2) Multiple types of epistasis can affect the same phenotype- In the c.docx
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2) Multiple types of epistasis can affect the same phenotype. In the corn lab, you were introduced to the aleurone, a protective shell around the kernel that can be red, purple or colorless. If the aleurone is colorless, then the kernel is the color of the endosperm, which can be either yellow or white. There are three genes that determine whether the aleurone is colored: C , R and I , each of which has dominant alleles ( C , R , I ) and recessive alleles ( c , r , i ) . If any of these genes have a colorless genotype, the aleurone is colorless, but if all three genes have a colored genotype, the aleurone is colored. The colored allele is dominant for the C and R genes, which means that either cc or rr will produce a colorless aleurone, regardless of the genotype for the other loci. However, the colorless allele for the I gene is dominant, meaning that either II or Ii genotypes have colorless aleurones, regardless of the C and R genotypes. This means that only corn kernals that are C R ii will have colored aleurones. If the aleurone is colored, then that color is the color of the kernel, as the endosperm cannot be seen. The aleurone's color is determined by the P locus, where the purple P allele is dominant to the red p allele. If the aleurone is colorless, then the endosperm's color can be seen, which determines the color of the kernel. The endosperm's color is determined by the Y locus, where the yellow Y allele is dominant to the white y allele. Suppose you crossed two corn plants: the seed plant was heterozygous for all five loci while the pollen plant was homozygous for all five: Cc Rr Ii Pp Yy. x cc RR ii pp yy This cross can produce kernels that are purple or red (if the aleurone is colored), as well as kernels that are yellow or white (if the aleurone is colorless). 2) What are the expected proportions of kernel colors that would be produced by this cross? Show your work. (Hint: you might do two branch diagrams: one to calculate colored versus colorless, and then use that result as the first node of a second branch diagram to salculate puyple/red yersus yellow/white.) (10 pts) Scanned with CamScanner .
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2) Redundant Epistasis is when multiple genes can produce the same tra.docx
2) Redundant Epistasis is when multiple genes can produce the same trait. In the com lab, you were introduced to the aleurone, a protective shell around the kernel that can be red, purple or colorless. If it is colorless, then the kernel displays the color of the endosperm, which can be yellow or white. There are three genes that determine whether the aleurone is colored: C , R and I , each of which has dominant alleles ( C , R , I ) and recessive alleles ( c , r , i ) . If any of these genes have a colorless genotype, the aleurone is colorless, but if all three genes have a colored genotype, the aleurone is colored. The colored allele is dominant for the C and R genes, which means that either cc or will produce a colorless aleurone, regardless of the genotype for the other loci. However, the colorless allele for the I gene is dominant, meaning that either I or If genotypes have colorless aleurones, regardless of the other loci. This means that only com kernels that are C R ii will have colored aleurones. If the aleurone is colored, then its color is the color of the kernel, as the endosperm cannot be seen. The aleurone's color is determined by the P locus, where the purple P allele is completely dominant to the red p allele. If the aleurone is colorless, then the endosperm's color can be seen, which determines the color of the kernel. The endosperm's color is determined by the Y locus, where the yellow Y allele is completely dominant to the white y allele. Suppose you self-fertilized a com plant that was heterozygous for all five loci. The corn cobs from this plant can produce kernels that are yellow, white, red or purple. CcRr Ii Pp Yy 2a) What are the expected phenotype proportions for the kernels produced by this plant? (Hint: to make this calculation easier, you might do two branch diagrams, one to calculate colored versus colorless, and then use that result as the first node of a second branch diagram to calculate purple/red versus yellow/white.). (10 pts)
.
please answer all questions to the activites- The study of genetics an.docx
please answer all questions to the activites.
The study of genetics and inheritance is concerned with understanding the biological properties that are transmitted from parent to offspring. Mendel's work resulted in the two laws of inheritance: (1) the Law of Segregation and (2) the Law of Independent Assortment. Exercise 1- Law of Segregation COVh A In Mendel's experiments in pea plants, he observed seven traits of the plants including height, pea shape, pea color and observed that these traits had two easily recognizable forms (tall versus short plants, round versus wrinkled peas, and yellow versus green peas). Each of these variant forms of the same gene (tall vs. short) we now referred to as alleles. Mendel found that when studying crosses of plants and observing one trait (plant height) using monohybrid crosses, the alleles of the gene segregate from one another when gametes are formed. The law of segregation results from the separation of homologous chromosomes and, thus, alleles during meiosis. The subsequent random fertilization of gametes results in the predicted ratios observed in monohybrid crosses. In a monohybrid cross, one pair of alleles is studied. If both parents are homozygous, with one parent homozygous dominant and the other parent homozygous recessive, the first generation will be heterozygous exhibiting the dominant phenotype. As Mendel demonstrated, 75% of the second generation (F2) offspring will have the dominant phenotype and 25% the recessive phenotype (a 3:1 ratio). This prediction can be validated using the chi-square statistical test. In corn (Zea mays), for our purposes, the inheritance of the seed (kernel) color can be considered to be a single gene, with one pair of alleles (purple vs. yellow). The purple color allele is dominant, and the yellow allele is recessive. Note: For genetic accuracy, the color-determining pigments are found in the aleurone coating of the endosperm, which can be colorless, purple, or red, and in the endosperm proper, which is yellow or white. Color production is subject to epistasis and modification by other genes. In this exercise you will collect data from the second-generation ( F 2 ) offspring of a monohybrid cross. P 1 Parental Generation Procedure: 1. Obtain one (1) ear of monohybrid corn per group. 2. Count at least 20 seeds total on the ear of corn, recording how many of the seeds are purple and how many of the seeds are yellow in Table 1 below. 3. Record your totals on the classroom whiteboard. 4. You can now test the validity of your (THE CLASS) data using the chi-square test. The chi-square is a relatively simple mathematical calculation that can determine how well the observed experimental results (the actual count) correspond to the theoretical prediction (the expected results). The formula for the chi-square calculation is: x 2 = e 1 ( o 1 e 1 ) 2 + e 2 ( o 2 e 2 ) 2 = x 2 = the symbol for the term, chi-square 0 = observed count (number) ( o 1 = the purple seeds, o 2 = ye.
