1
! ! Vin R2 + R3
!
! ! ∆R1 ( ∆V0 + R2 - 1) = R1 - (R1 + R4 ) ( ∆V0 + R2 )
! ! ! Vin R2 + R3 ! !! ! Vin R2 + R3
!
Dynamic Deflection Operation
68
69. ! ∆R1 = 1 - ( 1 + R4/R1) { (∆V0/Vin) + (R2/R2+R3)}
R1! ∆V0/Vin + (R2/R2+R3) -1
! ∆R1 = {1 - (∆V0/Vin) - (R2/R2+R3) } - ( R4/R1) { (∆V0/Vin) + (R2/R2+R3)}
R1! ∆V0/Vin + (R2/R2+R3) -1
! ∆R1 = (R4/R1) { (∆V0/Vin )+ (R2/R2+R3) } - 1" " " " [18]
R1" 1- ∆V0/Vin - (R2/R2+R3)
By measuring the ∆V0, we can estimate ∆R, and therefore, get an estimate of the axial
strain ∊axial = (∆R1/R)/G
Dynamic Deflection Operation
69
70. R
R
R+∆R
Strain gage
R
R - ∆R
R+∆R
R
R - ∆R
R-∆R
R+∆R
For balanced mode ∆V0 = (Vin - R i2) - (Vin - (R+∆R) i1)
∆V0 = R i1 - R i2 + ∆R i1
Vin = 2 R i2 = (R+∆R) i1 + (R-∆R) i1 = 2 R i1
∆V0 = ∆R i1 = Vin . ∆R
! ! ! 2 R
If we use four active gages placed such that
It can be shown that ∆V0 ≃ Vin . (∆R/R)
which leads to improved sensitivity of the bridge.
70
71. An example of a displacement sensor strain gage
cantilever-type load transducer
Voltage from balanced position is given by
∆V0 = Vin ( R+∆R1 - R2 )
! R+∆R1+R4 R2+R3
If R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R
∆R1 = ∆R and ∆R << R
from balanced mode
∆V0 = Vin ( R+∆R - R )
! 2R+∆R1 2R
∆V0 = Vin . R + 2∆R - (R + ∆R)
! 2(2R+∆R )
∆V0 = Vin ∆R = Vin . ∆R
2 2R+∆R 4 R
Neutral
Axis
Neutral
Axis
Gage1
Gage2
R
R1+∆R1
R4
R2
R3
Suppose now the bridge involves two active
gages, then the gages are subject to equal but
opposite strain.
71
72. The Strain Gage Load Cell
When the cylinder is compressed
- 2 strain gages are in compression
- 2 strain gages are subject to tensile loading
This produces a signal enhancement factor of 2 ( 1+ν)
where ν is the Poisson’s ratio.
72
76. Two wire connection makes bridge sensitive to variations in load resistance RL.
This circuit is not expected to work well.
∆V0 represents changes in R1 and the 2 RLs.
2-wire connection
76
77. V0 = Vin ( R1 - R2 ) R = 0
R1+R4 R2+R3
V0 = Vin ( R1+R/ - R2 )
(R1+ R/) + (R4+R/) R2+R3
R1 = R1+R/
R1+R4 (R1+ R/) + (R4+R/)
R4 = R1 V0 = Vin ( 1 - R2 )
! ! ! ! ! 2 R2+R3
When R1 is a constant and R1 = R4, the addition of the three wire connection
has no effect on the bridge.
3-wire connection
R’
R4
R3
R2
R1
R’
77
78. What is the effect of the addition of R/ on the bridge if R1 varies and becomes R1 + ∆R1 ?
0
V0 + ∆V0 = ∆V0 = Vin ( R1 + ∆R1+R/ - R2 )
(R1+∆R1+R4+2R/) R2+R3
∆V0 = R1 + ∆R1+R/ - R2
Vin (R1+∆R1+R4+2R/) R2+R3
( ∆V0 + R2 ) = R1 + ∆R1+R/
Vin R2+R3 (R1+∆R1+R4+2R/)
(R1+R4+2R/) ( ∆V0 + R2 ) - ( R1 +R/ ) = ∆R1 ( 1 - ∆V0 - R2 )
Vin R2+R3 Vin R2+R3
(R1+R4+2R/) ( ∆V0 + R2 ) - ( R1 +R/ )
Vin R2+R3
∆R1 =
( 1 - ∆V0 - R2 )
Vin R2+R3
When R1 = R4
(R1+R/) [ 2( ∆V0 + R2 ) - 1 ]
Vin R2+R3
∆R1 =
( 1 - ∆V0 - R2 )
Vin R2+R3
So even for R1 = R4, R/ remains in the ∆R1 expression. Therefore R/ effects the bridge
measurements. R1 is selected so that it does not exceed 0.1% of the nominal gage resistance.
