This study examined the seroprevalence of brucellosis in small ruminants in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. Blood samples were collected from 159 sheep and 265 goats and tested for Brucella antibodies. The overall seroprevalence was found to be 2.6%, with 1.9% in sheep and 3.0% in goats. There was no significant difference in prevalence between age groups, sexes, or species. Most respondents (66.7%) lacked awareness of brucellosis's zoonotic importance. Many flock owners (72.2%) drank raw milk and most (96.3%) handled fetal materials with bare hands, exposing them to Brucella infection
Overview of recent outbreaks of H5N8-High Pathogen Avian Influenza in Europe...Harm Kiezebrink
Updated outbreak assessment on Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza: Europe, America and the Middle East. By the DEFRA, Veterinary & Science Policy Advice Team - International Disease Monitoring.
Toxocara vitulorum infection has been reported to have a cosmopolitan distribution in whole of the tropical and subtropical regions of the world with a moderate, continental climate. Parasitic diseases of dairy animals are a universal problem and considered one of the major obstacles in health and production performance of animals. Retarded growth, poor production of milk, meat, poor quality of skin and hides are known harmful effects of parasitic infections in bovines. This study was aimed to determine prevalence of Toxocara vitulorum in Ambo area Sankalefaris peasant association in cattle of different Age and sex group. Across sectional study was conducted to investigate the prevalence of bovine ascariasis infection on 243 animals in Senkale Faris peasant association in Ambo district west Shewa zone. To achieve this; floatation techniques was employed. Based on this method about the overall prevalence was 243(63%) of which ages, and sex was a determinant factor Toxocara vitulorum. The known prevalence with age and sex category was <3 month,122(68%), 3-6 month, 70(61%), 6 month 30(12.3%) and 1 year 21(8.6%) p-value 0.000, from this we can say age of cattle has highly significant on enhancing the disease. In conclusion the result of the present study has revealed that there is high prevalence of ascariasis in calves, hence, appropriate treatment, control and owner’s awareness, should be implemented so that to increase the productivity of
cattle’s in the study area.
Overview of recent outbreaks of H5N8-High Pathogen Avian Influenza in Europe...Harm Kiezebrink
Updated outbreak assessment on Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza: Europe, America and the Middle East. By the DEFRA, Veterinary & Science Policy Advice Team - International Disease Monitoring.
Toxocara vitulorum infection has been reported to have a cosmopolitan distribution in whole of the tropical and subtropical regions of the world with a moderate, continental climate. Parasitic diseases of dairy animals are a universal problem and considered one of the major obstacles in health and production performance of animals. Retarded growth, poor production of milk, meat, poor quality of skin and hides are known harmful effects of parasitic infections in bovines. This study was aimed to determine prevalence of Toxocara vitulorum in Ambo area Sankalefaris peasant association in cattle of different Age and sex group. Across sectional study was conducted to investigate the prevalence of bovine ascariasis infection on 243 animals in Senkale Faris peasant association in Ambo district west Shewa zone. To achieve this; floatation techniques was employed. Based on this method about the overall prevalence was 243(63%) of which ages, and sex was a determinant factor Toxocara vitulorum. The known prevalence with age and sex category was <3 month,122(68%), 3-6 month, 70(61%), 6 month 30(12.3%) and 1 year 21(8.6%) p-value 0.000, from this we can say age of cattle has highly significant on enhancing the disease. In conclusion the result of the present study has revealed that there is high prevalence of ascariasis in calves, hence, appropriate treatment, control and owner’s awareness, should be implemented so that to increase the productivity of
cattle’s in the study area.
Emerging and re-emerging diseses part2 (INCLUDES ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE)Dr. Mamta Gehlawat
2nd half of my ppt on emerging and re-emerging diseases. i uploaded the first half already. pls refer to that too. this ppt has info on AIDS/HIV, ZIKA, EBOLA-MARBURG, MELIODIOSIS, CHOLERA and ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
Washington Global Health Alliance Discovery Series
Supamit Chinsuttiwat
May 22, 2008
'Response to Avian Influenza and Preparedness for Pandemic Influenza: Thailand's Experience'
Brucellosis: Epidemiology and Control in indiaBhoj Raj Singh
Brucellosis is an important endemic infectious disease in animals in India. In India brucellosis was first recognized in 1942 by Polding. It causes economic loss to the tune of nearly Rs. 350 million/year. Bovine brucellosis is caused by the bacterium Brucella abortus. In countries where cattles are kept in close association with sheep and goat it can also be caused by B. melitensis. Occasionally B. suis may also cause disease in mammary gland of cattle but it has not been reported to cause abortion and usually does not spread to other animals. Principal manifestations of animal brucellosis are reproductive failure, i.e., abortion, still births and birth of unthrifty offspring in females, and orchitis and epididymitis in males. Genus Brucella has six recognized species on the basis of host specificity viz. B. abortus, B. melitensis, B. ovis, B. suis, B. canis and B. neotome, infecting cattle, goats and sheep, sheep, pig, dog and rats, respectively. All Brucella species may also infect wildlife species. Classical Brucella species have been isolated from a great variety of wildlife species such as bison, elk, feral swine, wild boar, fox, hare, African buffalo, reindeer, and caribou. Infection in wildlife can hinder eradication efforts in cattle.
The classical species viz., B. abortus, B. melitensis, and B. suis have been identified as category B bioterrorism agents (Rotz et al. 2002, CDC 2005) because they are zoonotic and capable of causing considerable morbidity with low mortality if used in a mass event.
