This paper discusses transformer life management and condition assessment techniques used in Germany. It provides 13 case studies of issues identified in transformers along with the diagnostic procedures used to detect the problems. The case studies cover issues with insulation systems, cooling units, cores, windings, on-load tap changers, and mechanical defects. A wide range of diagnostic methods are discussed including dissolved gas analysis, furan analysis, moisture detection, thermal monitoring, and partial discharge measurement. The case studies demonstrate how various diagnostic techniques can be used together to identify and locate transformer issues.

1. 1-13
CONTRIBUTION FOR CIGRE SC12/A2- MERIDA- KOLLOQUIUM
June 2 - 4, 2003
TRANSFORMER LIFE MANAGEMENT
GERMAN EXPERIENCE with CONDITION ASSESSMENT
I. Höhlein, A. J. Kachler*
,
Siemens AG, PTD T, Nuremberg, DE
S. Tenbohlen
Alstom Schorch Transformatoren GmbH,
Mönchengladbach, DE
M. Stach
E-ON Engineering Gelsenkirchen, DE
T. Leibfried
Techn. University Karlsruhe, DE
1. SUMMARY
This paper is a cooperate effort of German manufac-
turers, utilities and technical universities on the subject
of state of the art of Transformer Diagnostics and Life-
Management.
After a brief introduction to generally applicable di-
agnostics to verify ageing physically due to
– Dielectric stresses
– Thermal stresses
– Mechanical impact and
– Chemical changes
the paper extends on the diagnostic procedures to iden-
tify functionally and component related ageing defects.
The main sections provide the German experience
and numerous examples of successful diagnostics of
physically different stresses.
Finally, some Guidelines of how to proceed in com-
plex defective conditions – where we need at least two
different approaches.
The paper concludes with most effective diagnostic
procedures and recommends to continue effective re-
search of Moisture Dynamics and Furane Analysis.
_____________________________
*
Main author, Siemens PTD T QM
2. INDEX
1. Summary
2. Index
3. State of the Art of Diagnostic Procedures
3.1 General Applications and Limitations
3.2 Component Related Procedures
4. German Experience for Condition Assessment (On-
Line / OFF-Line-/Trend analysis)
4.1 Dielectric Stress Ageing of Insulation
4.2 Thermal Stress Ageing of Main/Minor Insulation
and Components
4.3 Mechanical Ageing of Windings / Leads / Main In-
sulation due to Dynamic Impact
4.4 Ageing due to Chemical Changes of Oil and Insu-
lation
5. Critical Issues, Recommendations for Further In-
vestigations
6. Conclusions
7. Literature
3. STATE OF ART OF DIAGNOSTIC
PROCEDURES
The transformer is a very complex structure with ba-
sically 5 different main materials: copper – core steel –
tank steel / and – main/minor insulation and insulating
oil.
All metallic materials are ageing very slowly, there-
fore all functional life considerations / ageing impacts
are related to insulation material and oil.

2. 2-13
Utilities and Manufacturers and technical University
have developed a wide range of diagnostic procedures
to detect loss of life or functionally (component wise)
faulty or defective conditions [1].
3.1 Objectives of Condition Assessment of Power
Transformers
Transformer Life Management is primarily directed to
transformer life extension and to cutting of operational
costs and risks. Most diagnostic systems including of
On-Line Monitoring serve to detect changes in the in-
sulation system in form of an early warning system, due
to- thermal / dielectric / chemical or mechanical impact,
i. e. to detect
• Hotspots
• Degradation of the insulation
• Excess moisture in insulation
• Localized faults / defects
• Partial discharges
• Partial rupture / mechanical defects / briddleness
• Chemical or thermal ageing.
Normally, none of these defects can be detected by a
singular diagnostic procedure. Therefore, we need to
apply a multitude of different methods.
Furthermore to enable trend analysis and condition
assessment we need quite frequently a sequence of sam-
ples and measurements to identify the velocity of
change, the rate of progressiveness, the quantity of indi-
cated signature etc.
In order to cover the multitude of perspectives we
must identify the appropriate measurands and proce-
dures, which are:
For thermal degradation (oil and solid insulation)
– Hotspot measurement
– On-Line Monitoring of oil/copper temperatures (hot-
spot) cooling plant and ambient temperatures
– DGA-Analysis (Hotspots with / without insulation de-
gradation)
– Oil-Analysis (Oil numbers, purity, breakdown voltage
(VBD))
– Furane Components Analysis (HPLC-Analysis)
– Dielectric response measurement (PDC, FDS)
(Amount of absorbed moisture in insulation and oil)
– DP-(Depolymerisation index)
– Karl Fischer test
– Power factor of oil and insulation
– Oil Ageing / oxidation tests (acc. to Baader / IEC)
For dielectric degradation (oil and solid insulation)
– Partial discharge measurements (Ui, Ue, Q, trend)
– Ultrasonic localization of PDs
– Analysis of the Oil Quality / Purity / Filtering
– H2O content in oil, breakdown voltage VBD
– Moisture in solid insulation / PDC-Analysis
– DGA (indication of PD, Arcing, Abnormal cellulosic
degradation)
– Oil numbers (BDV, dissipation factor, interfacial ten-
sion (IFT), neutralization number, etc.)