78
79. Effect of Temperature
To overcome this, a half-bridge circuit is used where two of the four bridge legs contain
identical strain gages.
The dummy gage is made of unstressed material of the same composition and at the same
temperature and is identical to the active gage.
The resistance changes in the two gages due to temperature will cancel since they are
adjacent branches of the bridge circuit. The bridge will generate an unbalanced voltage only
in response to a strain in the active gage.
Vin
To be bonded
Temperature changes in the actual strain
gage can cause large changes in
resistance which would lead to errors in
the measurements.
79
81. The operating principles force and acceleration are very
similar and most often the specifics of configuration
determine the output.
Force and Acceleration Sensors
81
82. What is an accelerometer?
• A sensor that measures acceleration based on
Newton’s second law of motion
• The acceleration of an object as produced by a net
force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
net force, in the same direction as the net force, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object. or,
mathematically, F = m a
Force and Acceleration Sensors
82
85. • Piezoelectric elements are bi-directional transducers
capable of converting stress into an electric potential
and vice versa.
• They consist of metallized quartz or ceramic
materials.
• One important factor to remember is that this is a
dynamic effect, providing an output only when the
input is changing.This means that these sensors can
be used only for varying pressures
Force and Acceleration Sensors - Piezoelectrics
85
89. • Two sheets of metals, usually brass and steel or their
alloys, with different coefficients of thermal
expansion are bonded together.
• The resulting bimetallic strip bends when heated.This
phenomenon has many applications, including thermal
switches and thermometers.
Temperature Measurement -
Bimetallic Strips
89
92. • Fluid-expansion devices, typified by the household
thermometer, generally come in two main classifications: the
mercury type and the organic-liquid type. Other types may also
contain gas instead of liquid.
• Fluid-expansion sensors do not require electric power, do not
pose explosion hazards, and are stable after repeated cycling.
• They do not generate data that are easily recorded or
transmitted, and they cannot make spot or point measurements.
Temperature Measurement -
Fluid Expansion Devices
92
93. • Change-of-state temperature sensors form a broad
category of sensors consisting of labels, pellets,
crayons, lacquers or liquid crystals.
• The appearance of the surface of these devices
changes once a certain temperature is reached.
• Typical applications are traps - when a trap exceeds a
certain temperature, a white dot on a sensor label
attached to the trap will turn black.
Temperature Measurement -
Change-of-State Measurement Devices
93
94. • Response time typically takes minutes, so these devices
often do not respond to transient temperature changes.
• Accuracy is lower than with other types of sensors.
• The change in state is irreversible in most cases.
• Change-of-state sensors can be handy when one needs
confirmation that the temperature of a piece of equipment
or a material has not exceeded a certain level, for instance
for technical or legal reasons during product shipment.
Temperature Measurement -
Change-of-State Measurement Devices
94
95. A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring
temperature. It consists of two dissimilar metals, joined
together at one end.When the junction of the two
metals is heated or cooled a voltage is produced that
can be correlated back to the temperature.The
thermocouple alloys are commonly available as wire.
Temperature Measurement -
Thermocouples
95
96. • The thermoelectric voltage is known as the Seebeck
voltage, named after Thomas Seebeck, who discovered it in
1821.
• The voltage is nonlinear with respect to temperature (but
for small changes in temperature it is approximately linear)
• The voltage is given by
∆V ≈ S∆T!(1)
where ∆V is the change in voltage, S is the
Seebeck coefficient, and ∆T is the change in temperature.
Temperature Measurement -
Thermocouples
96
97. Several standard types that are given designations
according to the materials used. These thermocouples
use a variety of different materials.The ones used in the
thermocouples mentioned above are all forms of metal
alloys:
• Alumel! Nickel 96%, manganese 2%, aluminum 2%
• Chromel Nickel 90%, chrome 10%
• Constantan! Copper 55%, nickel 45%
• Nicrosil! Nickel chrome silicon
• Nisil! Nickel silicon
Temperature Measurement -
Thermocouples
97
100. Cold-Junction Compensation in Thermocouples
Thermocouples require some form of temperature reference to
compensate for room temperature.The term cold junction comes
from the traditional practice of holding this reference junction at
0° C in an ice bath.The National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) thermocouple reference tables are created
with this in view.
