The document provides an overview of medieval Europe from the fall of Rome to the Renaissance. It summarizes that the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 AD due to various internal and external factors. While Rome fell, the Eastern Roman Empire continued on as the Byzantine Empire based in Constantinople. After the fall of Rome, Europe was politically fragmented with no central government and was dominated by invading Germanic tribes. Charlemagne was able to unite much of Western Europe under the Frankish Kingdom in the 9th century, which became known as the Holy Roman Empire. Feudalism developed as a political and economic system during this period characterized by a hierarchy of land ownership and obligations between lords and vassals. The
This document is a letter from the Roman governor's chancery, which was the administrative office that handled the governor's correspondence and record keeping, dated to the year AD 342. The letter likely pertains to official government business in the province and was drafted and sent out by a scribe or clerk working in the governor's chancery office.
The document discusses the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages. It cites disease (the bubonic plague) and invasions by tribes from modern-day Germany and France as contributing to the fall of Rome. This led to the emergence of a feudal system and the rise of power of the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages, a time of castles, knights, and isolated manors for protection. Important technological developments during this period included water wheels, eyeglasses, mechanical clocks, printing, and gunpowder.
The document provides an overview of the rise and fall of the Roman Empire from 509 BCE to 476 CE. It discusses the transition from Roman Republic to Roman Empire under Augustus, key emperors like Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Vespasian, and Hadrian, as well as the division of the empire into eastern and western halves under Diocletian. It also examines factors that contributed to the decline of the western empire, including invasions by barbarian tribes and the removal of the capital to Constantinople, while the eastern empire continued on as the Byzantine Empire until 1453.
1) The document discusses the history and society of the Mediterranean region under Roman rule from the 8th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.
2) It describes the founding and expansion of the Roman Republic and Empire, the establishment of Roman rule over the Mediterranean, and the integration of the region's economy and culture.
3) The passage also examines the growth and spread of religions like Christianity and mystery cults throughout the Empire during this period, as Mediterranean societies became increasingly cosmopolitan under the Pax Romana.
The document discusses the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The Roman Empire fell due to devastating disease like the bubonic plague and attacks from outside groups like the Huns. This led to the rise of the Middle Ages, where the Catholic Church became more powerful and feudal systems of government emerged. Knights protected their lands and people in exchange for food and resources under this new social hierarchy. The three sentences provide a high-level overview of the key topics and events covered in the lengthy document.
The Roman Empire fell due to a combination of political, economic, and social factors that weakened it over time. Politically, ineffective emperors and constant power struggles led to a loss of civic duty and trust in leadership. Externally, invasions by Germanic tribes and the Huns drained Rome's resources. The Plague killed many citizens, reducing the number of soldiers and farmers. This exacerbated economic troubles like inflation. As the economy declined, it became difficult for Rome to defend its vast territory and pay mercenary troops. Agricultural problems from lost land and overworked soil worsened the economic issues. Christianity also contributed to the loss of traditional Roman values and identity. The Western Empire finally collapsed in the 5th
The document discusses several ancient empires of the Middle East and Mediterranean regions that practiced slavery, including Mesopotamia, Babylonia, the Persian Empire, Byzantine Empire, China, Greece, and Rome. Slavery was an important part of the economies and labor forces of these civilizations. Slaves were typically acquired through war, piracy, debt, or heredity and worked in agriculture, mining, households, and other industries. The empires rose and fell over time, influencing the development of civilization.
This document provides context on social, economic, and political developments in Europe during the High and Late Middle Ages. It discusses the rise of cities and the merchant class in Italy, with Florence and the Medici family as an example. It also covers the growth of the middle class, increased power of monarchies, universities, the Hundred Years' War, the Black Death plague, and developments in art, architecture, and the economy in the Late Middle Ages period.
This document is a letter from the Roman governor's chancery, which was the administrative office that handled the governor's correspondence and record keeping, dated to the year AD 342. The letter likely pertains to official government business in the province and was drafted and sent out by a scribe or clerk working in the governor's chancery office.
The document discusses the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages. It cites disease (the bubonic plague) and invasions by tribes from modern-day Germany and France as contributing to the fall of Rome. This led to the emergence of a feudal system and the rise of power of the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages, a time of castles, knights, and isolated manors for protection. Important technological developments during this period included water wheels, eyeglasses, mechanical clocks, printing, and gunpowder.
The document provides an overview of the rise and fall of the Roman Empire from 509 BCE to 476 CE. It discusses the transition from Roman Republic to Roman Empire under Augustus, key emperors like Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Vespasian, and Hadrian, as well as the division of the empire into eastern and western halves under Diocletian. It also examines factors that contributed to the decline of the western empire, including invasions by barbarian tribes and the removal of the capital to Constantinople, while the eastern empire continued on as the Byzantine Empire until 1453.
1) The document discusses the history and society of the Mediterranean region under Roman rule from the 8th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.
2) It describes the founding and expansion of the Roman Republic and Empire, the establishment of Roman rule over the Mediterranean, and the integration of the region's economy and culture.
3) The passage also examines the growth and spread of religions like Christianity and mystery cults throughout the Empire during this period, as Mediterranean societies became increasingly cosmopolitan under the Pax Romana.
The document discusses the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The Roman Empire fell due to devastating disease like the bubonic plague and attacks from outside groups like the Huns. This led to the rise of the Middle Ages, where the Catholic Church became more powerful and feudal systems of government emerged. Knights protected their lands and people in exchange for food and resources under this new social hierarchy. The three sentences provide a high-level overview of the key topics and events covered in the lengthy document.
The Roman Empire fell due to a combination of political, economic, and social factors that weakened it over time. Politically, ineffective emperors and constant power struggles led to a loss of civic duty and trust in leadership. Externally, invasions by Germanic tribes and the Huns drained Rome's resources. The Plague killed many citizens, reducing the number of soldiers and farmers. This exacerbated economic troubles like inflation. As the economy declined, it became difficult for Rome to defend its vast territory and pay mercenary troops. Agricultural problems from lost land and overworked soil worsened the economic issues. Christianity also contributed to the loss of traditional Roman values and identity. The Western Empire finally collapsed in the 5th
The document discusses several ancient empires of the Middle East and Mediterranean regions that practiced slavery, including Mesopotamia, Babylonia, the Persian Empire, Byzantine Empire, China, Greece, and Rome. Slavery was an important part of the economies and labor forces of these civilizations. Slaves were typically acquired through war, piracy, debt, or heredity and worked in agriculture, mining, households, and other industries. The empires rose and fell over time, influencing the development of civilization.
This document provides context on social, economic, and political developments in Europe during the High and Late Middle Ages. It discusses the rise of cities and the merchant class in Italy, with Florence and the Medici family as an example. It also covers the growth of the middle class, increased power of monarchies, universities, the Hundred Years' War, the Black Death plague, and developments in art, architecture, and the economy in the Late Middle Ages period.
The Roman Empire declined due to internal and external factors:
- The empire was split into Western and Eastern halves in 395 CE and faced increasing political instability, corruption, and economic troubles.