– On-Line Monitoring of PDs
– On-Line Monitoring of over-voltage transient condi-
tions.
For chemical degradation (oil and solid insulation)
– Oil-Analysis (loss factor, breakdown voltage, appear-
ance (sludge, colour) acidity, IFT, etc.)
– DGA (Detection of transformer failures)
– Furane Components Analysis
– Oil Ageing / oxidation performance (Baader / IEC,
etc.)
– DP-analysis of solid insulation
– PDC-Analysis
For mechanical degradation
– Impedance measurements with precision instrumen-
tation for U/i-measurement
– Low Voltage Injection (LVI)
DC-Resistance
– FRA (Frequency Response Analysis)
– Transfer function analysis
– Visual inspections
– Repeat of HV-Tests at (80 % UT).
Limitations:
All diagnostic procedures need significant diagnostic
experience in order to derive the appropriate decision.
Whilst the identification of dielectric / thermal / chemi-
cal deficits are possible today - the geometric localiza-
tion is normally not possible. For this, ultrasonic identi-
fication of partial discharges is needed, but this requires
almost laboratory test condition at site.
As can be seen from this preposition mechanical im-
pacts / deficits can only be detected by means of Fin-
gerprints and consecutive measurement. Mechanical de-
fects do not show up in the DGA/Oil Analysis. Also the
Dielectric Response Measurement (FDS or PDS) is not
applicable.

3. 3-13
3.2 Component Related Procedures
Power Transformer Diagnostics must also identify
ageing of different physical functions and components.
This is also described in [1, 2 and 3]. [3] is the latest
Draft of the CIGRE WG 12.18, where the physical
functions are identified as “transformer subsys-
tems”.
The key elements are:
– Dielectric (major, minor insulation, leads insulation,
static shields)
– The electromagnetic circuits (core, windings, clamp-
ing, shields, grounding circuit)
– The current carrying circuits (leads, winding conduc-
tors)
– Insulation structure
– Clamping structure
– Magnetic shields
– Grounding circuit
– Bushings
– Tap changers OLTC
– Cooling equipment
– Protection and Monitoring equipment
Each of these subsystems has their own defect and
failure evolution and expose also different symptoms of
degradation.
From the large number of subsystems we select:
3.2.1 Dielectric (major / minor insulation, leads,
windings)
3.2.2 Magnetic circuit (core, windings, clamping)
3.2.3 Tap changers (OLTC)
3.2.4 Mechanical Degradation
and present some practical samples examples in chapter
4 below.
Coding / abbreviations of the different diagnostic pro-
cedures throughout the paper are:
DGA: A
Oil Analysis / Oil Ageing B
Dielectric response Meas. C[4,5,6]
PD-Measurement / Localization D
FURAN DERIVATE Analysis/DP value E[7]
DC-Resistance F [8]
Surface Resistance G [8]
Core Ins. Resistance Meas. H
Hot spot temperature I
LV No-Load Measurement J
LV Impedance Measurements K
VIBRATION Sound Meas. L
ON-LINE Monitoring M[13]
3.2.1 Dielectric Defect / Thermal and dielectric
Ageing Defect / Failure Identification
The main deficiency / defect symptoms and Diag-
nosis Procedures are:
a) Partial discharges of low or high energy (A, C, D,
M)
b) Abnormal aged oil (A, B, E)
c) Abnormal cellulose ageing (A, B, C, E)
d) Loose connections / sparking (A, B)
e) Oil contamination (B, C)
f) Excessive water content (B, C, M)
g) Destructive PD (tracking / creeping) (A, D, M)
3.2.2 Magnetic Circuit (core, grounding, winding,
clamping)
The main deficiency / defect symptoms and Diag-
nosis Procedures are:
a) Abnormal Circulating Currents in parts of the core
(core burn) with parts being shorted, hotspots, local
over heating (A, B, M)
b) Loosening of the core clamping – excessive vibra-
tion (L)
c) Double grounding / short circuit in the ground cir-
cuit, circulating currents – overheating, localized
hotspots, sparcing (A, B, H, I)
d) Short between conductors of parallel strands (ex-
cessive losses), stray flux effect, hotspots, circulat-
ing current (A, B, D)
e) Poor solder joints within the winding and at lead
connections, etc. (A, B, F)
3.2.3 Tap changers
Tap changers defect symptoms and Diagnosis Pro-
cedures are:
a) Local hotspots due to contact overheating (A, B, F,
G) [8]
b) Excessive / or significant increase in required
torque (M)
c) PD-surface tracking (A, B, D)
d) Sparking / breakdown across support structures,
produces tapping short circuit with complete de-
struction of the winding and the OLTC (A, B, D)
e) PD between lead structures due to contamination
(A, B, D)
3.2.4 Mechanical degradation
The most important defect symptoms and Diagno-
sis Procedures are:

4. 4-13
a) Loosening of winding clamping (K, L)
b) Loosening of core clamping (L)
c) Lead support failures (K, L)
d) Winding deformation (buckling, tilting, twisting)
(K)
e) Loss of DP of the insulation system / winding con-
ductor insulation briddleness (C, E).