Transboundary diseases and animal welfare concerns Alex Sabuni
Interest in TAD has been direct towards: Socio economic and, Public Health impacts of these diseases with disregard to the welfare of the animals. Decision to initiate control efforts has always ben dictated by the impacts of these diseases to health and livelihoods. Disease causes pain to animals, which is a welfare issue that requires urgent addressing.
Averting future pandemics: Legal and illegal trade in animals, meat and wildmeatILRI
Presentation by Delia Grace at a webinar on Wildlife trafficking prevention: How can airports support the UN Sustainable Development Goals?, 2 September 2021.
Burden of Vector Borne Diseases Past, Present & FuturePradip Awate
Bharati Vidyapeeth Pune has recently organized National CME on VBDs. I delivered a speech on " Burden of Vector Borne Diseases Past, Present & Future".
This presentation deals with burden of prominent VBDs globally & in India with special reference to Maharashtra.
Presentation by Delia Grace at the first United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Science-Policy Forum ahead of the Second Session of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA-2), Nairobi, Kenya, 20 May 2016.
emerging and re-emerging vector borne diseasesAnil kumar
this presentation in about emerging and re-emerging vector borne diseases and their spatial spread with reference to time, surveillance, monitoring and management program and other difficulties and suggestions for program
The misunderstood epidemiological determinants of covid 19, problems and solu...Bhoj Raj Singh
COVID-19, a viral disease, fought with political means for socio-economic gains, will keep on haunting humanity for long. Without doing any epidemiological study on COVID-19 we have determined its modulators and determinants not to win over COVID-19 but to create misunderstanding to persist for long in inquisitive minds to blur the vision for novel inventions. This presentation deals with COVID-19 in general and misunderstood disease determinants in particular to suggest possible means to win over the disease. As the tip of COVID-19 iceberg is illusion and reality unknown, thus the struggle is endless.
One World - One Health presentation Katinka de Balogh FAOHarm Kiezebrink
During the FVE conference in Brussels on April 7, 2014, Katinka de Balogh, leader the global Veterinary Public Health activities of the FAO, presented the One-Health approach to highlight the importance of prevention, ensuring health and welfare of people and animals in a globalized environment:
• The benefit coming from the implementation of good health management in practice, both in terms of health and welfare, as well as, of financial sustainability
• The importance of coordinating actions in both sectors via a One-Health approach, with a particular focus on zoonotic diseases
• The role of the medical and veterinary profession in assuring these matters and educating the society
Katinka de Balogh is of Dutch and Hungarian origins and grew up in Latin-America. She studied veterinary medicine in Berlin and Munich and graduated and obtained her doctorate in tropical parasitology from the Tropical Institute of the University of Munich in 1984. In the late 80’s she had spent two years as a young professional at the Veterinary Public Health Unit of the World Health Organization (WHO) in Geneva. In 2002 she started working at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in Rome.
Background of AU-IBAR and brucellosis: Past, present and future in Middle and...ILRI
Presented by Abdelkhalik M. Montasser at a workshop on an integrated approach to controlling brucellosis in Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 29-31 January 2013.
Malta Fever , Brucellosis , is one of the most prevalent zoonotic infection globally. It’s a
bacterial infection caused by Brucella , a Gram-Negative bacteria1
. Brucella melitensis
(transmitted from sheep and goats), B. abortus (transmitted from cattle and bovina), and B.
suis (transmitted to humans from pigs) are the most common species causing human
brucellosis
Emerging and re-emerging diseses part2 (INCLUDES ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE)Dr. Mamta Gehlawat
2nd half of my ppt on emerging and re-emerging diseases. i uploaded the first half already. pls refer to that too. this ppt has info on AIDS/HIV, ZIKA, EBOLA-MARBURG, MELIODIOSIS, CHOLERA and ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
Washington Global Health Alliance Discovery Series
Supamit Chinsuttiwat
May 22, 2008
'Response to Avian Influenza and Preparedness for Pandemic Influenza: Thailand's Experience'
Brucellosis: Epidemiology and Control in indiaBhoj Raj Singh
Brucellosis is an important endemic infectious disease in animals in India. In India brucellosis was first recognized in 1942 by Polding. It causes economic loss to the tune of nearly Rs. 350 million/year. Bovine brucellosis is caused by the bacterium Brucella abortus. In countries where cattles are kept in close association with sheep and goat it can also be caused by B. melitensis. Occasionally B. suis may also cause disease in mammary gland of cattle but it has not been reported to cause abortion and usually does not spread to other animals. Principal manifestations of animal brucellosis are reproductive failure, i.e., abortion, still births and birth of unthrifty offspring in females, and orchitis and epididymitis in males. Genus Brucella has six recognized species on the basis of host specificity viz. B. abortus, B. melitensis, B. ovis, B. suis, B. canis and B. neotome, infecting cattle, goats and sheep, sheep, pig, dog and rats, respectively. All Brucella species may also infect wildlife species. Classical Brucella species have been isolated from a great variety of wildlife species such as bison, elk, feral swine, wild boar, fox, hare, African buffalo, reindeer, and caribou. Infection in wildlife can hinder eradication efforts in cattle.
The classical species viz., B. abortus, B. melitensis, and B. suis have been identified as category B bioterrorism agents (Rotz et al. 2002, CDC 2005) because they are zoonotic and capable of causing considerable morbidity with low mortality if used in a mass event.
Transboundary diseases and animal welfare concerns Alex Sabuni
Interest in TAD has been direct towards: Socio economic and, Public Health impacts of these diseases with disregard to the welfare of the animals. Decision to initiate control efforts has always ben dictated by the impacts of these diseases to health and livelihoods. Disease causes pain to animals, which is a welfare issue that requires urgent addressing.