- Barbarian tribes like the Visigoths and Huns put pressure on the empire's borders and some were allowed to settle inside Roman lands but later revolted.
- The Roman armies became less effective and were unable to defend against invaders or maintain control of the empire as they prioritized fighting each other over external threats.
- Epidemics spread through the population, weakening both the people and the empire's military strength. The Western Roman Empire finally fell in 476 CE.
The decline of the Roman Empire was due to economic, social, political, and military factors:
1. Economically, the empire struggled without expansion to provide new resources and taxes, facing issues like inflation, decreased grain production, and overreliance on slave labor.
2. Socially, unemployment increased as the empire stopped expanding, and many citizens grew accustomed to free bread and entertainment funded by the state treasury. The rise of Christianity also weakened traditional Roman values.
3. Politically, the imperial succession system lacked stability, often resulting in civil wars between potential emperors, and the empire was eventually divided in half.
4. Militarily, long borders stretched resources thin and merc
The document summarizes the rise and fall of the Roman Empire. It details how Rome grew to become the most powerful empire in Europe through its strong military, establishment of Roman law and democratic republic, and spread of Latin and Roman infrastructure across its territories. However, over time the empire declined due to invasions from outside groups, the rise of a new religion in Christianity, economic troubles, and political instability. This led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, marking the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe.
Julius Caesar was a military leader who became a great leader of the Roman Republic. However, he was assassinated by a group of plotters led by Brutus and Cassius. His last words were "Et tu, Brute?" ("You too, Brutus?"). After his death, the Roman Republic ended and the Roman Empire began, led by emperors instead of a republican government. The empire expanded greatly around the Mediterranean but faced economic, military, political and social problems that contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
12 judaism early christianity and early christianity v2018PetrutaLipan
The document provides context on Judaism and early Christianity. It discusses:
- The origins and patriarchs of the early Jews in Mesopotamia and their migration to Canaan led by Abraham and Moses.
- Key events and time periods in Jewish history like the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, the kingdoms of Saul and David, and the divisions and conquests of the kingdoms.
- The spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the Pax Romana and the reforms and policies of emperors like Diocletian and Constantine regarding the Christian church.
- Tenets of Judaism like the Torah and rejection of depictions of living beings in art.
The document discusses the decline of the Roman Empire due to various internal and external factors such as military and economic issues. It then outlines the rise of Christianity and its growth from a small sect to the dominant religion in the Roman world. As the Western Roman Empire collapsed, medieval European civilization that developed was shaped significantly by Christianity, which preserved some elements of Roman culture and society.
The Roman Republic collapsed due to economic turmoil, as the gap between rich and poor widened, and military upheaval as soldiers showed loyalty only to their generals. Julius Caesar took control after being elected consul and defeating Pompey's armies. After Caesar was named dictator for life, a group of senators opposed to his power murdered him. This led to the beginning of the Roman Empire under Octavian, who accepted the title of Augustus and established over 200 years of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana under his rule.
The fall of the Western Roman Empire was the result of multiple factors occurring over several centuries:
1. Invasion by Barbarian tribes weakened the Empire and led to losses of territory. The Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 and the Vandals in 455.
2. Economic troubles including overreliance on slave labor, high taxes, and a shrinking population hurt economic activity.
3. The rise of the Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople diverted invasions to the West and the two halves grew apart over time.
4. Overexpansion strained resources and large military spending burdened the government as it struggled to defend its borders. Widespread corruption and instability further undermined the Empire
The Roman Empire spanned from 31 BC to 476 AD, controlling vast territories across Europe, Asia, and Africa and unifying them under a single ruler. It established Latin as a common language and principles of law and order while building great infrastructure projects. Christianity began as a persecuted religion but eventually became the official state religion in 380 AD. However, the Empire faced internal problems as it grew too large and decentralized, with constant warfare and economic issues. It split into Western and Eastern divisions and the Western half ultimately fell when the city of Rome was invaded in 476 AD.
The document summarizes key aspects of medieval Europe from the 9th to 11th centuries. It describes the Byzantine Empire, which continued Roman imperial rule but lost territory to attacks and split from the Catholic church. Society became more aristocratic and families gained power. It also covers early medieval Europe, describing a time of insecurity after Rome fell, the rise of self-sufficient manors and serfdom, and the growing prominence of knights and the system of lords and vassals with monarchs having little power.
The Roman Empire began around 600 BC when Etruscan kings ruled Rome. In 509 BC, the Romans overthrew the Etruscan king and founded a republic led by elected leaders. Julius Caesar rose to power as a military leader and was named dictator for life in 44 BC. After his assassination, his supporters took control and established the Roman Empire under Augustus, who brought two centuries of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana. However, by the third century AD the empire began to decline due to economic problems, invasions, and military turmoil. Diocletian attempted reforms but Constantine moved the capital to Constantinople, and eventually the western half of the empire fell.
The document provides an overview of the Middle Ages in Europe from the decline of the Roman Empire to the late Middle Ages. It discusses the rise of barbarian tribes and new forms of government, the establishment of Constantinople as the new capital, the expanding influence of the Christian Church. Feudalism developed as a political and economic system defined by obligations between lords and vassals. The High Middle Ages saw the rise of royal dynasties and the establishment of laws to limit violence. The Late Middle Ages was defined by the Black Death pandemic that killed one-third of Europe's population and led to social changes.
The document summarizes the rise of the Roman Empire through its three main historical phases: the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC), the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), and the Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD). It describes how the Roman Republic transitioned into the Roman Empire after the civil war sparked by Julius Caesar's assassination. Augustus became Rome's first emperor in 27 BC and brought two centuries of Pax Romana, or Roman Peace, through his reforms and expansion of the empire.
The document summarizes the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It lists several political, economic, social, and military causes that contributed to Rome's decline, including oppressive government, increased taxes, reliance on slave labor, population decline from war and disease, poorly trained armies with little loyalty, and invasions by Germanic tribes. By the 5th century AD, the Western Roman Empire had collapsed as Roman provinces fell one by one to invading barbarian tribes.
The fall of the Roman Empire had major consequences. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century AD due to political, economic, and military problems. However, the Eastern Roman Empire continued on as the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople, carrying on Roman cultural achievements. The Byzantine Empire lasted for another thousand years under emperors like Justinian who recaptured territory in the West. The fall of Rome ushered in the Middle Ages in the West.
This document summarizes complex social developments between 600 BCE and 600 CE. It notes that cities served as centers of trade, religion, and government for states and empires. Examples include Persepolis, Chang'an, Pataliputra, Athens, Carthage, Rome, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Teotihuacan. It then focuses on Alexandria, which was founded by Alexander the Great and was a major center of Hellenistic civilization and capital of Egypt for almost 1000 years. The document also discusses social hierarchies in empires, methods of maintaining food production and elite loyalty, and the continued shaping of gender roles and family by patriarchy in imperial societies.