Non-Mendelian_Genetics.pptx
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This document discusses multiple alleles, which are two or more alternative forms of a gene that occupy the same locus on homologous chromosomes. It provides examples of traits determined by multiple alleles, including coat color in rabbits (with alleles for agouti, chinchilla, himalayan, and albino), human blood groups (A, B, AB, and O alleles), eye color in fruit flies (with alleles producing shades from red to white), and feather patterns in ducks. The relationship between genotypes and resulting phenotypes is explained for each example. The document also briefly discusses self-sterility in plants as another example of multiple alleles.
Multiple Alleles
Features of multiple alleles. The same genes have more than two alleles. All multiple alleles in homologous chromosomes occupy the respective loci. A chromosome or gamete only has one group allele. Each human contains only two separate gene alleles, one for each homologous pair of chromosomes carrying the gene.
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The document discusses several examples of gene interactions:
1) In peppers, genes for red pigment (R) and chlorophyll decomposition (C) interact to produce red, brown, yellow, or green peppers depending on the genotype.
2) In chickens, genes for comb shape (R, r and P, p) interact to determine walnut, rose, pea, or single comb types.
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2) Redundant Epistasis is when multiple genes can produce the same tra.docx
2) Redundant Epistasis is when multiple genes can produce the same trait. In the com lab, you were introduced to the aleurone, a protective shell around the kernel that can be red, purple or colorless. If it is colorless, then the kernel displays the color of the endosperm, which can be yellow or white. There are three genes that determine whether the aleurone is colored: C , R and I , each of which has dominant alleles ( C , R , I ) and recessive alleles ( c , r , i ) . If any of these genes have a colorless genotype, the aleurone is colorless, but if all three genes have a colored genotype, the aleurone is colored. The colored allele is dominant for the C and R genes, which means that either cc or will produce a colorless aleurone, regardless of the genotype for the other loci. However, the colorless allele for the I gene is dominant, meaning that either I or If genotypes have colorless aleurones, regardless of the other loci. This means that only com kernels that are C R ii will have colored aleurones. If the aleurone is colored, then its color is the color of the kernel, as the endosperm cannot be seen. The aleurone's color is determined by the P locus, where the purple P allele is completely dominant to the red p allele. If the aleurone is colorless, then the endosperm's color can be seen, which determines the color of the kernel. The endosperm's color is determined by the Y locus, where the yellow Y allele is completely dominant to the white y allele. Suppose you self-fertilized a com plant that was heterozygous for all five loci. The corn cobs from this plant can produce kernels that are yellow, white, red or purple. CcRr Ii Pp Yy 2a) What are the expected phenotype proportions for the kernels produced by this plant? (Hint: to make this calculation easier, you might do two branch diagrams, one to calculate colored versus colorless, and then use that result as the first node of a second branch diagram to calculate purple/red versus yellow/white.). (10 pts)
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please answer all questions to the activites- The study of genetics an.docx
please answer all questions to the activites.
The study of genetics and inheritance is concerned with understanding the biological properties that are transmitted from parent to offspring. Mendel's work resulted in the two laws of inheritance: (1) the Law of Segregation and (2) the Law of Independent Assortment. Exercise 1- Law of Segregation COVh A In Mendel's experiments in pea plants, he observed seven traits of the plants including height, pea shape, pea color and observed that these traits had two easily recognizable forms (tall versus short plants, round versus wrinkled peas, and yellow versus green peas). Each of these variant forms of the same gene (tall vs. short) we now referred to as alleles. Mendel found that when studying crosses of plants and observing one trait (plant height) using monohybrid crosses, the alleles of the gene segregate from one another when gametes are formed. The law of segregation results from the separation of homologous chromosomes and, thus, alleles during meiosis. The subsequent random fertilization of gametes results in the predicted ratios observed in monohybrid crosses. In a monohybrid cross, one pair of alleles is studied. If both parents are homozygous, with one parent homozygous dominant and the other parent homozygous recessive, the first generation will be heterozygous exhibiting the dominant phenotype. As Mendel demonstrated, 75% of the second generation (F2) offspring will have the dominant phenotype and 25% the recessive phenotype (a 3:1 ratio). This prediction can be validated using the chi-square statistical test. In corn (Zea mays), for our purposes, the inheritance of the seed (kernel) color can be considered to be a single gene, with one pair of alleles (purple vs. yellow). The purple color allele is dominant, and the yellow allele is recessive. Note: For genetic accuracy, the color-determining pigments are found in the aleurone coating of the endosperm, which can be colorless, purple, or red, and in the endosperm proper, which is yellow or white. Color production is subject to epistasis and modification by other genes. In this exercise you will collect data from the second-generation ( F 2 ) offspring of a monohybrid cross. P 1 Parental Generation Procedure: 1. Obtain one (1) ear of monohybrid corn per group. 2. Count at least 20 seeds total on the ear of corn, recording how many of the seeds are purple and how many of the seeds are yellow in Table 1 below. 3. Record your totals on the classroom whiteboard. 4. You can now test the validity of your (THE CLASS) data using the chi-square test. The chi-square is a relatively simple mathematical calculation that can determine how well the observed experimental results (the actual count) correspond to the theoretical prediction (the expected results). The formula for the chi-square calculation is: x 2 = e 1 ( o 1 e 1 ) 2 + e 2 ( o 2 e 2 ) 2 = x 2 = the symbol for the term, chi-square 0 = observed count (number) ( o 1 = the purple seeds, o 2 = ye.
Non-Mendelian_Genetics.pptx
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2. Non-Mendelian inheritance patterns like incomplete dominance and codominance are explained. In incomplete dominance, the heterozygous phenotype is a blending of the two homozygous phenotypes. In codominance, both alleles are expressed equally in the heterozygote.
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Multiple Alleles
Features of multiple alleles. The same genes have more than two alleles. All multiple alleles in homologous chromosomes occupy the respective loci. A chromosome or gamete only has one group allele. Each human contains only two separate gene alleles, one for each homologous pair of chromosomes carrying the gene.
More than two alternative alleles of a gene are known as multiple alleles in a population occupying the same locus on a chromosome or its homologue. ... Multiple alleles express various alternatives of one trait. Different alleles can exhibit codominance, dominance-recessive behaviour or incomplete dominance.