Averting future pandemics: Legal and illegal trade in animals, meat and wildmeatILRI
Presentation by Delia Grace at a webinar on Wildlife trafficking prevention: How can airports support the UN Sustainable Development Goals?, 2 September 2021.
Burden of Vector Borne Diseases Past, Present & FuturePradip Awate
Bharati Vidyapeeth Pune has recently organized National CME on VBDs. I delivered a speech on " Burden of Vector Borne Diseases Past, Present & Future".
This presentation deals with burden of prominent VBDs globally & in India with special reference to Maharashtra.
Presentation by Delia Grace at the first United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Science-Policy Forum ahead of the Second Session of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA-2), Nairobi, Kenya, 20 May 2016.
emerging and re-emerging vector borne diseasesAnil kumar
this presentation in about emerging and re-emerging vector borne diseases and their spatial spread with reference to time, surveillance, monitoring and management program and other difficulties and suggestions for program
The misunderstood epidemiological determinants of covid 19, problems and solu...Bhoj Raj Singh
COVID-19, a viral disease, fought with political means for socio-economic gains, will keep on haunting humanity for long. Without doing any epidemiological study on COVID-19 we have determined its modulators and determinants not to win over COVID-19 but to create misunderstanding to persist for long in inquisitive minds to blur the vision for novel inventions. This presentation deals with COVID-19 in general and misunderstood disease determinants in particular to suggest possible means to win over the disease. As the tip of COVID-19 iceberg is illusion and reality unknown, thus the struggle is endless.
One World - One Health presentation Katinka de Balogh FAOHarm Kiezebrink
During the FVE conference in Brussels on April 7, 2014, Katinka de Balogh, leader the global Veterinary Public Health activities of the FAO, presented the One-Health approach to highlight the importance of prevention, ensuring health and welfare of people and animals in a globalized environment:
• The benefit coming from the implementation of good health management in practice, both in terms of health and welfare, as well as, of financial sustainability
• The importance of coordinating actions in both sectors via a One-Health approach, with a particular focus on zoonotic diseases
• The role of the medical and veterinary profession in assuring these matters and educating the society
Katinka de Balogh is of Dutch and Hungarian origins and grew up in Latin-America. She studied veterinary medicine in Berlin and Munich and graduated and obtained her doctorate in tropical parasitology from the Tropical Institute of the University of Munich in 1984. In the late 80’s she had spent two years as a young professional at the Veterinary Public Health Unit of the World Health Organization (WHO) in Geneva. In 2002 she started working at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in Rome.
Background of AU-IBAR and brucellosis: Past, present and future in Middle and...ILRI
Presented by Abdelkhalik M. Montasser at a workshop on an integrated approach to controlling brucellosis in Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 29-31 January 2013.
Malta Fever , Brucellosis , is one of the most prevalent zoonotic infection globally. It’s a
bacterial infection caused by Brucella , a Gram-Negative bacteria1
. Brucella melitensis
(transmitted from sheep and goats), B. abortus (transmitted from cattle and bovina), and B.
suis (transmitted to humans from pigs) are the most common species causing human
brucellosis
Bovine Mastitis due to Coliform Bacteria, and Susceptibility to Antibiotics, ...Premier Publishers
This study was aimed at determining the prevalence of coliform bacteria in bovine milk in Plateau State of Nigeria and their antibiotic susceptibility patterns. A total of 640 milk samples were collected aseptically and 160 questionnaires from where data such as breed, age, parity, lactation stage, floor type, and husbandry system were analyzed. Cows without clinical mastitis were subjected to California Mastitis Test to determine the presence of subclinical mastitis. Bacteriological assays and antibiotic susceptibility tests were conducted according to standard guidelines. Subclinical mastitis with a prevalence of 63.8% was more prevalent in cows than clinical mastitis. Overall, the Friesian breed had the highest mastitis prevalence of 85.7% compared to White Fulani (which is indigenous in Nigeria). Cows aged within 2-4 years old had the least mastitis prevalence of 55.2%. Coliforms isolated from milk samples included E coli, K. pneumoniae, K. oxytoca, C. freundii, E. aerogenes, E. cloacae, and S. marcescens, with E coli having the highest prevalence of 44.8%. The most resistant antimicrobial agent was Streptomycin with 79% prevalence. The principle of One Health approach which targets the environment, animals and humans should be considered important. Good hygienic measures should be intensified among pastoralists.
Cattle Ticks and Risk Factors Related to Tick Infestation of Livestock in Per...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Tick-borne diseases are a global public health problem, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where most of the disease is caused by malaria and many other diseases of viral, parasitic or bacterial origin. This study aimed to identify the bovine tick's species in cattle farms and to determine possible risk factors related to tick infestation in Abidjan district and Azaguié commune. Thus, in July 2019, thirteen (13) herds distributed in these localities were visited for tick sampling and to conduct epidemiological investigations. At each visit, ticks were harvested from 15 cattle per herd. All the farms visited were infested with ticks. 96.92% of sampled animals had ticks. A total of 1796 ticks were collected of which 89.42% (1606) were adults, 10.41% (187) were pupae and 0.17% (3) was larvae. Two species of ticks have been identified, Amblyomma variegatum with 25% of the population and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus with 75%. 96% of the cattle were infested by ticks of the species R. (B.) microplus and 56% of the cattle were infested by ticks of the species A. variegatum. The co-infestation of cattle by the two identified species was 53%. The distribution of the sexes showed that in the species A. variegatum, males were more numerous (13.44% for males and 8.76% for females). However in the species R. (B.) microplus, females were more numerous (5.08% for males and 62.3% for females).The analysis of risk factors associated with tick infestation in cattle has shown that factors such as Undefined parks, Type of pasture, Training in the use of acaricides and Presence of wild animals contribute to major ectoparasite infestations in cattle. Tick samples collected from peri-urban farms in the district of Abidjan and the locality of Azaguié as part of this study, indicate that the relatively recent introduction of the species Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus presents a threat to animal and human health.