The document provides an overview of the rise and fall of ancient Rome and the emergence of the Silk Road connecting Rome and China. It discusses Rome's early history and development, the establishment of the Roman Republic, the Punic Wars which expanded Rome's control over the Mediterranean, and the eventual decline of the Republic. It also describes the Roman Empire at its height under Augustus, key aspects of Roman culture and society, and the spread of Christianity throughout the Empire. Finally, it outlines the rise of the Han Dynasty in China, the expansion of its territory and trade networks, notably the Silk Road connecting China and Rome.
The document provides an overview of major themes and events in world history, focusing on classical civilizations, their golden ages and declines, as well as the spread of religion and trade networks. It discusses the rise and impacts of nomadic peoples like the Huns and Mongols as outside threats to sedentary civilizations. Key areas covered include Western Europe, the Middle East, India, China, Africa, Russia, Japan, and the Mongol Empire.
Rome began to decline due to overexpansion of its vast empire, which became difficult and expensive to defend and control. As the empire grew, more soldiers were needed, straining Rome's economy. Emperors faced challenges maintaining power, with frequent assassinations. The empire split into Western and Eastern halves for stability. Germanic tribes like the Visigoths and Vandals grew stronger and began invading the empire. Rome was eventually sacked in 410 CE by the Visigoth leader Alaric, marking the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
7 post reformation scientific rev and explorationfasteddie
The document provides an overview of major developments in Europe between 1550-1648, including:
1) The Scientific Revolution led to a shift from Aristotle's geocentric view to the theories of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton that the earth revolves around the sun.
2) The Age of Exploration drove expansion by European powers like Spain, Portugal, and England between the 15th-17th centuries as they sought new trade routes, resources, and lands.
3) Religious wars erupted across Europe during this time period as conflicts arose between Catholic and Protestant groups in countries like France and Germany.
10 new world and columbian exchange readingfasteddie
The document discusses the results of the Age of Exploration following Columbus' voyage to the Americas in 1492. It notes that over 2,000 English words have Native American origins, including common words like barbecue, hammock, and hurricane. It also discusses how Europeans introduced new crops, minerals, and goods to the Americas and brought horses, cattle, and pigs, while devastating native populations through disease and warfare. Over the centuries, this exchange of people, plants, animals, technologies, and ideas fundamentally reshaped societies on both sides of the Atlantic.
The Roman Empire declined due to internal and external factors:
- The empire was split into Western and Eastern halves in 395 CE and faced increasing political instability, corruption, and economic troubles.
- Barbarian tribes like the Visigoths and Huns put pressure on the empire's borders and some were allowed to settle inside Roman lands but later revolted.
- The Roman armies became less effective and were unable to defend against invaders or maintain control of the empire as they prioritized fighting each other over external threats.
- Epidemics spread through the population, weakening both the people and the empire's military strength. The Western Roman Empire finally fell in 476 CE.
The decline of the Roman Empire was due to economic, social, political, and military factors:
1. Economically, the empire struggled without expansion to provide new resources and taxes, facing issues like inflation, decreased grain production, and overreliance on slave labor.
2. Socially, unemployment increased as the empire stopped expanding, and many citizens grew accustomed to free bread and entertainment funded by the state treasury. The rise of Christianity also weakened traditional Roman values.
3. Politically, the imperial succession system lacked stability, often resulting in civil wars between potential emperors, and the empire was eventually divided in half.
4. Militarily, long borders stretched resources thin and merc
The document summarizes the rise and fall of the Roman Empire. It details how Rome grew to become the most powerful empire in Europe through its strong military, establishment of Roman law and democratic republic, and spread of Latin and Roman infrastructure across its territories. However, over time the empire declined due to invasions from outside groups, the rise of a new religion in Christianity, economic troubles, and political instability. This led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, marking the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe.
Julius Caesar was a military leader who became a great leader of the Roman Republic. However, he was assassinated by a group of plotters led by Brutus and Cassius. His last words were "Et tu, Brute?" ("You too, Brutus?"). After his death, the Roman Republic ended and the Roman Empire began, led by emperors instead of a republican government. The empire expanded greatly around the Mediterranean but faced economic, military, political and social problems that contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
12 judaism early christianity and early christianity v2018PetrutaLipan
The document provides context on Judaism and early Christianity. It discusses:
- The origins and patriarchs of the early Jews in Mesopotamia and their migration to Canaan led by Abraham and Moses.
- Key events and time periods in Jewish history like the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, the kingdoms of Saul and David, and the divisions and conquests of the kingdoms.
- The spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the Pax Romana and the reforms and policies of emperors like Diocletian and Constantine regarding the Christian church.
- Tenets of Judaism like the Torah and rejection of depictions of living beings in art.
The document discusses the decline of the Roman Empire due to various internal and external factors such as military and economic issues. It then outlines the rise of Christianity and its growth from a small sect to the dominant religion in the Roman world. As the Western Roman Empire collapsed, medieval European civilization that developed was shaped significantly by Christianity, which preserved some elements of Roman culture and society.
The Roman Republic collapsed due to economic turmoil, as the gap between rich and poor widened, and military upheaval as soldiers showed loyalty only to their generals. Julius Caesar took control after being elected consul and defeating Pompey's armies. After Caesar was named dictator for life, a group of senators opposed to his power murdered him. This led to the beginning of the Roman Empire under Octavian, who accepted the title of Augustus and established over 200 years of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana under his rule.
The fall of the Western Roman Empire was the result of multiple factors occurring over several centuries:
1. Invasion by Barbarian tribes weakened the Empire and led to losses of territory. The Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 and the Vandals in 455.
2. Economic troubles including overreliance on slave labor, high taxes, and a shrinking population hurt economic activity.
3. The rise of the Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople diverted invasions to the West and the two halves grew apart over time.
4. Overexpansion strained resources and large military spending burdened the government as it struggled to defend its borders. Widespread corruption and instability further undermined the Empire
The Roman Empire spanned from 31 BC to 476 AD, controlling vast territories across Europe, Asia, and Africa and unifying them under a single ruler. It established Latin as a common language and principles of law and order while building great infrastructure projects. Christianity began as a persecuted religion but eventually became the official state religion in 380 AD. However, the Empire faced internal problems as it grew too large and decentralized, with constant warfare and economic issues. It split into Western and Eastern divisions and the Western half ultimately fell when the city of Rome was invaded in 476 AD.
The document summarizes key aspects of medieval Europe from the 9th to 11th centuries. It describes the Byzantine Empire, which continued Roman imperial rule but lost territory to attacks and split from the Catholic church. Society became more aristocratic and families gained power. It also covers early medieval Europe, describing a time of insecurity after Rome fell, the rise of self-sufficient manors and serfdom, and the growing prominence of knights and the system of lords and vassals with monarchs having little power.
The Roman Empire began around 600 BC when Etruscan kings ruled Rome. In 509 BC, the Romans overthrew the Etruscan king and founded a republic led by elected leaders. Julius Caesar rose to power as a military leader and was named dictator for life in 44 BC. After his assassination, his supporters took control and established the Roman Empire under Augustus, who brought two centuries of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana. However, by the third century AD the empire began to decline due to economic problems, invasions, and military turmoil. Diocletian attempted reforms but Constantine moved the capital to Constantinople, and eventually the western half of the empire fell.