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The document discusses several examples of gene interactions:
1) In peppers, genes for red pigment (R) and chlorophyll decomposition (C) interact to produce red, brown, yellow, or green peppers depending on the genotype.
2) In chickens, genes for comb shape (R, r and P, p) interact to determine walnut, rose, pea, or single comb types.
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51 Mendelian Gene cs Lab 5 52 La.docx
51
Mendelian Gene cs
Lab 5
52
Lab 5: Mendelian Gene cs
53
Introduc on
In 1866, Gregor Mendel, an Austrian Monk, published a paper en tled “Experiments in plant hybridiza-
on”. It went largely unno ced un l 1900 when it was rediscovered and subsequently became the
basis for what we now refer to as Mendelian Gene cs.
Mendel was the Þrst to recognize:
Inherited characters are determined by speciÞc factors (now recognized these as genes).
These factors occur in pairs (genes).
When both alleles of a gene are the same they are said to be homozygous, while if they are di erent
they are said to be heterozygous. When gametes form, these factors segregate so that each gamete
contains only one allele for each gene. Remember, alleles reside on the chromosomes that are divid-
ing. These original observa ons lead to what we now refer to as The law of segrega on and the law of
independent assortment.
Figure 1: Law of Segrega on
Concepts to explore:
Gregor Mendel
Law of segrega on
Homozygous
Heterozygous
Independent assortment
Dominant vs. recessive
Incomplete dominance
Co-dominance
Genotype
Phenotype
Monohybrid cross
Dihybrid cross
Punne square
Lab 5: Mendelian Gene cs
54
The law of segrega on states that during
meiosis, homologous (paired) chromo-
somes split (Figure 1). The law of inde-
pendent assortment states that during
meiosis, each homologous chromosome
has an equal chance of ending up in ei-
ther gamete, and alleles for individual
genes segregate with the chromosomes
on which they are located (Figure 2).
Using corn as an example (Figure 2):
The large chromosome has the gene for kernel color (Y = yellow, y = blue).
The small chromosome has the gene for kernel texture (S = smooth (green); s = wrinkled (red)).
When a dominant allele is present, that characteris c is expressed, regardless of the second allele. In
this case both the Yy and YY o spring will be yellow.
A recessive allele is only expressed when both alleles are recessive. In this case only the yy combina-
on is blue. The dominant allele is always represented by capital le ers, while the recessive is repre-
sented by lower case le ers.
Genotype refers to the combina on of alleles for a par cular trait. Phenotype refers to the appear-
ance of that combina on of alleles. In our example, the genotype of the diploid cell is Yy, Ss, while the
phenotype is Yellow and Smooth.
Figure 2: Law of Independent Assortment
Figure 3: Monohybrid Cross
Punne Square F1
Lab 5: Mendelian Gene cs
55
Alleles can exhibit incomplete dominance and co-dominance. An example of incomplete dominance is
the cross of two plants, one with red ßowers and one with white, whose o spring have pink ßowers.
In the case of codominance, the same cross would result in red and white striped ßowers.
If we know the genotype of two parents we can.
Mendelian genetics
This document discusses key concepts in genetics including loci, alleles, genotypes, phenotypes, Mendelian inheritance patterns, blood types, sex determination, and examples of inherited illnesses. It provides examples of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses in peas and explains the expected inheritance ratios. It also discusses karyotype, environmental and genetic factors that can determine sex.
QUANTITATIVE INHERITANCE SMG
A general account of Quantitative (Multiple factor or Polygenic) Inheritance; Examples : Kernel colour in Wheat, Ear size (Cob length ) in Maize(Zea mays) ; Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Inheritance
Genetics Notes
1. The document explains genetic crosses and Mendelian inheritance through examples of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses in pea plants.
2. It discusses key genetics concepts like genotype, phenotype, probability, Punnett squares, and inheritance patterns like complete dominance, incomplete dominance, and codominance.
3. As an example, a monohybrid cross between a homozygous dominant purple pea plant and a homozygous recessive white pea plant would result in all heterozygous purple offspring.
A- Mendelian Genetics Questions 1- In pea plants a purple flower (P) i.docx
A. Mendelian Genetics Questions 1. In pea plants a purple flower ( P ) is dominant and a white flower ( p ) is recessive. a. What is the genotype of a pure hreeding white plant? b. If a pure brecding purple plant is crossed with at pure breeding white plant, what phenotype is expected for the offspring? 2. In pea plants a tall plant (T) is deminant and a short plant ( t ) is recessive. a. Use a Punnett square to show the cross between two heterory gous tall plants. Parent genotypes: b. What would be the predicted genotype and phenotype ratios of the offipping? Cieastype Matid Fhrefype Matie 3. In hamsters, black hair ( B ) is dominant to brosin hair (b) and shott hair (H) is dominant to long hair (h). A black, long-haired hamster (Bbhh) is erossed with a brown, short-haired hamster (bbHh). a. What pereentage of the offspring will be brown with long hair? Use a Punnett square to show the genotype and phenotype ratios of the offspring. 4. In rabbits, white coaf color ( C a ) and black coat color ( C A ) are codominant, and both of these alleles are dominant over albino (c). Helerovygotes ( C C ) are spored. c. Use a Punnet square to show the genocype and phenotype ratios of the oflspring from a heterorygous black-coated rabbit and a bornorygous white-coated rabbit. Wivary or Rot Panoyer Rosit 5. In plants known as "four d'elocks", the allele for red fower color is incompletely deminast over the allele for white flower coloe. Heterorygous pink flewered four "elocks were allowed to self-pollinate. c. Use a Punnett square to show the genotype and phcnotype ratios of the offlspring. d. In theory, what pereeti of the offipping would be penk? Perecntage pink? 6. Skin color in humans is determined by a (ctadient fult itr the blanti). inberitance system, possibly involving as many as 9 genes. For simplicity let ins consider the inflwence of 2 genes: A and B , where the dominant allele (upper case A or B) darkens skin colot. Suppose a woman who is AABb reprodnces with a man who is Aabb: b. List all of the possible genetypes of the pametes that could be produced by each parent. c. Use a Punnet square to show the genathpe ratio of the oflispring.
.