4. GERMAN EXPERIENCE FOR
CONDITION ASSESSMENT IN
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Here we present altogether 13 cases of diagnostic re-
sults from Generator Step up Units (GSU) and System
Transformers (ST)
No. 1: 300 MVA-, 245 kV - ST
Defective: Insulation System
LFA Drying /PDC-Analysis / K. Fischer
No. 2: 600 MVA-, 420 kV - ST,
Defective: cooling unit
Therm. Resistance Increase
No. 3: 74 MVA-, 123 kV - Rectifier Transformer
(closed system)
Defective: Core
DGA Analysis
No. 4: 438 MVA-, 420 kV - ST
Defective: Insulation System
Moisture, DP, Oil and Furane Analysis
No. 5: 340 MVA-, 245 kV - ST
Defective: Winding Contamination
DGA, PD
No. 6: 40 MVA-, 123 kV - ST
Defective: cooling system
DGA, Furanes
No. 7: 234 MVA-, 345 kV - ST
Defective: winding
DGA, DC Resistance
No. 8: 60 MVA-, 123 kV- Reactor
Defective: cooling system
DGA / Furane, DP, Oil Analysis
No. 9: 60 MVA-, 123 kV - ST
Defective: OLTC
DGA/Hot spot
Contact / Surface Resistance
No. 10: 175 MVA-, 525 kV - GSU
Defective: winding
In Winding Short Circuit between 1 double
disc, due to contamination
Example of mechanical defect recognition
No. 11: 380 MVA-, 245 kV - GSU
Defective: insulation system
DGA, DP
Connector overheating
These 11 cases are given in detail in chapter 4. In
chapter 5 we give additionally some peculiar cases as
No 12 and No 13.
No 12: 400 kVA, 12 kV
No defective components
Effect of oil on Catalytical Zn-Surfaces
No 13: 300 MVA-, 420 kV - ST
No defective components
DGA, H2 steady increase, On-Line Monitoring
CASE HISTORIES
Case Nr. 1: 300 MVA-, 245 kV - ST, manufactured
1978
Defective Insulation System
Fault Symptom: Excessive water content, aged insula-
tion system
Detected by: PDC, Karl Fischer in Oil, DP (B, C, E)
History:
1998 there was a warning with a gas in the Buchholz
relay. The DGA Analysis did not give any indication of
transformer failure, only the fault gases from thermal-
oxidative cellulosic degradation were slight elevated.
The oil analysis, however, showed an excessive water
content in oil and the presence of sludge. The colour,
neutralization number and the loss factor were also ele-
vated. The sludge led to a tarnish on the tap changer
contacts and elevated surface resistance. The contacts
have been cleaned through switching. 2000 the oil was
changed against an inhibited one. The oil numbers –
colour, acidity, loss factor became better, but the in-
creased water content was further present, because the
most water is stored in the solid insulation.
2002 a LFH drying of the transformer has been per-
formed (Approximately 100 l water were removed).
A paper sample was taken from phase V. It showed a
depolymerisation (DP) value of 350 – indicating an ad-

5. 5-13
vanced cellulosic destruction, surely influenced by
moisture. The water extracts from the LFH drying were
very acidic – they contained in high amounts acetic and
formic acid and various aldehydes, amongst which fur-
fural was in the highest concentration.
Diagnosis: Excessive moisture in the insulation system,
dielectric detioration of the insulation system
Action taken: LFH Drying on site
The ST is successfully operating since 2002.
Case Nr. 2: ST, 600 MVA-, 420kV - ST
Defective cooling unit
Fault Symptom: Increase of thermal resistance
Detected by: Online Monitoring (M)
History:
On-line monitoring of the cooling unit of a 420kV /
600MVA grid-coupling transformer by calculation of
the nominal thermal resistance Rth as described in
[11,12] showed a strong increase after switching on of
two additional fans which was signalled by the control
system. This increase triggered a warning message by
the monitoring system. A local check in the substation
revealed that due to a failure of energy supply only half
of the cooling unit (3 fans) was in operation and there-
fore only three fans were running. This status was not in
accordance with the information of the control system
and led to the strong increase of nominal thermal resis-
tance. With the present load and half of the cooling
power the transformer could be kept in service. But it
would not be possible to operate the transformer with
nominal load due to the missing cooling power. This
scenario shows the importance of detecting also minor
failures to avoid the risk of not delivering energy.