The document provides an overview of the Middle Ages in Europe from the decline of the Roman Empire to the late Middle Ages. It discusses the rise of barbarian tribes and new forms of government, the establishment of Constantinople as the new capital, the expanding influence of the Christian Church. Feudalism developed as a political and economic system defined by obligations between lords and vassals. The High Middle Ages saw the rise of royal dynasties and the establishment of laws to limit violence. The Late Middle Ages was defined by the Black Death pandemic that killed one-third of Europe's population and led to social changes.
The document summarizes the rise of the Roman Empire through its three main historical phases: the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC), the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), and the Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD). It describes how the Roman Republic transitioned into the Roman Empire after the civil war sparked by Julius Caesar's assassination. Augustus became Rome's first emperor in 27 BC and brought two centuries of Pax Romana, or Roman Peace, through his reforms and expansion of the empire.
The document summarizes the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It lists several political, economic, social, and military causes that contributed to Rome's decline, including oppressive government, increased taxes, reliance on slave labor, population decline from war and disease, poorly trained armies with little loyalty, and invasions by Germanic tribes. By the 5th century AD, the Western Roman Empire had collapsed as Roman provinces fell one by one to invading barbarian tribes.
The fall of the Roman Empire had major consequences. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century AD due to political, economic, and military problems. However, the Eastern Roman Empire continued on as the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople, carrying on Roman cultural achievements. The Byzantine Empire lasted for another thousand years under emperors like Justinian who recaptured territory in the West. The fall of Rome ushered in the Middle Ages in the West.
This document summarizes complex social developments between 600 BCE and 600 CE. It notes that cities served as centers of trade, religion, and government for states and empires. Examples include Persepolis, Chang'an, Pataliputra, Athens, Carthage, Rome, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Teotihuacan. It then focuses on Alexandria, which was founded by Alexander the Great and was a major center of Hellenistic civilization and capital of Egypt for almost 1000 years. The document also discusses social hierarchies in empires, methods of maintaining food production and elite loyalty, and the continued shaping of gender roles and family by patriarchy in imperial societies.
The document provides an overview of the rise and fall of ancient Rome and the emergence of the Silk Road connecting Rome and China. It discusses Rome's early history and development, the establishment of the Roman Republic, the Punic Wars which expanded Rome's control over the Mediterranean, and the eventual decline of the Republic. It also describes the Roman Empire at its height under Augustus, key aspects of Roman culture and society, and the spread of Christianity throughout the Empire. Finally, it outlines the rise of the Han Dynasty in China, the expansion of its territory and trade networks, notably the Silk Road connecting China and Rome.
The document provides an overview of major themes and events in world history, focusing on classical civilizations, their golden ages and declines, as well as the spread of religion and trade networks. It discusses the rise and impacts of nomadic peoples like the Huns and Mongols as outside threats to sedentary civilizations. Key areas covered include Western Europe, the Middle East, India, China, Africa, Russia, Japan, and the Mongol Empire.
Rome began to decline due to overexpansion of its vast empire, which became difficult and expensive to defend and control. As the empire grew, more soldiers were needed, straining Rome's economy. Emperors faced challenges maintaining power, with frequent assassinations. The empire split into Western and Eastern halves for stability. Germanic tribes like the Visigoths and Vandals grew stronger and began invading the empire. Rome was eventually sacked in 410 CE by the Visigoth leader Alaric, marking the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
7 post reformation scientific rev and explorationfasteddie
The document provides an overview of major developments in Europe between 1550-1648, including:
1) The Scientific Revolution led to a shift from Aristotle's geocentric view to the theories of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton that the earth revolves around the sun.
2) The Age of Exploration drove expansion by European powers like Spain, Portugal, and England between the 15th-17th centuries as they sought new trade routes, resources, and lands.
3) Religious wars erupted across Europe during this time period as conflicts arose between Catholic and Protestant groups in countries like France and Germany.
10 new world and columbian exchange readingfasteddie
The document discusses the results of the Age of Exploration following Columbus' voyage to the Americas in 1492. It notes that over 2,000 English words have Native American origins, including common words like barbecue, hammock, and hurricane. It also discusses how Europeans introduced new crops, minerals, and goods to the Americas and brought horses, cattle, and pigs, while devastating native populations through disease and warfare. Over the centuries, this exchange of people, plants, animals, technologies, and ideas fundamentally reshaped societies on both sides of the Atlantic.
The document provides a high-level overview of major historical developments and events from the 18th-19th centuries, including the rise of capitalism and free market economies, the industrial revolution, European imperialism in Asia, Africa and the Americas, and independence movements in Latin America and Europe. Key figures and developments mentioned include Adam Smith, the factory system, interchangeable parts, the assembly line, the American and French Revolutions, Napoleon, and leaders of independence movements such as Bolivar and Hidalgo.
12 scientific revolution and enlightenment quotationsfasteddie
The document provides quotes from prominent figures of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment era on a variety of topics including science, reason, liberty, justice, and human nature. Some of the key ideas expressed are that mathematics reveals the order of the universe (Galileo), liberty requires virtue (Rousseau), laws should aim to perfect education over punishment (Beccaria), and reason and science lead to happiness and knowledge (Franklin, Hume, Jefferson). Overall, the quotes illustrate the intellectual foundations and values of the Enlightenment period.
The document touches on many topics related to the development of civilizations including the rise of Islam and the five pillars, major Islamic caliphates like the Umayyads and Abbasids, the expansion of Christianity in Europe through figures like Charlemagne and Vladimir of Kiev, the development of feudalism and manorialism in Europe, major events in European history like the Crusades and Inquisition, as well as topics in Chinese and Asian history like the Tang and Song Dynasties in China, the rise of the Mongols under Genghis Khan and their empire.
The document provides an overview of the Mayan civilization including its timeline, political and economic systems, religion, art, writing, and decline. Some key points:
- The Mayan civilization spanned from around 1500 BC to 900 AD and was centered in Mesoamerica. Major cities included Tikal and Chichen Itza.
- Mayan society was organized into city-states ruled by divine kings and nobles, with a large agricultural population. They practiced intensive maize farming and long-distance trade.
- Religion was polytheistic and involved human sacrifice to the gods through rituals like bloodletting. Priests maintained an accurate calendar and astronomical knowledge.
- The Maya developed hier
The document summarizes the political, economic, and social changes in Europe during the Middle Ages following the fall of the Western Roman Empire. As centralized authority broke down, the Roman infrastructure declined and cities were abandoned. Trade routes became unsafe, literacy declined, and Latin was replaced by emerging Romance languages. Local nobles filled the power vacuum as small kingdoms formed. By the 800s, Charlemagne had built a new Frankish empire and was crowned by the Pope, though his empire did not last. Feudalism emerged as a new political and economic system organized around land ownership and military service. The Catholic Church provided stability and its own system of authority.
The document provides an overview of the Middle Ages in Europe from the 5th century to the 15th century. It describes this period as between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Renaissance. The Middle Ages are divided into the Early or Low Middle Ages, characterized by the Dark Ages following the fall of Rome, and the Late or High Middle Ages, marked by events like the Black Plague and Magna Carta. The document outlines the rise of feudalism and the Catholic Church's influence during this time, as well as developments like the Crusades, monasticism, and the Byzantine and Holy Roman Empires.