4.5 Theoretical Genetics
This document provides an overview of theoretical genetics concepts including:
1) It defines key genetics terms and concepts discovered by Gregor Mendel through his pea plant experiments, including genes, alleles, dominance, segregation, and Punnett squares.
2) It explains Mendel's principles of inheritance including segregation and independent assortment of alleles and how this determines genotype and phenotype probabilities.
3) It discusses extensions of Mendelian genetics including co-dominance, multiple alleles, genetic linkage, sex-linkage, and examples like blood types and hemophilia.
Genetics
Genetic crosses can be used to predict the likelihood of offspring inheriting different traits from their parents. A monohybrid cross looks at inheritance of one trait, while a dihybrid cross examines two traits. Punnett squares are used to display all possible combinations of alleles from each parent. For monohybrid crosses involving homozygous parents, the offspring will all be heterozygous. Dihybrid crosses have multiple genotype and phenotype ratios depending on if the parents are homozygous or heterozygous.
Introduction to Genetics.pptx
This document provides an overview of genetics and Punnett squares. It defines key genetic terms like allele, genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits. It explains that Gregor Mendel first observed inheritance of traits by breeding pea plants. His work led to the understanding that traits are passed from parents to offspring via discrete units later known as genes. The document then demonstrates how to set up and use a Punnett square to predict offspring ratios for genetic crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles. It provides several examples calculating expected phenotypes from genotype combinations.
Punnett-Square.ppt
This document provides an overview of genetics and Punnett squares. It defines key genetic terms like allele, genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits. It explains that Gregor Mendel first observed inheritance of traits by breeding pea plants. The document then demonstrates how to set up and use a Punnett square to predict offspring ratios for genetic crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles. Several examples of Punnett squares are worked through for traits like flower color, eye color, and height in pea plants.
Introduction-to-Genetics.ppt
This document provides an overview of genetics and Punnett squares. It defines key genetic terms like allele, genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits. It explains that Gregor Mendel first observed inheritance of traits by breeding pea plants. The document then demonstrates how to set up and use a Punnett square to predict offspring ratios for genetic crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles. Several examples of Punnett squares are worked through for traits like flower color, eye color, and height in pea plants.
Introduction-to-Genetics power point presentation
This document provides an overview of genetics and Punnett squares. It defines key genetic terms like allele, genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits. It explains that Gregor Mendel first observed inheritance of traits by breeding pea plants. His work led to the understanding that traits are passed from parents to offspring via discrete units later known as genes. The document then demonstrates how to set up and use a Punnett square to predict offspring ratios for genetic crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles. It provides several examples calculating expected phenotypes from genotype combinations.
Biology 103 Laboratory Exercise – Genetic Problems .docx
Biology 103 Laboratory Exercise – Genetic Problems
Introduction
Although the science of genetics has become a highly sophisticated discipline dealing
with the interactions of hereditary factors at the molecular level, it has its roots in the
basic laws of heredity initially discovered and presented by Gregor Mendel more than
one hundred years ago. Mendel's success in discovering these laws was due largely to his
application of the simple rules of mathematical probability - the laws of chance - to his
observations concerning the inheritance of certain characteristics in the garden pea plant.
Reginald Punnett and the Punnett Square
The Punnett square is a diagram used by biologists to determine genotypic probability
within the offspring from a particular genetic cross. The Punnett square shows every
possible genotypic combination of maternal alleles with the paternal alleles for a genetic
cross. Punnett squares only give probabilities for genotypes, not phenotypes. The square
diagram was designed by the British geneticist, Reginald Punnett (1865-1967) and first
presented to the science community in 1905. Punnett’s Mendelism (1905) is considered
the first popular science book to introduce genetics to the public.
Solving Genetic Problems
R
R'
R
RR RR'
R'
RR' R'R'
Maternal alleles
A
A
a
Aa
Aa
Paternal
Alleles
a
Aa
Aa
The first step in solving a genetic problem is to establish the genetic symbols you will use
in your problem solution. Stay consistent by using these same symbols throughout the
problem solving process.
Represent dominant and recessive alleles (different forms of a gene) using traditional
genetic symbols. Dominant alleles should be represented with the capital version of an
alphabetic letter while using the lower case version to show recessiveness. For example:
B = black color, b = white color.
Each individual gene or trait is diploid (2n) in nature and therefore, must be represented
with two alleles. Continuing with the alleles mentioned previously, an individual may
have the genetic makeup BB, Bb, or bb when using those alleles.
Remember that gametes (sperm and egg) are haploid (n) and can only provide one allele
per trait. For example: B or b
An individual’s genotype contains the possible gametes that can be expected to be
produced by that individual. Much of genetics revolves around the probability of the
makeup of gametes. If the individual is homozygous, all of the gametes produced will
possess the same kind of allele. For example, an individual with the genotype BB would
be expected to produce only B gametes and individuals with genotype bb would produce
only b gametes.
If the individual is heterozygous, that is the individual’s genotype contains one dominant
allele and one recessive allele (Bb), the gametes produced will possess one or the other of
the two forms of the gene – B or b. ...
What Is Inheritance
The document discusses inheritance and genetics. It defines key terms like genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous, and dominant and recessive alleles. It explains that chromosomes contain DNA and are passed from parents to offspring, determining characteristics. Offspring get one set of chromosomes from each parent through fertilization, forming a zygote with a full set from the species. Genes located on chromosomes control inherited traits and can be dominant or recessive.
BI 211 Graded problem set 9 The drosophila alleles for black.pdf
BI 211 Graded problem set 9 The drosophila alleles for black body (instead of the normal tan
color, which is the wild type) and curved Wings (instead of the wild-type straight wings) are both
recessive and on chromosome 2. Gene "C" designates color, with alleles C representing the
dominant tan allele and c representing the recessive black allele, while gene " W " designates the
wing shape gene with W being the dominant straight allele and w the recessive curved allele. You
want to discover how close together these two genes are on chromosome 2. You place one male
from a pure breeding stock and one female from a pure breeding stock (these are the 'parental'
flies) into vial 1. The offspring of this cross (cross 1) hatch in vial 1 . These F1 offspring are
heterozygous for both genes. 1. What is (are) the genotype(s) of the offspring of cross 1 (the F1
flies)? b. To perform the mapping experiment, you select a single male with the genotype coww
and place it into a vial you label 'vial 2' along with a female F1; this is cross 2 . You get 500
offspring in vial 2 (these are the F2 fies). Among these F2 flies, 65 have tan bodies and curved
wings, 70 have black bodies and straight wings, 190 have black bodies and curved wings, and 175
have tan bodies and straight wings. What are the genotypes of offspring with parental phenotypes
(hint there are twol). Show your work. c. What are the genotypes of the recombinant offspring
(hint: there are also twol). d. Two true breeding parents (parents of cross 1) gave rise to the F 1
flies in vial 1. What is the genotype of each parent? parent 1: parent 2: e. What is the percent of
recombinants for these two genes? Show your work..