Malaria infection during pregnancy is a major public health problem- especially in tropical and sub-tropical regions; with substantial risks for the mother, her foetus and the new-born, Pregnant women are particularly susceptible to malaria, and in low transmission settings they have a greater risk of severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria. This study aimed at investigating the rate of parasitaemia amongst pregnant and none pregnant women was conducted among people attending clinics at the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Mambo hospital, Nosam medical laboratory services in Calabar Cross River state. They fall within the age group 18 to 60 years. They were pregnant women who came for Antenatal clinic, controls were sampled from patients who came to request for medical examination and blood donors. Thick and thin blood smears were made from finger prick samples of 400 candidates attending Antenatal clinics 200 of them were from established pregnant women and the other 200 were from non-pregnant women to serve as control. The blood films were dried and fixed in absolute methanol dried and stained with 2% Giemsa stain for 30 min. it was then rinse in clean water and allowed to dry in a draining rack. Dried slides were viewed using x100 oil immersion objective. Result revealed a parasitic rate of 132 (55.9 %) among pregnant women and104 (44.1%) parasitaemia among none pregnant women. The difference between pregnant women and none pegnant women were significantly different at p < 0.05. Similarly, the mean parasite density of the pregnant women was higher 28.9 against 14.2 of control none pregnant women. In conclusion there was a significant density of malaria parasitaemia amongst pregnant women in this study.
Statistical analysis on household factors influencing annual episodes of malariacimran15
Malaria is responsible for about 66 per cent of all clinic visits in Nigeria. It accounts for 25% of under-5 mortality, 30% childhood mortality and 11% maternal mortality. At least 50% of the population will have at least one episode of malaria annually. Moreover, environment dictates the incidence and prevalence of diseases all over the world and if timely action is not taken, it may lead to diseases. Three (3) out of six (6) major towns in Ido local government area are considered and accumulated one hundred and ninety one (191) individuals as respondents using haphazard non probability sampling technique for selection. The obtained data through questionnaire was presented on frequency table and charts while inferential statistics were analysed using dummy variables in regression. It was revealed that majority of the respondents suffered from one or more incidences of malaria in a year, where female had the higher percentage of the incidence and there was high incidence of malaria among the adult ages 30years and above. The qualitative predictor variable in regression analysis revealed significant relationship between annual episode of malaria and number of members of household, toilet type, absent ceiling, building type, disposable site and source of domestic water. The ANOVA, F – test was significant for all predicted factors. Conclusively, in the view of the discovery, it was therefore recommended that people need awareness on densely populated area / household are more prone to experience more episodes of malaria incidence than sparsely populated one, encouragement on utilization of closed domestic water system instead of open system to avoid reservoir for mosquito, enlightenment on type toilet used and avoid absence ceiling to prevent being a breeding site for mosquitoes, government to stage more campaign against malaria especially for adult not for children under 5year alone and create a task force officer/ sanitary inspectors to checkmate sanitation of our environment to avoid unkempt toilet habit which serves as breeding site for mosquitoes.
Prevalence and associated risk factor of bovine calves coccidiosis in nekemt city, oromia, western ethiopia
Authors:Walkite Furgasa , Sosina Dawit , Shibiru Wako and Adisu Dube
Int J Biol Med Res. 2023; 14(4): 7660-7664 | Abstract | PDF File
Brucellosis is an infectious debilitating, acute or sub-acute febrile illness usually marked by an intermittent or remittent fever accompanied by malaise, anorexia and prostration, and which, in the absence of specific treatment, may persist for weeks or months. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between Socio-Demography Characteristics and prevalence of brucellosis among community members in Kenya. A case of Mandera East Sub-county, Mandera County, Kenya. The study was descriptive cross sectional study which collected both qualitative and quantitative data from where a sample of 420 respondents was systematically selected from heads of 2,617 households form Mandera East Sub-county. The study instruments included questionnaire, Focus Group Discussion guide and Interview Guide. Blood samples were screened for brucellosis using Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and the positive sera were subjected through Serum Slow Agglutination Test (SSAT) which acted as a confirmatory test. Data was analyzed using SPSS Version 20 and results of the study presented in frequencies and percentages in Tables and Figures. Ethical issues were observed and consent sought from the respondents. Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) indicated a prevalence of 24.8% (95% CI: 20.0–29.6) and Serum Slow Agglutination Test (SSAT) indicated that the prevalence was at 14.3% (95% CI: 8.7–19.9) among the respondents. The study showed that the seroprevalence was higher among the male respondents (98%; n=103) as detected through RBPT and (98%; n=57) confirmed through SSAT. There was significant relationship between the gender and seroprevalence as tested through RBPT (P<0.001).
Leading the Way in Nephrology: Dr. David Greene's Work with Stem Cells for Ki...Dr. David Greene Arizona
As we watch Dr. Greene's continued efforts and research in Arizona, it's clear that stem cell therapy holds a promising key to unlocking new doors in the treatment of kidney disease. With each study and trial, we step closer to a world where kidney disease is no longer a life sentence but a treatable condition, thanks to pioneers like Dr. David Greene.
CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary gene-editing tool, holds immense potential to reshape medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of life. But like any powerful tool, it comes with ethical considerations.
Unveiling CRISPR: This naturally occurring bacterial defense system (crRNA & Cas9 protein) fights viruses. Scientists repurposed it for precise gene editing (correction, deletion, insertion) by targeting specific DNA sequences.