The document is a multi-paragraph essay about the Middle Ages. It discusses several topics from the time period, including Clovis as a great leader, the rise of Islam as a powerful religion, and Charlemagne's creation of a large empire in Europe. It also mentions the Treaty of Verdun which divided Charlemagne's empire into three regions, and the Viking raids on communities along European rivers. In addition, it provides context about the untapped potential of Europe at the dawn of the Middle Ages, with dense forests and fertile black soil.
- By 500 AD, the Western Roman Empire had fallen and Germanic tribes had begun migrating into the region, intermarrying with Romans and establishing new states ruled by Germanic kings. The Franks eventually established the kingdom of France.
- The Roman Catholic Church grew powerful during the Middle Ages, establishing authority over Western Christians and becoming the most influential institution through the 1100s. Monks helped spread Christianity in Europe.
- Feudalism emerged as a political and economic system characterized by obligations between lords and vassals in which peasants and serfs worked lands in exchange for military protection. Manors and castles defined social hierarchies across fragmented kingdoms.
The document provides a summary of human geography and history in Europe from ancient civilizations to the early 20th century. It describes the rise and fall of empires like Greece, Rome, and the influence of leaders such as Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Charlemagne, and Napoleon. Major events like the Renaissance, industrialization, and the two World Wars that shaped Europe are also summarized.
The document discusses the political, economic, social, and religious developments in medieval Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Politically, feudalism became dominant, with weak central authority and power held locally by lords. Economically, serfdom and the manor system prevailed, with most people tied to subsistence agriculture. Socially, a rigid hierarchy existed with nobility determined by birth and the Catholic Church as the main authority.
History of art, Art from Medieval time periodrabeebhatti
The document provides an overview of the Medieval era in Europe, commonly referred to as the Middle Ages. It discusses several key points:
- The Medieval era spanned approximately 1000 years from the fall of the Western Roman Empire until the beginning of the Renaissance.
- During this time, society was largely rural and agricultural with a feudal system dominated by nobles and peasants. The Catholic Church was also very influential.
- The era saw the rise of Islam and the Islamic Caliphates, as well as the Crusades launched by European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslim rule.
- Overall, the document characterizes the Medieval period as transformative for Europe, laying the
The document discusses the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of feudalism in medieval Europe. It describes how Germanic tribes like the Goths, Vandals, and Franks invaded the declining Roman Empire beginning in the 4th century AD. These invasions contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. After the fall, cities declined as people fled to the countryside for safety. Society became organized around manors and a feudal system developed, with kings granting land to lords in exchange for loyalty and military service. Lords then granted land to knights who protected local peasants. Charlemagne later conquered much of Western Europe and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas Day 800,
The document provides information about Rome and Han China between 753 BCE and 330 CE. It describes the founding and expansion of Rome as it conquered the Mediterranean region. It also details the establishment of the Qin and long reign of the Han dynasties in China as they expanded their empire and standardized government. Both empires developed advanced urban societies and economies but eventually declined due to overexpansion of territory, the high costs of defense, and nomadic invasions.
The Roman civilization originated in Italy in the 8th century BC and went on to become a great empire that dominated the Mediterranean world for over 1000 years. Rome was originally ruled by kings, then became a republic with elected leaders around 500 BC. It expanded greatly through military conquests such as the Punic Wars against Carthage. By the 1st century BC civil wars led to the rise of the Roman Empire under Augustus, bringing stability. The Empire reached its peak territory by the 2nd century AD but declined due to invasions and internal problems, finally falling in 476 AD.
The document summarizes key developments in Europe between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Renaissance period. It discusses the decline of the Roman and Byzantine Empires due to corruption and invasions. It also outlines the rise of Christianity and the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages, as well as the establishment of feudalism and manorialism as social and economic systems.
The Early Middle Ages, also known as the Dark Ages, saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire due to Germanic invasions. Small Germanic kingdoms like the Franks and Lombards emerged to fill the power vacuum. The Catholic Church was the sole surviving centralized institution and provided order. Charlemagne united much of Europe under the Frankish Empire and helped spread Christianity. His empire marked a revival of learning and centralized government, though it declined after his death.
The Middle Ages saw the decline of the Western Roman Empire and rise of new powers in Europe. The Early Middle Ages, also called the Dark Ages, saw barbarian tribes migrate into Europe and establish new kingdoms. The Byzantine Empire continued in the East with Constantinople as its capital. The Catholic Church grew in influence and established monastic communities. Charlemagne united much of Western Europe under the Holy Roman Empire in the 8th century. New social classes like serfs and feudal systems of government developed during this period.
The fall of the Roman Empire led to the rise of the Middle Ages. As large cities declined and invaders increased, people formed isolated self-sufficient communities called manors centered around a lord for protection. This feudal system established hierarchies with kings, lords, and knights controlling land and serfs. The Catholic Church rose to power in the absence of strong empires, establishing monasteries that preserved knowledge and converted people to Christianity. Conflicts between powers led to events like the Norman invasion of England and Crusades that impacted medieval development.
Similar to 2 medieval europe overview reading (14)
The Protestant Perspective:
Civilization And The Protestant Reformation, by John W. Robbins
Martin Luther nailed 95 theological propositions challenging the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Church in 1517, sparking the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation established principles of democracy, constitutionalism, religious liberty, and a free market economy. It promoted the idea that all individuals have equal standing before God and law, weakening political and religious hierarchies. By translating the Bible into common languages, Luther empowered individuals to interpret scripture for themselves rather than rely on clergy. The Reformation transformed Western society, politics, law, and economics.
The document summarizes some of the key differences between Protestant and Catholic theology and practices during the Reformation period. The Protestant view emphasized salvation through faith alone, access to God for all believers without priests, and interpreting scripture independently. The Catholic view maintained that good works and the priesthood were necessary along with faith for salvation. Catholics saw scripture and tradition as revealing doctrine, while Protestants viewed the Bible as the sole source. Other differences included the number of sacraments, whether communion represented a repeated sacrifice, and the concept of predestination.
This document provides a condensed timeline of key events during the Protestant Reformation from 1440 to 1564. It highlights the roles of important figures like Martin Luther, John Calvin, Henry VIII and key Anabaptist leaders. Major events included Luther posting his 95 Theses in 1517, his appearance before the Diet of Worms in 1521 where he refused to recant, the Peasant's War from 1524-1526, and the publication of Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. The timeline also notes the growing persecution of Anabaptists and their beliefs in martyrdom, as well as developments like the English Act of Supremacy in 1534 that made Henry VIII the head of
Martin Luther critiques the power and authority of the papacy in three key ways:
1) He argues that the Roman Catholics have built "three walls" to protect themselves from reform - claiming sole authority over temporal power, sole right to interpret scripture, and sole right to call councils.
2) Luther asserts that these claims of sole authority have no basis in scripture and are only valid if not harmful to Christianity. When the pope deserves punishment, these claims no longer apply.