Genetics non mendelian
This document discusses several patterns of inheritance beyond simple dominant and recessive traits. It describes incomplete dominance, where the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes. Codominance is defined as when both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote without blending. Multiple alleles exist for some traits, where more than two alleles determine the phenotype. Sex linkage is explained, where traits are inherited through genes on the X or Y chromosomes. Polygenic traits are influenced by multiple gene pairs and are usually continuous traits like height or skin color that are also affected by environment.
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tgat is everything
b. Draw a Punnett square to illustrate a crons between a birch hetenomygous for bark colour and
trunk searring and a birch homory 6 ous recevise for both characteristios Give the rerulting
genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the offspring of this cross. c. After prealatigg the results of the
cross in part b. the actual cross between these white birch was carried out and resulted in the
following numbers of offspring: 92 white bark, scarred trunk 96 grey bark, unscarred trunk 5 white
bark, unscarred trunk 7 grey bark, scarred trunk Calculate the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of
these offispring- How do these results compare to your predicted ratios above? You began this
question with the assumption that the genes responsible for bark colour and trunk scarring were
locared on separate chromosomes. Do the observed results support this assumption? Explain
what these results mean and why you can make that conclusion. 8. A local farmer, plagued by
roving herbivores, has decided to befriend a new herd of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus
vinginiamus). Having taken a number of genetics courses during his Agriculture degree, the farmer
decides to observe the heritability of a couple of phenotypic traits. In these deer, a white patch on
the chest (R) is dominant to not having a patch ( r, and white spots along their side (T) are
dominant to no spots(t). After a particularly hot summer, the farmer notices a new male deer in the
area that looks to have been trapped by a forest fire- it's fur is badly singed, and none of the
typical colouration is visible.Based on this, what are the genorypes of the gametes from an
organism with the genotype QqRr ? Trae or False: These gametes will all be equally likely. 4.
What are the two uses for a test cross? 3. a. 5. Give an example of a phenotypic frequency: 6.
Give an cxample of a genotypic ratio: 7. In White birch (Bernila papyrifena, a species of tree),
white bark (B) is dominant to grey bark (b), and the presence of black trunk scars (E) is dominant
to an unscarred trunk (e). a. Assuming that these genes are located on separate chromosomes,
draw a Punnett square to illustrate a cross between a birch homozygous for white bark and a
scarred trunk and a birch with grey bark and unscarred trunk. What are the resulting genotype and
phenotype of the F1 ?Give the realting genotypic and phenotypie ratios of the offipring of this
crows. c. After prraictivg the results of the cross in part b, the actual cross between theie. white
birch was carried out and reulied in the following number of otfopring 92 white bark, scurred trunk
96 grcy bark, unscarred trunk 5 white bark, unscarred trunk 7 grey bark, scarrod trunk Calculate
the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of theie offspring. How do these remults compare to your
predicted ratios above? You began this question with the assamption that the genes responsible
for bark colour and trunk scarring were located on separate chromosomes. Do the observed
resalis sup.
Genetics
Inheritance is the study of heredity, or the passing of traits from parents to offspring. Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s and formulated the fundamental laws of heredity. Genes located on chromosomes control characteristics and are inherited in pairs, with one gene from each parent. Genes come in different forms called alleles, which can be dominant or recessive. Genetic crosses using Punnett squares can predict the inheritance of traits in offspring based on the alleles present in the parents.
Polygenic inheritance
This PPT consists of 24 slides explaining Polygenic Inheritance . Some traits are controlled by two or more genes. These traits differ from Mendelian traits and donot show discrete alternative or contrasting forms and show continuous ranges. Examples of such traits are wheat seed colour, plant height, Human skin colour controlled by at least three genes showing many shades of dark and fare, human height, human eye colour etc
Study guide genetics
The document provides definitions and examples for several key genetics terms:
- A human baby's sex is determined by its chromosome makeup - XX for female and XY for male.
- Gregor Mendel is considered the father of genetics. He was an Austrian monk who studied inheritance patterns in pea plants.
- Incomplete dominance is exemplified by variations in coat color seen in purebred dogs and horses.
- A Punnett square uses capital letters to represent dominant alleles and predicts possible genotypes of offspring.
- Polygenic inheritance involves more than two alleles controlling a trait, like eye and skin color in humans.
Biology Form 5 Chapter 5 : 5.1 Inheritance
- Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s and is considered the founder of genetics. Through his experiments, he discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance.
- Mendel determined that traits are passed from parents to offspring through "factors" that we now know as genes. His laws of inheritance include dominance, segregation, and independent assortment.
- Mendel's work formed the basis for understanding how traits are inherited and laid the foundation for modern genetics.
2- Suppose P(AB)-P(ABc)- Are A and B independent-.docx
A and B are not necessarily independent if P(A|B) = P(A|B,C). For A and B to be independent, the probability of A must not depend on whether or not B occurs, or any other events. Since P(A|B) could equal P(A|B,C) without A and B being independent, additional context is needed to determine if they are independent based on the given information.
2- Show that the first least squares assumption- E(uiXi)-0- implies th (2).docx
The document shows that the first least squares assumption that the expected value of the error term ui given the independent variables Xi is equal to 0 implies that the expected value of the dependent variable Yi given Xi is equal to the predicted value from the regression line β0 + β1Xi.