Case Nr. 3: 74 MVA-, 123 kV – Rectifier Trans-
former, manufactured in 1989, sealed type (rubber
bag)
Defective core
Fault Symptom: Fault gases from thermal oil degrada-
tion without involvement of solid insulation
Detected by: DGA (A)
History:
Shortly after commisioning (1990) a progressive in-
crease of the fault gases from thermal oil degradation
without involvement of the solid insulation has been ob-
served (Table 1, MSS Code 00122 – Fault code accord-
ing the DGA evaluation schema of Mueller-
Schliesinger-Soldner, indicating local overheating 300 –
1000°C).
Type of Fault Gas Dissolved gas in ppm (v/v)
Hydrogen 498
Methane 1600
Ethane 495
Ethylene 1620
Acetylene 4
Propane 129
Propylene 1170
Carbon monoxide 300
Carbon dioxide 1440
Oxygen 2310
Nitrogen 13300
Table 1 : Last DGA results before disassembly.
In a transformer with a rubber bag the fault gases are
accumulating in oil, reaching much higher concentra-
tions as in a open breather, where they can escape. The
total gas content in a sealed type transformer is lower
than in an open breather, because there is no access of
air (oxygen und nitrogen). Therefore the oxidizing ef-
fect of oxygen is negligible. Nevertheless it should be
kept in mind that free gas (bubble formation) is possi-
ble, depending on the fault gas solubility in oil and the
partial gas pressure.
The rectifier was returned to the factory for repair. A
core burn (See Fig. 2) as a consequence of a transport
damage was the source of the abnormal circulating cur-
rents in the core. The core has been repaired.
Diagnosis: Core burn as a consequence of high circu-
lating currents.
Action taken: Repair of the core and introduction of
magnetic shielding.
7.1. 17.1. 27.1. 6.2. 16.2. 26.2. 8.3.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80 Toil
RthN
Rth[K/MW],Toil[°C]
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
No.ofFans
Fig. 1: Abnormal condition of cooling unit detected
by increase of thermal resistance Rth

6. 6-13
The unit is ever since operating troublefree.
Fig 2: A severe core burn as a consequence of high
circulating currents
Case Nr. 4: 438 MVA-, 420 kV - ST, manufactured
1969
Defective Insulation System
Fault Symptom: Oil analysis, indicating aged and hu-
mid insulating system
Detected by: Oil Analysis, Furanes (B, E).
History:
This transformer has been in service for a long time
before it was used as stand-by transformer for a period
of about 8 years. The routine oil-checks after recom-
mencement (Table 2) indicated an accelerated ageing of
the insulating system.
1994 1995 1999
degree of purity,
impurity
pure pure pure
colour 2,5 3,0 3,0
refractive index 1,4722 1,4725 1,4732
neutralizing
index (mg
KOH/g oil)
0,10 0,10 0,12
dielectric loss
factor
0,035 0,069 0,083
Water according
to Karl Fischer
(mg/kg oil)
15 21 36
Breakdown volt-
age
> 60 > 60 > 60
Table 2: Consecutive oil analysis
In consequence of this result the oil-checks have been
intensified. They clearly indicated (Table 3) highly aged
insulation. In addition high level of moisture and ex-
tremely low breakdown voltage of the oil were detected.
Date Temp.
[ºC]
Water ac-
cording to
K. - F
[mg/kg]
Breakdown
voltage
[kV/2,5mm]
14.10.99 58 36 36
27.10.99 61 45 28
08.11.99 55 33 31
11.11.99 56 38 38
18.11.99 48 57 34
22.11.99 63 45 20
Table 3: Water content and breakdown voltage of
oil
The additional furfurol-analysis (Table 4) indicated also
a severe ageing of the solid insulation.
substance concentration
[mg/kg]
5-HMF
(5 Hydroxymethyl-2-Furfurol)
< 0,05
2-FOL
(2- Furfurylalkohol)
< 0,05
2 FAL
(2-Furfural)
6,00
2-ACF
(2-Acetylfuran)
<0,05
2-MEF
(5-Methyl-2-Furfurol)
< 0,05
Table 4: Furane Analysis
The transformer obviously had reached the end of its
life time. It was taken out of service. The determination
of water in insulation according to Karl Fischer resulted
in values up to 5%.
DP-determination of insulation resulted in an average
value of 181 which was an indication of a complete
cellulosic degradation.
Diagnosis: Highly aged insulation and oil end of trans-
former life
Action taken: The transformer was scrapped

7. 7-13
Case Nr. 5: 340 MVA-, 245 kV - ST, manufactured
1977
Defective: Winding Contamination
Fault Symptom: PD
Detected by: DGA, PD-Measurements (A, D)
History:
Over a period of 20 years this transformer has been in
service troublefree at the same station. Then it was
moved to another station for one year where it was con-
nected on an existing cooling plant. After its return a
continuous increase of dissolved gasses was observed,
especially hydrogen.
To clarify this, a RVM and a frequency-dependent
impedance measurement were performed but without
any defect indications. Then on-site partial discharge
measurements were made by a PRPDA (Phase Resolv-
ing Partial Discharge Analyser). Two partial discharge
sources of the same kind were clearly indentified at
phase V and phase W (Table 5, Fig. 3).