3) He contends that when necessity demands it, such as when the pope is an offense to Christianity, any person able should call a council without the pope's approval in order to punish the pope and
Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation in 1517 by posting his 95 theses criticizing the Catholic Church. He advocated for a church founded on faith alone rather than works, in opposition to the corruption and power of the Papacy. Other reformers like Ulrich Zwingli and the Anabaptists further split from Luther over issues like the sacraments. Henry VIII broke from Rome for political reasons when the Pope did not grant his divorce. John Calvin split over the concept of predestination, and Protestantism continued fragmenting into various denominations like Calvinism. The Catholic Church launched a Counter-Reformation to combat the spread of Protestantism through measures like the Inquisition and Council of Trent.
5 renaissance figures speak for themselvesfasteddie
This document contains quotes from several Renaissance figures that demonstrate key ideas of the time period. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola's quote emphasizes humanism and individualism by saying man can fashion himself however he prefers and is not limited by nature. William Shakespeare's quote about man's nobility and infinite abilities shows classical ideas about humanity. Laura Cereta's quote argues for women's abilities and talents, highlighting the growing focus on individualism.
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This document provides a timeline of major events from 1452 to 1648 that occurred during the Renaissance and Reformation periods in Europe. Some of the key events included Leonardo da Vinci's work as an artist, the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, Johann Gutenberg's invention of the printing press in 1455, Martin Luther posting his 95 Theses criticizing the Catholic Church in 1517, and the Thirty Years' War beginning in Germany in 1618. The timeline covers major developments in art, religion, exploration, science, and warfare that transformed Europe during this period.
This document provides an overview of several websites containing resources for studying European history, including notes, review sheets, quizzes, and timelines. It recommends some specific sites as being particularly comprehensive or well-designed, such as http://www.homestead.com/chaffeyaphistory/european.html. The document then shifts to providing multi-paragraph summaries of topics related to the Renaissance in Italy, including the meaning and characteristics of the Renaissance, the Italian city-states, the intellectual Renaissance, art of the period, and the development of states in France and England.
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The document outlines the AP European History course which covers history from 1450 to present day. It is divided into chronological periods such as Renaissance/Reformation from 1450-1550 and Industrialization/Enlightenment from 1700-1800. Within each period, the course focuses on 3 major themes: intellectual/cultural history, political/diplomatic history, and social/economic history. Themes include developments in art, science, government, nationalism, and changes in social structures from hierarchy to social classes with industrialization.
The document summarizes the major events and figures of the Protestant Reformation. It describes how Martin Luther protested abuses within the Catholic Church and sparked the growth of Protestantism. Over time, various Protestant denominations emerged like Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism under leaders such as Luther, John Calvin, and Henry VIII respectively. The Reformation destroyed unity within Christianity and led to religious conflicts across Europe for over a century.
Maps from the Renaissance period between 1100 and 1300 AD focused on Europe. The Ottoman Empire was also prominent during this time period in history. Renaissance maps captured key geographical and political landscapes of the era in simplified yet informative styles.
Between 1400 and 1500, Europe transitioned from decentralized feudal systems to centralized nation-states. This was driven by several factors, including the rise of the middle class which weakened feudal lords, war between feudal lords that led to unified kingdoms, and the development of ideas around political states and divine rights of kings. Key events included the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1469 which unified Spain, and the War of the Roses in England which ended in 1485 with the victory of Henry Tudor, establishing a strong centralized English nation-state. By 1500, several large European powers like France, Spain, and England had established themselves as nation-states with centralized governments and bureaucrac
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The document provides an overview of the Renaissance period in Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries. It discusses the major developments including the rebirth of humanism and individualism, the development of nation-states, drastic changes in artistic methods and thinking, voyages of discovery to the New World, and the Protestant Reformation and resulting civil wars. It then focuses on the specific causes and events of the Renaissance in Italy, with Florence emerging as the birthplace due to factors like trade, wealthy banking families like the Medicis, and great individual artists and thinkers including Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Brunelleschi.
The Byzantine Empire lasted from 330-1453 CE with its capital of Constantinople, founded by Constantine in 330 CE. Under Emperor Justinian in the 6th century, the Byzantine Empire reached its greatest extent but then lost territory to invaders. The Byzantine Empire preserved Greek and Roman culture and spread Eastern Orthodox Christianity and the Cyrillic alphabet to eastern Europe through missionaries like Cyril and Methodius.
The document summarizes the Ming Dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644. Some key aspects include:
- The Ming Dynasty was established after the Mongol Yuan Dynasty lost the Mandate of Heaven.
- The Ming Dynasty saw a period of economic and cultural prosperity in China, with a large population and advances in agriculture, industry, arts, and naval exploration.
- However, corruption and natural disasters in the 17th century weakened the Ming and led to its eventual collapse, with the Manchu people establishing the Qing Dynasty in China in 1644.
The Aztecs ruled central Mexico from 1350 to 1550 CE, with their capital at Tenochtitlan on an island in Lake Texcoco. They continued cultural traditions from earlier Olmec and Maya civilizations. The Aztec civilization was a theocratic empire led by a divine king and high priest. It had a population of 500,000 in the capital and up to 20 million total. The Aztecs engaged in nearly constant warfare to conquer neighbors and collect tribute and captives for sacrifice and slavery. Their agriculture-based economy included floating gardens called chinampas and a large central market. The Aztec religion involved polytheism and human sacrifice at temples to celebrate holidays and placate gods. Spanish conquist
The Inca Empire flourished from 1350 to 1550 in western South America, with its capital at Cuzco and religious center at Machu Picchu. The Inca ruled over a loose confederation of hundreds of tribes across 4000 miles of diverse terrain, from coasts to jungles to mountains. The emperor and his wife were considered gods, and the bureaucracy was dominated by the Inca nobility. The empire relied on agriculture, especially terraced farming of crops suited to different altitudes, and maintained infrastructure like roads for trade between regions to supply food. They had no written language but used knotted strings called quipus to record information like taxes.
The document discusses the Yuan Dynasty in China, which was established in 1271 after Kublai Khan conquered the Song Dynasty. Some key points:
1) The Yuan Dynasty was founded by Kublai Khan and was part of the vast Mongol Empire, which at its peak covered over 4.6 million square miles and was the largest empire in history.
2) While the Mongols adopted some aspects of Chinese governance, they maintained power and did not fully adopt Chinese culture, leading to tensions with the Chinese population.
3) The Yuan Dynasty encouraged trade and communication with other countries, importing goods from places like India and Arabia and exporting Chinese goods like silk and porcelain. However, taxes and
1. MEDIEVAL EUROPE:
FROM THE FALL OF ROME TO THE RENAISSANCE
Please high light or underline interesting ideas as you go
(do NOT underline more than 30% of the reading).