More Related Content
Similar to 2) Multiple types of epistasis can affect the same phenotype- In the c.docx
51 Mendelian Gene cs Lab 5 52 La.docx
51
Mendelian Gene cs
Lab 5
52
Lab 5: Mendelian Gene cs
53
Introduc on
In 1866, Gregor Mendel, an Austrian Monk, published a paper en tled “Experiments in plant hybridiza-
on”. It went largely unno ced un l 1900 when it was rediscovered and subsequently became the
basis for what we now refer to as Mendelian Gene cs.
Mendel was the Þrst to recognize:
Inherited characters are determined by speciÞc factors (now recognized these as genes).
These factors occur in pairs (genes).
When both alleles of a gene are the same they are said to be homozygous, while if they are di erent
they are said to be heterozygous. When gametes form, these factors segregate so that each gamete
contains only one allele for each gene. Remember, alleles reside on the chromosomes that are divid-
ing. These original observa ons lead to what we now refer to as The law of segrega on and the law of
independent assortment.
Figure 1: Law of Segrega on
Concepts to explore:
Gregor Mendel
Law of segrega on
Homozygous
Heterozygous
Independent assortment
Dominant vs. recessive
Incomplete dominance
Co-dominance
Genotype
Phenotype
Monohybrid cross
Dihybrid cross
Punne square
Lab 5: Mendelian Gene cs
54
The law of segrega on states that during
meiosis, homologous (paired) chromo-
somes split (Figure 1). The law of inde-
pendent assortment states that during
meiosis, each homologous chromosome
has an equal chance of ending up in ei-
ther gamete, and alleles for individual
genes segregate with the chromosomes
on which they are located (Figure 2).
Using corn as an example (Figure 2):
The large chromosome has the gene for kernel color (Y = yellow, y = blue).
The small chromosome has the gene for kernel texture (S = smooth (green); s = wrinkled (red)).
When a dominant allele is present, that characteris c is expressed, regardless of the second allele. In
this case both the Yy and YY o spring will be yellow.
A recessive allele is only expressed when both alleles are recessive. In this case only the yy combina-
on is blue. The dominant allele is always represented by capital le ers, while the recessive is repre-
sented by lower case le ers.
Genotype refers to the combina on of alleles for a par cular trait. Phenotype refers to the appear-
ance of that combina on of alleles. In our example, the genotype of the diploid cell is Yy, Ss, while the
phenotype is Yellow and Smooth.
Figure 2: Law of Independent Assortment
Figure 3: Monohybrid Cross
Punne Square F1
Lab 5: Mendelian Gene cs
55
Alleles can exhibit incomplete dominance and co-dominance. An example of incomplete dominance is
the cross of two plants, one with red ßowers and one with white, whose o spring have pink ßowers.
In the case of codominance, the same cross would result in red and white striped ßowers.
If we know the genotype of two parents we can.
Mendelian genetics
This document discusses key concepts in genetics including loci, alleles, genotypes, phenotypes, Mendelian inheritance patterns, blood types, sex determination, and examples of inherited illnesses. It provides examples of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses in peas and explains the expected inheritance ratios. It also discusses karyotype, environmental and genetic factors that can determine sex.
QUANTITATIVE INHERITANCE SMG
A general account of Quantitative (Multiple factor or Polygenic) Inheritance; Examples : Kernel colour in Wheat, Ear size (Cob length ) in Maize(Zea mays) ; Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Inheritance
Genetics Notes
1. The document explains genetic crosses and Mendelian inheritance through examples of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses in pea plants.
2. It discusses key genetics concepts like genotype, phenotype, probability, Punnett squares, and inheritance patterns like complete dominance, incomplete dominance, and codominance.
3. As an example, a monohybrid cross between a homozygous dominant purple pea plant and a homozygous recessive white pea plant would result in all heterozygous purple offspring.
A- Mendelian Genetics Questions 1- In pea plants a purple flower (P) i.docx
A. Mendelian Genetics Questions 1. In pea plants a purple flower ( P ) is dominant and a white flower ( p ) is recessive. a. What is the genotype of a pure hreeding white plant? b. If a pure brecding purple plant is crossed with at pure breeding white plant, what phenotype is expected for the offspring? 2. In pea plants a tall plant (T) is deminant and a short plant ( t ) is recessive. a. Use a Punnett square to show the cross between two heterory gous tall plants. Parent genotypes: b. What would be the predicted genotype and phenotype ratios of the offipping? Cieastype Matid Fhrefype Matie 3. In hamsters, black hair ( B ) is dominant to brosin hair (b) and shott hair (H) is dominant to long hair (h). A black, long-haired hamster (Bbhh) is erossed with a brown, short-haired hamster (bbHh). a. What pereentage of the offspring will be brown with long hair? Use a Punnett square to show the genotype and phenotype ratios of the offspring. 4. In rabbits, white coaf color ( C a ) and black coat color ( C A ) are codominant, and both of these alleles are dominant over albino (c). Helerovygotes ( C C ) are spored. c. Use a Punnet square to show the genocype and phenotype ratios of the oflspring from a heterorygous black-coated rabbit and a bornorygous white-coated rabbit. Wivary or Rot Panoyer Rosit 5. In plants known as "four d'elocks", the allele for red fower color is incompletely deminast over the allele for white flower coloe. Heterorygous pink flewered four "elocks were allowed to self-pollinate. c. Use a Punnett square to show the genotype and phcnotype ratios of the offlspring. d. In theory, what pereeti of the offipping would be penk? Perecntage pink? 6. Skin color in humans is determined by a (ctadient fult itr the blanti). inberitance system, possibly involving as many as 9 genes. For simplicity let ins consider the inflwence of 2 genes: A and B , where the dominant allele (upper case A or B) darkens skin colot. Suppose a woman who is AABb reprodnces with a man who is Aabb: b. List all of the possible genetypes of the pametes that could be produced by each parent. c. Use a Punnet square to show the genathpe ratio of the oflispring.
.
4.5 Theoretical Genetics
This document provides an overview of theoretical genetics concepts including:
1) It defines key genetics terms and concepts discovered by Gregor Mendel through his pea plant experiments, including genes, alleles, dominance, segregation, and Punnett squares.
2) It explains Mendel's principles of inheritance including segregation and independent assortment of alleles and how this determines genotype and phenotype probabilities.
3) It discusses extensions of Mendelian genetics including co-dominance, multiple alleles, genetic linkage, sex-linkage, and examples like blood types and hemophilia.