Results
m.-point
PD on
Tap 1
PD off
Tap 1
PD on
Tap 19
PD off
Tap 19
1 U no PD no PD no PD no PD
1 V 7,3 kV
500 pC
5,7 kV 8,2 kV 8,2 kV
1 W 11 kV
500 pC
7,6 kV 10,2 kV 10,2 kV
1 N 7,3 kV 5,7 kV 8,2 kV 8,2 kV
2 v no PD no PD no PD no PD
2 w no PD no PD no PD no PD
2 u no PD no PD no PD no PD
Table 5 : Results of the on-site PD-measurements
Fig 3: Example of PD Activity at Phase W (HV)
Because of these the transformer was returned to the
manufacturer for dismantling The dismantling revealed
a strong decontamination with particles and many dis-
charge points especially at the upper end insulation of
the hv-winding.
The discharges were caused by the particles from the
inner coating of the tubing (Fig. 4) of temporary con-
nected cooling plant.
Fig 4: Paint particles from the cooling plant, causing
PD
Diagnosis: Severe contamination of all windings from
the piping of a cooling plant, with severe PD tracking.
Action taken: Repair. New windings and cleaning of
the cooling plant.
Case Nr. 6: 40 MVA-, 123 kV – ST with heat recov-
ery in the cooling system, manufactured in 1981.
Defective cooling system
Fault Symptom: Malfunction of the cooling system,
excessive fault gases from thermal cellulosic degrada-
tion, elevated furane values
Detected by: Furanes, DGA (A, E)
History:
2002 a routine DGA (preventive maintenance) indi-
cated a thermal problem (an elevated level of fault gases
from thermal-oxidative cellulosic degradation, ratio car-
bon dioxide/carbon monoxide > 10, MSS Code 11122).
An immediate inspection of the cooling system re-
vealed a defective magnetic valve, which had blocked
the whole cooling system. The incident seemed to have
happened quite recently prior the sampling for DGA,

8. 8-13
because no change in the oil numbers and a low level of
furanes could be detected.
A DGA, oil- and furane analyses (Table 6) have been
performed in intervals of 1, 2 and 6 months.
Para-
meter
Ppm on
14.03.02
1
month
later
2
months
later
6
months
later
Acidity
(mg
KOH/g)
0,11 0,10 0,15 0,11
Water
(mg/kg)
32 25 18 26
2-FAL
(mg/kg)
0,06 0,83 0,82 0,65
Table 6: Time Development of the Oil- und Furane
values after a Problem with the Cooling System
The oil analysis showed no change, because the over-
heating was evidently time-restricted. The development
of DGA and furanes was indicative for the overheating.
One month later it could be seen, that the carbon diox-
ide content rose further and there was a strong increase
in 2-FAL – 0,83 mg/kg oil. The furanic compounds are
formed in paper and it takes some time because of the
diffusion processes until an equilibrium with the fluid
system has been established. The amounts of carbon di-
oxide and furanes stayed constant for approx. 3 months
and then went back slowly.
Furanes and among them 2-Furfural can be used as
indicators for thermal overheating. Their concentration
rises soon after a thermal problem. However furanes are
not stable in an air breathing system and are being fur-
ther oxidized by air. After the thermal stress disappears,
the furane concentration decreases as well.
This is an excellent example of how effective preven-
tive maintenance can be.
This transformer would have been severely aged due
to thermal overheating, caused by a blocked cooling
system.
Diagnosis: Degradation of the insulation system as a
sequence of a short time overheating.
Action taken: Repair of the magnetic valve
Now the transformer operates troublefree.
Case Nr. 7: 234 MVA-, 345 kV - ST, manufactured
in 1991.
Defective winding
Fault Symptom: Elevated DC-Resistance
Detected by: DGA, DC-Resistance Measurement (A, F)
History:
After 11 years of service, rising amounts of fault
gases from thermal oil decomposition with small
amounts of acetylene have been detected by DGA (Ta-
ble 7). Furthermore the ratio carbon monoxide/carbon
dioxide was < 3, which suggested an electrical degrada-
tion of cellulose. The transformer was inspected on site.
A resistance measurement was carried out. There was a
remarkable increase in the DC-resistance. The trans-
former was sent for repair in the factory.
One broken twin conductor of two twins with burnt
out insulation paper was detected. The damage location
was a defective solder joint. The damage location has
been a localized thermal source, because the DP-value
of neighbouring insulation paper was not affected.
Fig 5: A broken twin conductor as a consequence of
a defective solder joint
Type of gas ppm (v/v)
Hydrogen 1060
Methane 2481
Ethane 703
Ethylene 2187
Acetylene 4
Carbon monoxide 450
Carbon dioxide 995
Table 7: Last DGA before taking out of service

9. 9-13
Diagnosis: Defective solder joint
Action taken: The winding was repaired and the trans-
former was taken in service again and is working trou-
blefree.
Case Nr. 8: 60 MVA-, 123 kV- Compensating Reac-
tor, manufactured in 1979.