From approximately 200 B.C. to 476 A.D., the "civilized" areas of Europe and the Near East were
dominated, ruled, and imprinted with a lasting influence from the Roman Empire. This great empire
crumbled for a variety of reasons including: internal political corruption; economic and social difficulties
arising from ruling such a vast territory; the high cost of warfare to maintain the empire; labor surplus
problems largely caused by slavery; overindulgence by the citizenry; and immorality, indolence, and
reduced production causing heavy public welfare expenses. Religious and ethnic strife caused division of
the people of Rome from within while Germanic tribes invaded the Empire from the North and East. The
fall of Rome occurred gradually over a period of many years, but is usually set at 476 A.D.
Although the western Roman Empire and the government in Rome itself fell, the Empire lived on in the
East. The Emperor Constantine (reigned, 324-337) had erected a new capital on the site of the Greek city of
Byzantium, which controlled the passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, calling it
Constantinople. While Rome and the western Empire fell, the Byzantine Empire survived at
Constantinople until 1453 when it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.
During the centuries of Roman rule, all of the civilized European world was united under a single
government. (The Romans called everyone who was not a Roman a barbarian.) When Rome fell, that union
also vanished: For centuries there was no unity and there were no nations as we know them today. As the
many nomadic Germanic tribes from northern Europe moved across the continent during this period,
sometimes called the "Dark Ages", what political organization did exist in Europe was based on the tribal
organization of these peoples. Only a few of these tribes were of much lasting importance. The Angles and
Saxons established their rule and culture in Great Britain (hence the name "Angleland") and the Franks (as
in "France") dominated northern and western Europe. The Vandals are remembered for their especially
destructive behavior, and the word Gothic (from the Goths) was later used to describe these tribes
collectively.
Charlemagne (French for Charles the Great) was King of the Franks from 768-814 and was able to unite
most of western Europe into the Frankish Kingdom which lasted from 800-860. On Christmas Day, 800
A.D., after restoring Pope Leo III (reigned, 795-816) in Rome from which he had been driven by invaders,
Charlemagne (reigned, 768-814) was crowned by the Pope as "Emperor of the Romans". From that point
until it was dissolved in 1806 by Napoleon, this Frankish Kingdom was known as the Holy Roman Empire.
At this time in history, without modern communication methods and with travel more difficult and
hazardous than ever, it was difficult even for good rulers to maintain strict control over wide-spread lands.
After the breakup of Charlemagne's empire, European political organization was characterized by weak
kings and strong nobles or lords who ruled their estates rather independently. This kind of political
organization is known as feudalism. Feudalism was also a social and economic organization based on a
series of reciprocal relationships. The king in theory owned the land which he granted to lords who in
return would give service, usually in the form of military aid, to the king. The receiver of the land became a
vassal, and this grant of land was known as a fief. Sometimes these fiefs were larger than a lord could
himself administer. So he, in turn, granted use of part of the land to lesser lords who pledged their service
in return. This system continued on until, at the lowest level, the lord had only a small feudal estate.
Each of these lords was part of the nobility and therefore above the level of true labor. The actual farming
and other necessary labor on the land were performed by serfs who were bound to the land and actually
transferred from one landlord to another with its title. They produced the necessities of the estate. In return,
they received protection by the nobles and a share of the produce of the land. . A small class of free men
also existed having won their freedom for themselves and their descendants for service to some past lord.
They usually performing the special skills of craftsmen, artisans, and merchants and were the beginning of
a middle class in Europe.
2. An important economic characteristic of the period was the decline in travel, communication and trade.
Under the Roman Empire, there had been a great amount of trade between the widespread areas of the
Empire. Legions patrolled the roads and the roads linked the provinces. After the fall of Rome, with no
government to supply protection or to keep the roads and bridges repaired, travel became difficult and
dangerous. This danger, coupled with ignorance and lack of desire to change the situation by the powerful
lords, whose manors required little trade, led to the decline in travel and trade.
One reason for the early Middle Ages being designated as the Dark Ages is that education and learning also
declined. People were busy with their roles in life. There was no government to sponsor education. Because
of the lack of trade and travel, contact with the scholars of the ancient world was lost. However, while
civilization in Europe declined, learning and discovery was progressing in Asia and the Middle East.
Europeans were about to rediscover the wealth and more advanced civilizations of Asia.
The Roman Catholic Church was the only center of knowledge during this period and learning was mostly
religion-centered. True scholarship lived on in the monasteries where devout monks had withdrawn from
the corruption and violence of the outside medieval world. There they preserved the ancient writings of the
advanced civilizations of Greece and Rome. This treasure trove of knowledge from the Classical Age
awaited its discovery by people in the future who cared more for these achievements. During this time, if
reason and religious dogma clashed, reason must always give way because religious knowledge was
considered to be without error. In fact, nearly everything in feudal Europe seemed to be religiously
centered. Religion and the after-life became the focal point of thought and living. The influence of religion
can also clearly be seen in the art, architecture, literature, and music of the time. Perhaps because life was
so hard on earth, the peasants endured it concentrating on and longing for their reward in the afterlife.
The Roman Catholic Church remained the only stable and unifying institution left over from the old Roman
days and therefore came to dominate the lifestyle of the feudal era. The Church claimed superiority over all
earthly political figures (as heaven was supreme over earth). As Pope Leo III had crowned Charlemagne,
later popes claimed to be superior to kings and all other feudal rulers of the temporal world. The Church's
official name of Roman Catholic (meaning universal with its headquarters in Rome) was reminiscent of the
old Empire. The Church had its own law, canon law, and its own court system which was a rival to that of
the new emerging monarchies.
The Church was the constant link the people and God. Church doctrine held that one could only get to
heaven by doing good works and observing the sacraments. The seven sacraments (baptism, confirmation,
communion, penance, holy matrimony, holy orders, and extreme unction or last rites) kept an individual
constantly connected with God and the Church from birth to death. Individuals could be punished by
excommunication, the process of being cut off from the Church when a person could not receive the
sacraments. Whole geographic areas could be punished through interdiction which prohibited the
performance of any of the sacraments in that district. Interdiction was a powerful weapon against immoral,
rebellious or independent feudal rulers. On the other hand, the Church actually provided the only real
opportunity in the Middle Ages for an exceptional individual to excel and rise above the social status of his
birth. The Church was far more organized than any political state in Europe, but such extensive
organization and the access to great wealth also provided the opportunity for corruption. This would be one
of the major causes of the loss of prestige that would come at the end of the Middle Ages.
The social structure of Europe during the Middle Ages was strictly divided into three classes or "estates".
The First Estate, composed of the ordained officers of the Church, from pope to parish priest and
wandering monk, constituted a separate class claiming authority from God. The nobility, by virtue of its
land ownership and its right to bear arms, made the nobles' primary function as warriors. They comprised
the Second Estate. Everyone else, mostly peasants, was grouped into a Third Estate with no base for power.
Problems with this social structure were inevitable. A new money economy emerged and many commoners
of the Third Estate became richer and more powerful than the old nobility of the Second Estate whose
members' wealth was based solely on land ownership.
The system of feudalism decentralized the power of the state and made for a weak national government.