Genetics
Genetic crosses can be used to predict the likelihood of offspring inheriting different traits from their parents. A monohybrid cross looks at inheritance of one trait, while a dihybrid cross examines two traits. Punnett squares are used to display all possible combinations of alleles from each parent. For monohybrid crosses involving homozygous parents, the offspring will all be heterozygous. Dihybrid crosses have multiple genotype and phenotype ratios depending on if the parents are homozygous or heterozygous.
Introduction to Genetics.pptx
This document provides an overview of genetics and Punnett squares. It defines key genetic terms like allele, genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits. It explains that Gregor Mendel first observed inheritance of traits by breeding pea plants. His work led to the understanding that traits are passed from parents to offspring via discrete units later known as genes. The document then demonstrates how to set up and use a Punnett square to predict offspring ratios for genetic crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles. It provides several examples calculating expected phenotypes from genotype combinations.
Punnett-Square.ppt
This document provides an overview of genetics and Punnett squares. It defines key genetic terms like allele, genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits. It explains that Gregor Mendel first observed inheritance of traits by breeding pea plants. The document then demonstrates how to set up and use a Punnett square to predict offspring ratios for genetic crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles. Several examples of Punnett squares are worked through for traits like flower color, eye color, and height in pea plants.
Introduction-to-Genetics.ppt
This document provides an overview of genetics and Punnett squares. It defines key genetic terms like allele, genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits. It explains that Gregor Mendel first observed inheritance of traits by breeding pea plants. The document then demonstrates how to set up and use a Punnett square to predict offspring ratios for genetic crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles. Several examples of Punnett squares are worked through for traits like flower color, eye color, and height in pea plants.
Introduction-to-Genetics power point presentation
This document provides an overview of genetics and Punnett squares. It defines key genetic terms like allele, genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits. It explains that Gregor Mendel first observed inheritance of traits by breeding pea plants. His work led to the understanding that traits are passed from parents to offspring via discrete units later known as genes. The document then demonstrates how to set up and use a Punnett square to predict offspring ratios for genetic crosses involving dominant and recessive alleles. It provides several examples calculating expected phenotypes from genotype combinations.
Biology 103 Laboratory Exercise – Genetic Problems .docx
Biology 103 Laboratory Exercise – Genetic Problems
Introduction
Although the science of genetics has become a highly sophisticated discipline dealing
with the interactions of hereditary factors at the molecular level, it has its roots in the
basic laws of heredity initially discovered and presented by Gregor Mendel more than
one hundred years ago. Mendel's success in discovering these laws was due largely to his
application of the simple rules of mathematical probability - the laws of chance - to his
observations concerning the inheritance of certain characteristics in the garden pea plant.
Reginald Punnett and the Punnett Square
The Punnett square is a diagram used by biologists to determine genotypic probability
within the offspring from a particular genetic cross. The Punnett square shows every
possible genotypic combination of maternal alleles with the paternal alleles for a genetic
cross. Punnett squares only give probabilities for genotypes, not phenotypes. The square
diagram was designed by the British geneticist, Reginald Punnett (1865-1967) and first
presented to the science community in 1905. Punnett’s Mendelism (1905) is considered
the first popular science book to introduce genetics to the public.
Solving Genetic Problems
R
R'
R
RR RR'
R'
RR' R'R'
Maternal alleles
A
A
a
Aa
Aa
Paternal
Alleles
a
Aa
Aa
The first step in solving a genetic problem is to establish the genetic symbols you will use
in your problem solution. Stay consistent by using these same symbols throughout the
problem solving process.
Represent dominant and recessive alleles (different forms of a gene) using traditional
genetic symbols. Dominant alleles should be represented with the capital version of an
alphabetic letter while using the lower case version to show recessiveness. For example:
B = black color, b = white color.
Each individual gene or trait is diploid (2n) in nature and therefore, must be represented
with two alleles. Continuing with the alleles mentioned previously, an individual may
have the genetic makeup BB, Bb, or bb when using those alleles.
Remember that gametes (sperm and egg) are haploid (n) and can only provide one allele
per trait. For example: B or b
An individual’s genotype contains the possible gametes that can be expected to be
produced by that individual. Much of genetics revolves around the probability of the
makeup of gametes. If the individual is homozygous, all of the gametes produced will
possess the same kind of allele. For example, an individual with the genotype BB would
be expected to produce only B gametes and individuals with genotype bb would produce
only b gametes.
If the individual is heterozygous, that is the individual’s genotype contains one dominant
allele and one recessive allele (Bb), the gametes produced will possess one or the other of
the two forms of the gene – B or b. ...
What Is Inheritance
The document discusses inheritance and genetics. It defines key terms like genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous, and dominant and recessive alleles. It explains that chromosomes contain DNA and are passed from parents to offspring, determining characteristics. Offspring get one set of chromosomes from each parent through fertilization, forming a zygote with a full set from the species. Genes located on chromosomes control inherited traits and can be dominant or recessive.
BI 211 Graded problem set 9 The drosophila alleles for black.pdf
BI 211 Graded problem set 9 The drosophila alleles for black body (instead of the normal tan
color, which is the wild type) and curved Wings (instead of the wild-type straight wings) are both
recessive and on chromosome 2. Gene "C" designates color, with alleles C representing the
dominant tan allele and c representing the recessive black allele, while gene " W " designates the
wing shape gene with W being the dominant straight allele and w the recessive curved allele. You
want to discover how close together these two genes are on chromosome 2. You place one male
from a pure breeding stock and one female from a pure breeding stock (these are the 'parental'
flies) into vial 1. The offspring of this cross (cross 1) hatch in vial 1 . These F1 offspring are
heterozygous for both genes. 1. What is (are) the genotype(s) of the offspring of cross 1 (the F1
flies)? b. To perform the mapping experiment, you select a single male with the genotype coww
and place it into a vial you label 'vial 2' along with a female F1; this is cross 2 . You get 500
offspring in vial 2 (these are the F2 fies). Among these F2 flies, 65 have tan bodies and curved
wings, 70 have black bodies and straight wings, 190 have black bodies and curved wings, and 175
have tan bodies and straight wings. What are the genotypes of offspring with parental phenotypes
(hint there are twol). Show your work. c. What are the genotypes of the recombinant offspring
(hint: there are also twol). d. Two true breeding parents (parents of cross 1) gave rise to the F 1
flies in vial 1. What is the genotype of each parent? parent 1: parent 2: e. What is the percent of
recombinants for these two genes? Show your work..