The Promise: CRISPR offers exciting possibilities:
Gene Therapy: Correcting genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis.
Agriculture: Engineering crops resistant to pests and harsh environments.
Research: Studying gene function to unlock new knowledge.
The Peril: Ethical concerns demand attention:
Off-target Effects: Unintended DNA edits can have unforeseen consequences.
Eugenics: Misusing CRISPR for designer babies raises social and ethical questions.
Equity: High costs could limit access to this potentially life-saving technology.
The Path Forward: Responsible development is crucial:
International Collaboration: Clear guidelines are needed for research and human trials.
Public Education: Open discussions ensure informed decisions about CRISPR.
Prioritize Safety and Ethics: Safety and ethical principles must be paramount.
CRISPR offers a powerful tool for a better future, but responsible development and addressing ethical concerns are essential. By prioritizing safety, fostering open dialogue, and ensuring equitable access, we can harness CRISPR's power for the benefit of all. (2998 characters)
Welcome to Secret Tantric, London’s finest VIP Massage agency. Since we first opened our doors, we have provided the ultimate erotic massage experience to innumerable clients, each one searching for the very best sensual massage in London. We come by this reputation honestly with a dynamic team of the city’s most beautiful masseuses.
One of the most developed cities of India, the city of Chennai is the capital of Tamilnadu and many people from different parts of India come here to earn their bread and butter. Being a metropolitan, the city is filled with towering building and beaches but the sad part as with almost every Indian city
Global launch of the Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index 2nd wave – alongside...ILC- UK
The Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index is an online tool created by ILC that ranks countries on six metrics including, life span, health span, work span, income, environmental performance, and happiness. The Index helps us understand how well countries have adapted to longevity and inform decision makers on what must be done to maximise the economic benefits that comes with living well for longer.
Alongside the 77th World Health Assembly in Geneva on 28 May 2024, we launched the second version of our Index, allowing us to track progress and give new insights into what needs to be done to keep populations healthier for longer.
The speakers included:
Professor Orazio Schillaci, Minister of Health, Italy
Dr Hans Groth, Chairman of the Board, World Demographic & Ageing Forum
Professor Ilona Kickbusch, Founder and Chair, Global Health Centre, Geneva Graduate Institute and co-chair, World Health Summit Council
Dr Natasha Azzopardi Muscat, Director, Country Health Policies and Systems Division, World Health Organisation EURO
Dr Marta Lomazzi, Executive Manager, World Federation of Public Health Associations
Dr Shyam Bishen, Head, Centre for Health and Healthcare and Member of the Executive Committee, World Economic Forum
Dr Karin Tegmark Wisell, Director General, Public Health Agency of Sweden
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
Navigating the Health Insurance Market_ Understanding Trends and Options.pdfEnterprise Wired
From navigating policy options to staying informed about industry trends, this comprehensive guide explores everything you need to know about the health insurance market.
Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION TOOLKIT Determining Performance Characteristics o...
2 (1)
1. ARC Journal of Immunology and Vaccines
Volume 3, Issue 2, 2018, PP 7-14
www.arcjournals.org
ARC Journal of Immunology and Vaccines Page | 7
Asero-Prevalence of Small Ruminant Brucellosis in Selected
Settlements of Dire Dawa Administrative Council Area, Eastern
Ethiopia
Abu Teshome2
, Geremew Haile1*
, Lijalem Nigussie3
1
School of Veterinary Medicine, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia
2
Hawasa University, Collage of veterinary medicine, Hawasa, Ethiopia
3
Jigjiga University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jigjiga, Ethiopia
1. INTRODUCTION
Livestock plays a crucial role in the livelihoods
of the majority of Africans. It accounts for 16%
of the national and 27-30% of the agricultural
GDPs and 13% of the country’s export earnings.
The greatest share of this income is from small
ruminants [1]. Small ruminants play a big role in
supporting the livelihood system of the poorest
men and women livestock keepers, especially in
the marginalized areas. Sheep and goats are
highly adaptable to broad range of
environmental conditions. Moreover, low cost
of production, requirement of little land and
higher prolificacy made them attractive asset for
development. Investment in sheep and goats
avoid losses due to high inflation rates that are
found in unstable economies of many
underdeveloped countries like Ethiopia. This is
because sheep and goats provide rapid cash turn
over [2, 3]. This sub-sector receives only very
small attention in the poor countries and
diseases of small ruminants affect the incomes
of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa by
reducing productivity or through loss of the
animals [4].
The small ruminant population of Ethiopia is
estimated to be nearly 23.33 million goats and
23.62 million sheep. In the central highlands,
Ethiopia, where mixed crop- livestock
production system is practiced of small
ruminants account for 40% of cash income and
19% of the house hold meat consumption[5].
In spite of the presence of huge small ruminant
population, Ethiopia fails to optimally utilize
this resource as a sector. This is because of
small ruminant production is constrained by the
compound effect of diseases, poor feeding, poor
management and low genetic endowment. The
health and production of animals as well as the
wellbeing of humans have been seriously
endangered by pathogenic infections. Among
these pathogens, different species of brucella are
involved in causing brucellosis which is a major
disease of domestic livestock and wild animals
with serious zoonotic implications in man [6].
One of such disease that hampers the
productivity of small ruminants is brucellosis [7,
8].