Feudal lords were the real power in their local provinces. Since the soldiers in a feudal army were as likely
3. as not recruited and paid by the lord, kings were very dependent upon their loyalty and weakened because
of this feudal system. A centralized government would mean a loss of local power of the feudal lords. The
Church also favored this system of weak national monarchies. Both the old nobility and the high-ranking
Church officials had much power to lose if strong national governments developed. In order for the modern
nation-state with its central government to emerge, new monarchs would have to challenge this entrenched
power system.
Feudal Europe was a self-perpetuating society for almost a millennium. The lack of learning and education
and the lack of travel and trade tended to keep society as it was. Even if new ideas, products, and methods
were discovered, they were not widely introduced. More than any other factor, it was a series of religious
wars known as the Crusades that were responsible for bringing Europe out of the Dark Ages into the high
Middle Ages and eventually the Modern Age. These wars were fought by northern European Christian
lords and kings who were responding to a call from Pope Urban II (reigned, 1088-1099) to drive the
Muslims from the Holy Land in Palestine after the Turks began to restrict religious pilgrimages and
persecute Christians in the Middle East. The threat from invading tribes had lessened along with the
opportunity to gain new lands. Also, the Pope promised salvation to all who fought in these religious wars.
So many of these lords went off to the Middle East to fight for God and glory. The Crusades went on over a
period of time beginning in 1095 and lasting for over 300 years. They were militarily unsuccessful, and
many of the soldiers seemed more interested in looting and fortune hunting. Also, the native Muslims
proved a formidable foe. However, the Crusades were a turning point in the history and development of
Europe.
The Crusades brought tremendous economic, social, and political changes to Europe. First, trade was
gradually re-established. During the Crusades, soldiers brought back many of the products of the East
including spices and textiles. As Europeans became more and more accustomed to having these luxuries,
they began to expand their trade. With increasing trade, there came a need for new products to sell and
people to carry on these transactions. Therefore, a whole new class in society was created: the merchants
and craftsmen of the middle class. Cities also began to grow as centers of population and trade. Venice,
Genoa, and Pisa in Italy became great port cities as the trade between the Middle East and western Europe
passed through them. Italy thus became the gateway to Europe in the late Middle Ages. Neither the
independently wealthy cities nor the growing, newly wealthy, but non-noble, middle class fit into the
political or social structure of feudalism. Land had been the only real source of wealth in the Middle Ages.
However, the expanding use of money for trade made land ownership less important, as land does not bring
wealth unless it produces a surplus for sale. Thus, the feudal system was breaking down and would
eventually be replaced. The only question was what way of life would arise to take the place of this long-
entrenched system. Feudalism had dominated Europe politically, socially and economically since the return
of order after the fall of Rome.
The new traders and merchants developed a system of their own to bring order to the new state of
economics. To maintain the quality and prices of goods and services, the "guild system" was developed. By
this system, merchants and craftsmen maintained control over their own professions. A townsman was
forbidden to practice a trade or enter a business without the approval of the guild membership that
consisted of those regarded as master craftsmen. To practice a trade, one began as an apprentice usually as
a young boy assigned to work under the tutelage of a master craftsman. Apprentices frequently lived with
the master and performed many other menial tasks other than those related directly to learning the craft.
After years of service and learning, an apprentice could rise to the rank of journeyman. Journeymen were
free to work for other master craftsmen for wages. Only after additional years of work and meeting difficult
criteria established by the guild could a journeyman be admitted to the guild as a master craftsman. A
master had the right to open his own shop or merchant business. Through this system the guilds could
control wages and prices, monopolize trade, set quality standards, and limit the number of people in a
business. Once established, the guilds became as rigid in their own way as the old class structure. These
merchants and craftsmen formed the basis for a new class of town dwellers, the bourgeoisie, burgesses, or
burghers. They would form the basis of the growing "middle class" (in the middle between the nobility and
peasants) that really had no place in the old system of estates. The political and social systems were failing
to keep up with the economic changes.
4. Several factors began to strengthen the role of those kings willing and desiring to increase their power in
this new society. These new, stronger monarchs led to the rise of the centralized, modern nation-states as
we know them today. First, many landowners had been killed off during the Crusades leaving more land in
the hands of fewer people. Second, cities and towns attached their development and prosperity to the kings,
rather than to the lords. They sought protection from the powers of unjust lords by securing promised rights
to govern themselves, which they purchased with wealth gained through trade. In return, they were able to
pay more in taxes to the king. As a result, the king now had more money to spend in controlling the lords
who previously had been largely independent of his authority. Merchants also supported stronger kings in
hopes of gaining protection in their travels as well as uniform laws, tariffs, uniform weights and measures,
and other trade concessions which would make trade easier and more profitable. Kings had the money, the
interest, and stood to profit the most by paying for new modern armies equipped with the first firearms and
ocean-going navies armed with cannon needed to protect commerce. The old nobility lacked the wealth to
keep up with such changes. Thus, political, social, and economic changes were stimulated by the trade
created by the Crusades.
All of these things -- the increasing wealth, wider travel, and a greater knowledge of the outside world --
led to a new philosophy and outlook on life. Whereas during the Middle Ages, the Church provided the
main source of inspiration, now there was a new interest in and concentration on man himself and the world
in which he lived. This new age we call the Renaissance, the rebirth of the human spirit. We find this
changing outlook on life reflected in the art, the architecture, the literature, the music, a new interest in
learning and scientific discovery, the rediscovered curiosity about the world bringing exploration and
discovery, and in new political ideas. This new philosophy which was human-centered and emphasized
human reason was called humanism and dominated the period of the Renaissance.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: In your notebook, answer each of the following questions in complete
sentences.
1. Who was the first "Holy Roman Emperor" and how did he get the title?
2. How did the Church use the powers of excommunication and interdiction in maintaining its power?
3. How was the education, learning and knowledge of Europe preserved during the lowest point of the
Middle Ages, the so-called “Dark Ages”?
4. Who belonged to each of the three estates of medieval European society and what was the primary duty
of a member of each estate? Create a chart to show your answer.
5. How did the guilds improve the lot of freemen? How did they help business and trade? How did they
restrict its growth?
6. What kind of people were the bourgeoisie, burgesses, or burghers? Why did they not fit in the traditional
class structure of the Middle Ages?
7. In a 500 or so word (1-2 pages) typed essay, explain what you learned from this packet. Choose
three concepts that you learned about and you think are worth writing about. Describe each of these
concepts briefly in your first paragraph. Next, write one paragraph about each topic and explain who you
think about each of these important ideas. Finally, write a conclusion that describes how these concepts
relate to each other. What big ideas or life lessons can a person learn from the concepts you choose to
write about?
You might consider writing about the Roman Empire, the fall of the Roman Empire, the dark ages, the
Catholic church, feudalism, the 3 estates, types of people in the middle ages, the crusades, guilds or another
idea that interests you.
The set up of your essay will look like this.
Paragraph 1 (introduction) – At least 4 sentences that explain the three ideas you are writing about.
Paragraph 2 – at least 5 sentences that explains one of the ideas discussed in paragraph 1. Use examples,
facts and explain your own opinions about the central idea.
Paragraph 3 – same as paragraph 2 except with a different idea
Paragraph 4 – same as paragraph 2 except with the third idea
Paragraph 5 – the conclusion