Defective insulation system
Fault Symptom: Sludge in oil
Detected by: DP, furanes, oil analysis (A, B, E)
History:
After 20 years of successful operation, time-based
maintenance (DGA, oil and furane analysis) indicated
severe ageing of oil and insulation. The reactor was
brought back in the factory for refirbishment of the
cooling system. DGA showed no failure indications
(MSS Code 01002), but suggested a severe ageing of
the solid insulation. The oil analysis revealed also a
strongly aged oil (Colour 5,5, Neutralisation value 0,18
mg KOH/g oil) with sludge formation. The sludged oil
has plugged the cooling ducts of the radiators and led to
overheating. The paper samples of the winding were
covered heavily with sludge and the DP-value was only
200. The measured furanes showed values of 2-FAL of
11,5 mg/kg oil. The solid insulation has reached the end
of life.
Diagnosis: accelerated ageing of the insulating system
as a consequence of inadequate cooling.
Action taken: A complete refirbishment was carried
out – winding, oil, cooling system.
Case Nr. 9: 60 MVA-, 123 kV - ST
Defective OLTC [8]
Fault Symptom: High surface and DC resistance, ex-
cessive fault gasses from thermal oil degradation
Detected by: DGA, DC-Resistance, Surface Resistance
Measurement (A, F, G) [8]
DGA indicated high amounts of fault gases from ther-
mal oil degradation.
History:
The DC resistance measurements taken on the OLTC
showed that only marginally increased contact resis-
tance could be determined in the entire tap selector area.
After a few switching operations had been carried out
they were reduced to the normal level and did not show
any current dependency. However, unusually high and
unstable contact resistances were determined at the
change-over selector. For this case a special surface re-
sistance measurement was developed. Even after an in-
creased number of change-over selector operations, the
resistance values did not show any improvement. This
behaviour indicated quite a heavy coke layer on the
contacts, which could not be removed by simple
switching. The transformer was opened, the selector
was inspected and the change-over contacts were ex-
changed. The change-over contacts were covered with a
thick carbonized layer with a significant surface erosion
– see Picture. Such contact damage mainly appears on
change-over selectors made of copper (movable contact)
and brass (fixed contact) which are rarely operated.
Caused by the slight tarnish, the contact resistance in-
creases, and, consequently, the temperature of the con-
tacts, too. The increased contact temperature accelerates
the growth of tarnish and the temperature is high
enough to decompose the oil and oil carbon is generated
(Fig 6). In the course of time heavy layers (oil carbon)
will be built up.
Fig 6: Eroded contacts of the tap selector with a
coke layer.
Diagnosis: Oil-carbon layer on the copper and brass
selector-over contacts.
Actions taken: Exchange of the contacts, on-site repair
with consequent oil degassing.
Case Nr.10: 175 MVA-, 525 kV - GSU, manufactuing
year 1997
Defective Winding
Fault Symptom: In disc short circuit, due to contami-
nation.
Detected by: Mechanical Defect Recognition (Transfer
Function Analysis), DGA

10. 10-13
History:
Shortly after energizing 1999, the transformer failed
in the HV-winding of phase U between the 2nd
and 3rd
disc at the lower end of the 500 kV main winding. The
failure has been most probably caused by a foreign par-
ticle (piece of sealing material, paint etc) which was
moved into the winding by OD-cooling.
For this case, the transfer function method was ap-
plied to identify this winding effect. The transfer func-
tion:
was analyzed in the frequency domain (Fig. 7) and it
clearly showed a significant deviation for phase U
against Phase V and W. This clearly coincides with the
defect found during disassembly.
Diagnosis: DGA, interdisc short circuit at 2nd
/3rd
disc at
the ground side of HV winding with a secondary effect
of an axial flashover due to excess gas generation.
Actions taken: Due to the heavy contamination of car-
bon the complete set of phase windings on phase
U/LV/HV regulating winding was replaced.
Fig 7: Transfer Function Analysis of a 175
MVA/520 kV GSU Transformer
a) Transfer Function of Phase U
b) Transfer Function of Phase V
c) Transfer Function of Phase W
d) Excitation and Response Signals U1, U2
Case Nr. 11: 380 MVA-, 245 kV - GSU, manufac-
turing year 1968
Defective insulation system
Fault Symptom: Excessive fault gases from cellulosic
and thermal oil degradation
Detected by: DGA (A), DP (E)
History:
The DGA carried out 1991 in the course of the pre-
ventive maintenance showed high values for carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide, which indicates a ther-
mal-oxidative cellulosic degradation. The ratio CO2/CO
was higher 10, the MSS Code 01132 – indicated a ther-
mal problem with an involvement of the solid insula-
tion. A local overheating of the connectors on the high
voltage winding was identified as problem.