Brucellosis is an acute infectious bacterial
disease of domestic, livestock and wild animals
Abstract: The cross sectional study of small ruminant brucellosis was conducted at 8 selected PAs of Dire
Dawa Administrative council from November 2013 to April 2014 to determine the sero-prevalence of small
ruminant brucellosis. A total of 424 serum sample are taken; 159 from sheep and 265 from goats and tested
for presence of Brucella antibodies against Brucellosis. The sera were first screened for Brucella antibodies
using RBPT and positive sera were subjected to the CFT. In this study the overall rate prevalence 2.6% was
recorded in small ruminant: 3.02% and 1.9% in goat and in sheep respectively. There was no statically
significant difference observed in the prevalence of the disease among different age group, and between sex
and species (p>0.05).The prevalence range from o-4.9% were observed in different PAs. Most of the
respondent 66.7 % have no awareness about the Zoonotic importance of the disease. 72.2% of flock owners
drinks raw milk and 96.3%flock owner handle animals retained fetal membrane with bare hand .In
conclusion small ruminant brucellosis were found to be spread in the study area, and the management
practice and tradition of using animal’s products exposes the society to Brucella infection.
Keywords: Brucellosis, Sero-prevalence, Dire Dawa, Small Ruminant
*Corresponding Author: Geremew Haile, School of Veterinary Medicine, Wollega University, Nekemte,
Ethiopia, Email: geremewlov@gmail.com
2. Asero-Prevalence of Small Ruminant Brucellosis in Selected Settlements of Dire Dawa Administrative
Council Area, Eastern Ethiopia
ARC Journal of Immunology and Vaccines Page | 8
which caused by genus Brucella species that has
serious zoonotic implications in man; causing
huge economic losses to the livestock industry.
Cattle, goats, pigs, sheep, horses and dogs play
an important role in the transmission of this
disease to man. It is also defined as a contagious
systemic bacterial disease primarily of
ruminants, characterized by inflammation of the
genital organs and fetal membranes, abortion,
sterility and formation of localized lesions in the
lymphatic system and joints [9, 10].
The genus Brucella which is causative agent of
brucellosis now considered to contain different
species: namely, B. abortus, B. melitensis, B.
suis, B. ovis, B. canis and B. neotomae.
Brucellamelitensis (biovars 1, 2 or 3) is the
main causative agent of caprine and ovine
brucellosis and it is highly pathogenic for
humans causing one of the most serious
zoonosis in the world [11]. The disease occurs
worldwide, except in those countries where
bovine brucellosis (B. abortus) has been
eradicated. The disease remains endemic among
Mediterranean countries of Europe, Northern
and Eastern Africa, Near East countries, India,
Central Asia, Mexico and Central and South
America. Although B. mellitensis has never
been detected in some countries, there are no
reliable reports that it has ever been eradicated
from small ruminants [12]. Furthermore,
brucellosis is also considered as a re-emerging
problem in many countries such as Israel,
Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Brazil and Colombia,
where there is an increasing incidence of B.
mellitensis or B. suisbiovar1 infection in cattle
[13].
Brucellosis remains widespread in the livestock
populations, and represents a great economic
and public health problem in African countries.
The epidemiology of the disease in livestock
and humans as well as appropriate preventive
measures is not well understood, and in
particular such information is inadequate in sub-
Saharan Africa. In many developing countries,
including Ethiopia, a high proportion of the
population resides in rural areas where
agriculture is the main source of their
livelihood. Furthermore, a sizeable proportion
engages in livestock production, resulting in a
high level of contact with animals and increased
risk of Zoonotic infection [14].
In small ruminant, the disease results in
significant economic losses due to reproductive
impairment caused by abortion, stillbirth or
weak lambs and kids, neonatal mortality and,
infertility [15]. In humans, brucellosis is often
easily misdiagnosed as other febrile syndromes
such as malaria and typhoid fever, thereby
resulting in mistreatments and underreporting
[16]. It is acquired in people through breaks in
the skin following direct contact with infected
animals’ tissues or blood or their secretions.
Infection may also result from consumption of
contaminated unpasteurized milk and milk
products. Generally, poor hygiene, prevalence
of the disease in animals and practices that
expose humans to infected animals or their
products influence the occurrence of the disease
in humans). Occupational groups at higher risk
of infection include cattle producers,
veterinarians, animal health personnel, abattoir
workers, laboratory personnel and those
amongst the general public who are a consumer
of animal product. The traditional lifestyle,
beliefs and poor knowledge of the disease create
favorable conditions for the spread and
transmission of Brucellosis. The risks associated
with these practices are difficult to control
because of a lack of alternatives and simple
and/or affordable solutions. The control of
brucellosis is likely to be cost effective. Good
quantitative information on brucellosis in
livestock and the human population is essential
for demonstrating the benefits of intervention
[17].
Therefore, adequate knowledge of the
epidemiology of Brucellosis is of great public
health importance, particularly amongst
livestock workers and animal product
consumers, as this will greatly assist in mapping
out strategies for its control. Despite the
presence of larger population of small ruminants
in different regions of Ethiopia, very limited
researches has been done on small ruminant
brucellosis, even if it is said to be endemic in the
country. The objective of the study is to
determine the seroprevalence of small ruminant
Brucellosis in and around Dire Dawa.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1.Study Area
The study area, Dire Dawa administrative
council, is situated ~ 518 km East of the capital
city, Addis Ababa, between 09°28'N to 09°49'N
latitude and 41°38'E to 42°19'E longitude. It is
situated at an altitude range of 950 to 2250
m.a.s.l., and encompasses an area of 1288.02
km2
. The rainfall pattern is bimodal with the
highest rainfall in July and August with an
3. Asero-Prevalence of Small Ruminant Brucellosis in Selected Settlements of Dire Dawa Administrative
Council Area, Eastern Ethiopia
ARC Journal of Immunology and Vaccines Page | 9
average 700 to 900 mm. The monthly mean
maximum temperature ranges from 28.1°C in
December and January to 34.6°C in May. It is
considered the most important area for sheep
and goat production. The small ruminant
population of the administrative council was
estimated to be 227,481 heads (54,600 sheep
and 172,881 Goats) [18]
2.2.Study Animals
The study animals consisted of 424 traditionally
managed small ruminants including 159 sheep
and 265 goats above 6 month. The animals were
obtained from Adigafelema, Goladey, Dire
Dawa, Goro, Bishan Behe, Koriso, Jaldessa and
Dujuma peasant associations (PAs). There was
no history of vaccination of brucellosis in the
study area.