Genetics non mendelian
This document discusses several patterns of inheritance beyond simple dominant and recessive traits. It describes incomplete dominance, where the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes. Codominance is defined as when both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote without blending. Multiple alleles exist for some traits, where more than two alleles determine the phenotype. Sex linkage is explained, where traits are inherited through genes on the X or Y chromosomes. Polygenic traits are influenced by multiple gene pairs and are usually continuous traits like height or skin color that are also affected by environment.
tgat is everything b Draw a Punnett square to illustrate a.pdf
tgat is everything
b. Draw a Punnett square to illustrate a crons between a birch hetenomygous for bark colour and
trunk searring and a birch homory 6 ous recevise for both characteristios Give the rerulting
genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the offspring of this cross. c. After prealatigg the results of the
cross in part b. the actual cross between these white birch was carried out and resulted in the
following numbers of offspring: 92 white bark, scarred trunk 96 grey bark, unscarred trunk 5 white
bark, unscarred trunk 7 grey bark, scarred trunk Calculate the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of
these offispring- How do these results compare to your predicted ratios above? You began this
question with the assumption that the genes responsible for bark colour and trunk scarring were
locared on separate chromosomes. Do the observed results support this assumption? Explain
what these results mean and why you can make that conclusion. 8. A local farmer, plagued by
roving herbivores, has decided to befriend a new herd of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus
vinginiamus). Having taken a number of genetics courses during his Agriculture degree, the farmer
decides to observe the heritability of a couple of phenotypic traits. In these deer, a white patch on
the chest (R) is dominant to not having a patch ( r, and white spots along their side (T) are
dominant to no spots(t). After a particularly hot summer, the farmer notices a new male deer in the
area that looks to have been trapped by a forest fire- it's fur is badly singed, and none of the
typical colouration is visible.Based on this, what are the genorypes of the gametes from an
organism with the genotype QqRr ? Trae or False: These gametes will all be equally likely. 4.
What are the two uses for a test cross? 3. a. 5. Give an example of a phenotypic frequency: 6.
Give an cxample of a genotypic ratio: 7. In White birch (Bernila papyrifena, a species of tree),
white bark (B) is dominant to grey bark (b), and the presence of black trunk scars (E) is dominant
to an unscarred trunk (e). a. Assuming that these genes are located on separate chromosomes,
draw a Punnett square to illustrate a cross between a birch homozygous for white bark and a
scarred trunk and a birch with grey bark and unscarred trunk. What are the resulting genotype and
phenotype of the F1 ?Give the realting genotypic and phenotypie ratios of the offipring of this
crows. c. After prraictivg the results of the cross in part b, the actual cross between theie. white
birch was carried out and reulied in the following number of otfopring 92 white bark, scurred trunk
96 grcy bark, unscarred trunk 5 white bark, unscarred trunk 7 grey bark, scarrod trunk Calculate
the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of theie offspring. How do these remults compare to your
predicted ratios above? You began this question with the assamption that the genes responsible
for bark colour and trunk scarring were located on separate chromosomes. Do the observed
resalis sup.
Genetics
Inheritance is the study of heredity, or the passing of traits from parents to offspring. Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s and formulated the fundamental laws of heredity. Genes located on chromosomes control characteristics and are inherited in pairs, with one gene from each parent. Genes come in different forms called alleles, which can be dominant or recessive. Genetic crosses using Punnett squares can predict the inheritance of traits in offspring based on the alleles present in the parents.
Polygenic inheritance
This PPT consists of 24 slides explaining Polygenic Inheritance . Some traits are controlled by two or more genes. These traits differ from Mendelian traits and donot show discrete alternative or contrasting forms and show continuous ranges. Examples of such traits are wheat seed colour, plant height, Human skin colour controlled by at least three genes showing many shades of dark and fare, human height, human eye colour etc
Study guide genetics
The document provides definitions and examples for several key genetics terms:
- A human baby's sex is determined by its chromosome makeup - XX for female and XY for male.
- Gregor Mendel is considered the father of genetics. He was an Austrian monk who studied inheritance patterns in pea plants.
- Incomplete dominance is exemplified by variations in coat color seen in purebred dogs and horses.
- A Punnett square uses capital letters to represent dominant alleles and predicts possible genotypes of offspring.
- Polygenic inheritance involves more than two alleles controlling a trait, like eye and skin color in humans.
Biology Form 5 Chapter 5 : 5.1 Inheritance
- Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 1860s and is considered the founder of genetics. Through his experiments, he discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance.
- Mendel determined that traits are passed from parents to offspring through "factors" that we now know as genes. His laws of inheritance include dominance, segregation, and independent assortment.
- Mendel's work formed the basis for understanding how traits are inherited and laid the foundation for modern genetics.
Similar to 2) Multiple types of epistasis can affect the same phenotype- In the c.docx (20)
A- Mendelian Genetics Questions 1- In pea plants a purple flower (P) i.docx
A- Mendelian Genetics Questions 1- In pea plants a purple flower (P) i.docx
Biology 103 Laboratory Exercise – Genetic Problems .docx
Biology 103 Laboratory Exercise – Genetic Problems .docx
BI 211 Graded problem set 9 The drosophila alleles for black.pdf
BI 211 Graded problem set 9 The drosophila alleles for black.pdf
tgat is everything b Draw a Punnett square to illustrate a.pdf
tgat is everything b Draw a Punnett square to illustrate a.pdf
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2 3 4 IFRS requires that noncash items be disclosed in the notes t.docx
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IFRS requires that noncash items be disclosed in the notes to the financial statements. do not need to be reported. be reported in the section to which the activity relates. be reported on face of the statement of cash flows Both IFRS and GAAP require that the statement of cash flows should have three major sections-operating. investing, and financing activities-along with changes in cash and cash equivalents. True False The T-account approach to prepare a statement of cash flows requires the use of a large Cash T-account with sections for operating, investing and financing activities. The declaration of cash dividends is a cash outflow that companies report as a financing activity.
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