The DP values of the insulation at the connectors was
between 150-250, i. e. It has reached its end of life (Fig
8a and b). The DP values on the low voltage lead was
500 -600. Since this is a GSU of a nuclear power plant
no further risks were taken and the unit was replaced by
a new transformer in 1993.
a)
b)
Fig. 8a, b : Connectors with fully burnt out solid in-
sulation
f
U2
U1
a.
b.
c.
)(
1
2
)( f
U
U
fT =

11. 11-13
Diagnosis: Overheating of the connectors because of
stray currents and consequent degradation of the cellu-
losic insulation.
Action taken: Scrapping of the transformer.
5. CRITICAL ISSUES RECOMMEN-
DATIONS FOR FURTHER
INVESTIGATIONS
The DGA is very powerful, but also very individual.
There are only few „ready made“ DGA evaluations. A
long time comparison of earlier DGA and accurate re-
ports of the transformer history (overload, cooling
problems) are very important. The gas increase rates are
more essential than the absolute values of the fault
gases. In the case of acetylene, however, which is an in-
dicator of high energy arcing or very hot thermal fault
(> 1000°C) the absolute values should be the first
warning sign and must not be neglected. If acetylene has
been found in the DGA, additional samples should be
taken to determine if additional acetylene is being gen-
erated. Very often the presence of acetylene is due to a
leaky tap changer. In this case generally the concentra-
tion of acetylene is higher than the concentration of hy-
drogen.
If acetylene continues to increase, however, the trans-
former may have an active high energy internal arcing
and should be taken out of service. Further operation is
hazardous and may result in a catastrophic failure.
Some transformers develop in the first months of op-
eration fault gases, mainly hydrogen, which could stem
from partial discharges. IEC 60599 points out to such
catalytic phenomena, e.g. reaction of metal surfaces,
varnishes or other transformer materials [9] with the in-
sulation oil. Some highly hydro-treated oils may also
produce hydrogen at heating. [10]. Such „artifact“ fault
gases can be reliably detected in factory tests – „finger-
printing“. Therefore these tests, together with the tests
after commissioning and in the first months after com-
missioning are very important.
Case Nr. 12: 400 kVA-, 12 KV - Distribution trans-
former with a zink plated tank, manufactured in
1997, hermetically sealed.
No defective components, catalytic effects
Fault Symptom: Excessive Hydrogen Content in the
Oil
Detected By: DGA (A)
History:
DGA (Table 8) indicates significant amounts of hy-
drogen which does not change significantly. The trans-
former does not have actually any failure Hydrogen is
may be produced as a result of a chemical reaction of
metallic zinc with oil and the small amounts of water,
contained in it. In other cases varnishes may lead to
some further fault gases in addition to hydrogen - e.g.
methane. Such „artifacts“ may simulate or overlap par-
tial discharges.
Type of gas ppm (v/v)
Hydrogen 488
Methane 1
Ethane < 1
Ethylene < 1
Acetylene < 1
Propane < 1
Propylene < 1
Carbon monoxide 67
Carbon dioxide 222
Oxygen 5180
Nitrogen 23700
Table 8: A Typical DGA, caused through catalytic
effects of zinc surfaces and oil
Diagnosis: Catalytic reaction of the oil with zinc-
surfaces – no transformer fault.
Actions taken: Oil degassing. The hydrogen level sta-
bilized and showed no further increase.
Case Nr. 13: 300 MVA-, 420 kV – ST
No defective components
Fault Symptom: Increasing hydrogen content
Detected by: Online hydrogen sensor (M)
History:
A 400kV/300MVA grid coupling transformer was put
into operation after repair with a new active part and in-
stallation of an on-line monitoring system. After com-
missioning the content of hydrogen detected by the on-
line monitoring system increased continuously (Fig. 9).
An increase of oil temperature by special control of the
cooling unit revealed that the concentration of hydrogen
is only dependent on the oil temperature. A correlation
with the load factor k could not be detected. Therefore,
an abnormal condition like partial discharges or hot

12. 12-13
spots due to load current could not be possible. The rea-
son for the generation of hydrogen is due to chemical
reactions of the new transformer oil [10]. This behav-
iour during a transformer’s initial operating period has
become apparent as on-line monitoring has become
common, and it has probably always occurred. Gas for-
mation is most apparent in highly refined oils, probably
because the hydrogen and hydrocarbon radicals there
cannot react with any unstable structures, since there are
no such structures. Also zinc in the pipes of the cooling
unit can cause such an increase of hydrogen. An off-line
dissolved gas analysis (DGA) to determine the concen-
tration of the other components dissolved in the oil indi-
cated no further gases than hydrogen. So evaluation of
several variables by the monitoring system revealed that
the generation of hydrogen is caused by chemical reac-
tions and therefore in this case uncritical.
Fig. 9 : Hydrogen content dependent on top oil tem-
perature
In Chapter 4 we presented 11 different defective and
faulty cases, which could clearly be identified by the
existing diagnostic procedures.
The two cases given here as example Nr. 12 and Nr.
13 are of peculiar nature and cannot readily be diag-
nosed without profound knowledge of physics and
chemical processes.