Temperature Measurement -
Thermocouples
David
Potter,
National
instruments 100
102. • A resistance-temperature detector (RTD) is a
temperature sensing device whose resistance
increases with temperature.
• An RTD consists of a wire coil or deposited film of
pure metal.
• RTDs can be made of different metals and have
different resistances, but the most popular RTD is
platinum and has a nominal resistance of 100 Ω at 0°
C.
Temperature Measurement -
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
102
103. Why RTDs ?
• RTDs are known for their excellent accuracy over a
wide temperature range.
• RTDs have accuracies as high as 0.01 Ω (0.026° C) at
0° C.
• RTDs are also extremely stable devices. Common
industrial RTDs drift less than 0.1° C/year, and some
models are stable to within 0.0025° C/year.
Temperature Measurement -
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
103
104. Rt = R0 * (1 + A* t + B*t2 + C*(t-100)* t3)
Where:
Rt is the resistance at temperature t, R0 is the resistance at 0 °C, and
A= 3.9083 E-3 oC-1
B = -5.775 E-7 oC-2
C = -4.183 E -12 0C-4(below 0 °C), or
C = 0 (above 0 °C)
Temperature Measurement -
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
104
105. Fibre optic thermometers have proven invaluable in
non-contact measurement of temperatures, particularly
in harsh conditions, such as high temperatures, large
electric and magnetic fields etc.Typical applications are:
• Basic metals and glass production and initial hot
forming processes for such materials.
• Boiler burner flames and tube temperatures
• Critical turbine areas in power generation operations
• Rolling lines in steel and other fabricated metal plants
• Automated welding, brazing and annealing equipment
• Fusion, sputtering, and crystal growth processes in
the semiconductor industry.
Temperature Measurement -
Non-contact Measurement
105
106. • Fibre-optic sensors can be used to detect heat or stress.Two
types of fibre-optic sensors are used, intrinsic and extrinsic
types.
• In the extrinsic type, fibre acts as a medium of transmission.The
light exits and interacts with the environment to be analyzed
and then re-enters the fibre.This is a low cost method and can
use photodiodes for the operation.
• In the intrinsic type, one or more field parameters become
modulated with the field which propagates in the fibre to allow
the measurement of environmental effects. Generally these
techniques involve interferometric methods and can detect
both strain and temperature fluctuations.
Temperature Measurement -
Non-contact Measurement
106
107. Temperature Measurement -
Non-contact Measurement
Text
The Mach–Zehnder interferometer is a device used to determine the relative
phase shift between two collimated beams from a coherent light source. It splits
an optical signal into two components and directs them down two separate
paths, then recombines them. By inducing a phase delay between the two optical
signals, the resulting interference can cause intensity changes.
107
108. Temperature Measurement -
Non-contact Measurement
The Fabry Pérot interferometer makes use of multiple reflections between two closely
spaced partially silvered surfaces. Part of the light is transmitted each time the light
reaches the second surface, resulting in multiple offset beams which can interfere with
each other. The large number of interfering rays produces an interferometer with
extremely high resolution, somewhat like the multiple slits of a diffraction grating
increase its resolution.
108
109. Sensor Evaluation Criteria
Joseph Carr, John Brown, Introduction to Biomedical Equipment Technology, 2010.
National instruments
Sookram Sobhan, Introduction to Sensors, 2005.
Sensor Characteristics Environmental Factors Economic Factors
Sensitivity
Range
Precision
Resolution
Accuracy
Offset
Linearity
Hysteresis
Response Time
Dynamic Linearity
Size
Power Consumption
Ruggedness
Temperature Range
Corrosion
Sensitivity to humidity
Over range Protection
Self Test / Self-calibrate
Immunity to EM
Interference
Cost
Availability
Service Life
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110. Performance Parameter Potentiometer LVDT
Sensitivity N/A 110 mV/mm
Range 25 mm 0.125 mm
Resolution 0.1 mm N/A
Selection of Displacement Sensors
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114. Intelligent Sensor Systems
Compensation
Self-diagnostics, self-calibration, adaptation
Computation
Signal conditioning, data reduction, detection of trigger events
Communications
Network protocol standardization
Integration
Coupling of sensing and computation at the chip level n!Micro electro-
mechanical systems (MEMS)
Others
Multi-modal, multi-dimensional, multi-layer n!Active, autonomous sensing
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