2.3.Study Design
A cross-sectional study was carried out to
determine the seroprevalence of small ruminant
brucellosis from November 2004 to April 2005.
Sera samples of 424 were collected from
randomly selected sheep and goats in and
around Dire Dawa city. Approximately 7-10ml
of blood was drown from jugular vein of
apparently healthy adult sheep and goats using
plain vacutainer tubes and needles. Individual
tubes were identified using numbers and
alphabets to indicate their origin, date of
collection, species, age, sex. The tubes were left
tilt over night at room temperature to allow
clotting. The sera was removed from the clot
(unretracted blood being centrifuged) by
siphoning into sterile test tubes in icebox and
stored at -20.
2.3.1.Sampling Method
The design adopted for this study was a cross-
sectional survey whereby blood samples were
taken from randomly selected small ruminants
belonging to four peasant associations.
Simultaneously, a questionnaire was
administered to small ruminant owning family
members. The sample size was determined
using the method recommended by [19] for
simple random sampling. With an expected
prevalence of 50% of small ruminant brucellosis
in the selected sites, 0.05% desired absolute
precision and 95% level of confidence, the
target sample size was calculated to be 384.
However, a total of 424 animals (159 sheep and
265 goats) were sampled.
Hence n = (Zx)2
Pexp (1-Pexp) (Thrusfield,
1995)
d2
Where: n = the required sample size, Pexp =
the expected prevalence rate (50%), Zx = the
value of the required confidence interval (1.96)
d = desired absolute precision (5%) until
serological testing was performed.
2.3.2.Questionnaire Survey
The questionnaire was administered only to
small ruminant owners in all selected peasant
associations by personal interview. The
questions were related to the awareness of small
ruminant abortions, the consumption of small
ruminants’ meat and milk; the practices of
handling aborted foetuses and retained foetal
membranes.
2.3.3.Serum Sample Collection
Prior to blood sampling, data on species, origin,
sex and age of the animals were registered. Only
sheep and goats older than 6 month were
sampled. Blood samples were collected using
plain vacutainer tubes and needles directly from
the jugular vein and kept overnight to clot at a
slanting position at room temperature. Then, the
separated serum was carefully collected in a
cryovial stored at - 20°C [20] at Dire Dawa
Veterinary Diagnostic and Investigation
Laboratory until further processing conducted.
Furthermore, history of abortion and placenta
retention were being recorded.
Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT): The Rose
Bengal Plate Test was used as a screening test
for the serum samples collected for the presence
of brucella agglutinins. The test is conducted as
per the procedure recommended by [21, 22].
The antigen is obtained from Institute Pourquier,
Montpellier, France. This test was carried out at
National Veterinary Institution at Debra zeit.
The interpretation of the results is done
according to the degree of agglutination 0, +, ++
and +++. A score of 0 indicates the absence of
agglutination; + indicates barely visible
agglutinations; ++ indicates fine agglutination,
and +++ indicates coarse clumping. Those
samples with no agglutination (0) are recorded
as negative while others will record as positive.
Complement fixation test (CFT): All sera which
tested positive by the RBPT were retest using
CFT for further confirmation. Standard B.
abortus antigen for CFT is used to detect the
presence of anti-brucella antibodies in the sera.
The test antigen is obtained from Addlestone,
United Kingdom. The Complement Fixation
Test (CFT) were done at National Veterinary
Institution (NVI) laboratory at Debra Zeit. Sera
4. Asero-Prevalence of Small Ruminant Brucellosis in Selected Settlements of Dire Dawa Administrative
Council Area, Eastern Ethiopia
ARC Journal of Immunology and Vaccines Page | 10
with strong reaction, more than 75% fixation of
complement (3+) at a dilution of 1: 5 and at
least 50% fixation of complement (2%) at a
dilution of 1:10 and at dilution of 1:20 will
classified as positive [20,23].
2.4.Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using STATA [24].
Descriptive statistics was employed in
determining the prevalence of small ruminant
brucellosis and the traditions and practices of
small ruminant owners. The logistic regression
model was used to identify whether the potential
risk factors such as origin of animals, species,
sex and age of the small ruminants influenced
the sero-prevalence of small ruminant brucellosis.
A significant association was said to exist if the
Odds ratio (OR) is different from one and the
95% confidence interval of the OR does not
include one
3. RESULT
3.1.Prevalence
Of the 424 animals (159 sheep and 265 goats)
the overall sero prevalence of small ruminants
were found to be 2.6% (11/424) with the sero
prevalence 1.9 % (3/159) and 3.0% (8/265) in
sheep and goats, respectively (Table 1).
The logistic regression analysis of the risk
factors revealed that there is no significant
association between some of the risk factors
(species age) and the occurrence of brucellosis
in small ruminants. On the other hand, sex was
found to be important risk factors indicating the
significant difference in the occurrence of
brucellosis between male and female. In the
current study, of the 424 tested small ruminants
the entire positives were found to be female
animals (3 sheep and 8 goats). To measure the
level/strength of association between the
brucellosis occurrence and the sex using Odds
Ratio cannot be calculated by the employed
software (STATA) as the number of positive
male animals were zero. But is possible to
understand from the Table–2 this is substantial
difference between the sexes.