The catalytic effects/interactions of highly hydro-
treated oils with enamels/paints must always be consid-
ered as a possible source of interference of both DGA
and oil analysis results.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER
INVESTIGATIONS
Despite of the successful diagnosis, presented above,
we still see the need for continued research to establish
loss of life or to determine remaining life. The DP (De-
gree of Polymerization) is the best indicator for loss of
life or remaining life determination. It has, however, the
severe disadvantage, that it needs sample from within
the transformer (leads, windings etc). Most of these
samples cannot be taken from the hottest area – and are
therefore not really representative.
Possible alternatives are:
– Dielectric Response Measurements (PDc Analysis)
and
– Furan-derivate analysis.
Both methods are non-invasive and deliver excellent
information on ageing effects. However, since Furane
analysis depends highly on temperature and moisture
and PDC results are highly influenced by oil conduc-
tivity we recommend to study the various impacts in
more detail.
The ultimate goal should be to determine a correla-
tion between:
– Relative Moisture (RM) and age/loss of life (DP)
– Furane Analysis and age/loss of life (DP)
Since it always takes at least two different diagnostic
approaches to identify critical defects, we suggest to
work on the
Correlation of RM and Furane Compounds and DP-
Values.
Further efforts should also be addressed to the devel-
opment of new, more stable sensors for hydrogen and
other fault gases for on-line monitoring.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The total of 13 different cases of different faults and
non faulty conditions of power transformers and reac-
tors lead to the following conclusions:
1) The most powerful diagnostic tool is the DGA. It
may be used to identify dielectric, thermal and
chemical ageing problems.
2) Oil analysis as established in all facts is the second
most powerful diagnostic tool.
3) It normally takes 2 or more different diagnostic ap-
proaches to really identify the nature of the defect.
4) The existing diagnostic procedures are mature and
can also be used to identify defects in peripheral
components (cooling plant)

13. 13-13
5) Both off-line and on-line diagnostics can be ex-
tremely successful to avoid catastrophic and costly
outages, if applied consequently.
6) Consequent maintenance, with fingerprinting and
trend analysis and ad hoc on site diagnostic testing
are indispensable for transformer life management.
7. LITERATURE
[1] A. J. Kachler: “Diagnostic Technology for Large
Power Transformers (Fingerprints, Trend Analy-
sis from Factory to On-Site Testing)”
CIGRE SC 12 Colloquium, Sydney, October 6 -
10, 1997
[2] A. J. Kachler: On-Site Diagnosis of Power and
Special Transformers
ISEI 2002, Anaheim, California, April 2 - 5,
2000, Conference Proceedings, page 362- 367
[3] CIGRE SC 12: “Life Management Techniques
for Power Transformers”
WG 12.18 Draft 11/2002 prepared by CIGRE
WG 12.18
[4] U. Gäfverts: “Modelling of Dielectric Measure-
ments on Power G. Frimpong Transformers”
CIGRE SC 15-103, Sept. 1998
[5] T. Leibfried, A. J. Kachler: Insulation Diagnostic
on Power Transformers using Polarisation and
Depolarisation Current (PDC)
Analysis 2002 IEEE International Symposium on
Electrical Insulation Boston, Mass. USA, April 7
- 10, 2002 Conf. Proceeding, pp. 170 - 173
[6] T. Leibfried, A. J. Kachler et. al.:“Ageing and
Moisture Analysis of Power Transformer Insula-
tion System”
CIGRE 2002, SC 12, Pa. 12-101
[7] I. Höhlein. H. Lütke, A. J. Kachler:“Transformer
Ageing Research on Furanic Compounds Dis-
solved in Insulating Oil”,
CIGRE Session 2002, pa. No. 15-302 Conf. Pro-
ceedings
[8] A. Krämer, H. Maier, F. Flottmeyer: “On Site
Determination of the Condition of On-Load Tap
Changer Contacts if a Hot Spot Has Been Indi-
cated by Gas-in-Oil Analysis in Power Trans-
formers”,
CIGRE 1994, pa. 12 - 205
[9] V. Sokolov et al: Transformer Fluid: “A Power-
ful Tool for the Life Management of an Ageing
Transformer Population”,
EuroTechCon 2001, p. 211.
[10] K. Sundkvist: “Oil Dependant Gas Formation in
Transformer Oil”, Naphthenics, 1, p. 10, 2002.
[11] S. Tenbohlen, M. Stach et al.: “Assessment of
Overload Capacity of Power Transformers by on-
line Monitoring Systems”,
IEEE PES Winter Meeting, Columbus, Ohio,
2001
[12] S. Tenbohlen, M. Stach et al.: “Experience-
Based Evaluation of Benefits of On-line Moni-
toring Systems for Power Transformers”,
CIGRE Session 2002, paper 12-110, Paris, 2002
[13] S. Tenbohlen et al.: “Enhanced Diagnosis of
Power Transformers using On- and Off-line
Methods: Results, Examples and Future Trends”,
CIGRE Session 2000, paper 12-204, Paris, 2000.