Even though there was no significant difference,
a variation in sero-prevalence of Brucella
antibody among different age groups was
observed from in this study. The sero-
prevalence in age groups were (1.2% ), (5.5%)
and (1.7%), in young, adult and old age groups,
respectively among different age groups, in
which the chance of the occurrence of
brucellosis was 5.5 times higher in the medium
group animals than the young group. There is
also higher sero prevalence found in goats (3.0
%) than sheep (1.2%) found in goat and sheep
respectively.
Table1. Sero prevalence of small ruminant brucellosis in different sex and species
Risk factors Number of Sera CFT Positive (%) OR P-value 95% CI
Sex Male 85 0 5.51 0.12 0.65-46.9
Female 339 11(2.6)
Species Sheep 159 3(1.9)
Goat 265 8(3.02)
Total 424 2.59
Table2. Sero prevalence of small ruminant Brucellosis in different PAs
PAs Number of sera CFT positive Prevalence (%)
AdigaFelema 46 1 2.2
BishanBehe 57 2 3.4
Dire Dawa 68 3 4.4
GoleAdey 49 2 4.1
Goro 61 3 4.9
Koriso 47 0 0
Jaldessa 53 0 0
Dujuma 43 0 0
Total 424 11 2.6
Table3. Sero prevalence of small ruminant brucellosis in different age group
Risk factor Number of Sera CFT positive (%) OR P-value 95% CI
Age Young 85 1(1.2)
Medium 109 6 (5.5) 5.5 0.12 0.6-46.9
Adult 230 4 (1.7) 1.76 0.7 0.2-14.3
Total 424 11 (2.6)
5. Asero-Prevalence of Small Ruminant Brucellosis in Selected Settlements of Dire Dawa Administrative
Council Area, Eastern Ethiopia
ARC Journal of Immunology and Vaccines Page | 11
Table4. Questionnaire for risk group people on ways of milk consumption, awareness and ways of handling
placenta.
Risk factors Number of people Percentage
Ways of milk consumption Raw 39 72%
Boiled 13 24%
Occasionally raw 24 44%
Awareness about zoonosis having awareness 18 33%
No awareness 36 66.7
Ways of handling placenta with glove 34 67%
Without glove 52 96.3
Total No of respondents 54
4. DISCUSSION
The overall prevalence of small ruminant
Brucellosis in this study, based on RBPT, was
determined as 3.5% whereas on the basis of
CFT, the prevalence was 2.6%.This study
demonstrated that the overall individual animal
level sero-prevalence of brucellosis in small
ruminant was 2.6% (3.0% in goats and 1.9% in
sheep). In the present study there is no statically
significant difference between sheep and goat. It
seems to contradiction with the established
facts, in which goat are more susceptible to
brucella infection than sheep that could due to
the fact sheep do not excrete the organism for
long period of time unlike goat. This can
mitigate the potential of the spread of the
disease among sheep flock [24].
The present investigation recorded a higher
sero-prevalence of Brucellosis in goats (3.02%)
than sheep (1.9%). These similar results were
recorded; 3.2% in goats and 1.6% in sheep in
Southern Ethiopia [25], 3.8% in goats and 1.4%
in sheep in Eritrea [26] and 4.1% in goats and
1.6% in sheep in East Morocco [27]. Higher
sero-prevalence of 16.7% in goats and 14.2% in
sheep in Afar [28] and 5.8% in goats and 3.2%
in sheep in Afar, Ethiopia [29] .Most breeds of
goats are fully susceptible but susceptibility of
sheep breeds differs widely [30].
This difference might be due to the differences
in flock sizes and proportions of goats and sheep
in the herd that is 159 sheep and 265 goats in
this present study. In addition, sheep are more
resistant than goats and they do not shade the
bacteria for long time. Flocks with high
numbers of sheep would have low prevalence
[31]. Persistent infection of the mammary
glands and supramammary lymph nodes is
common in goats with constant or intermittent
shedding of the organisms in the milk in
succeeding lactations, while the self-limiting
nature of the disease in sheep, which is seldom
accompanied by prolonged excretion of the
bacteria [32].
Excretion from the vagina in goats is more
copious and prolonged than sheep and lasts for
at least 2-3 months. In addition, goats are
considered as the principal host of brucella
melitensis, whereas, sheep are not significantly
infected even when kept in close contact with
goats [33]. Infection can vary from a short time
occurrence to persistent occurrence for years. In
sheep, the course of infection depends upon the
dose of infection and after recovery they are
resistant to re-infection [30].
In the present study there is no statically
significant difference between different sex
groups. It seems to contradiction with the
established facts, however it is difficult to make
firm conclusion as the number of animals is low
in study proportion within the factors. The
present study showed, CFT positive sera were
found only in female animals. The absence of
male sero reactor animals in this study could
probably be due to the small number of males
(N=85) tested as compared to the number of
females (n=339). It has also been reported that
males are usually resistant than female animals
to brucella infection [31, 34] have reported that
male animals are less susceptible to infection,
due to the absence of erythritol. Moreover, it has
been reported that the serological response of
male animals to brucella infection is limited and
testes of infected male animals were usually
observed to be non-reactors or showed low
antibody titers [35].
A higher prevalence was presently noted in
medium age group animals than adult ones.
Those at the age of 3 to 5 years (5.50%) were
more sero positive than those below three years
old (1.8%). However, the variation was
statistically non-significant (Table 3) and this
variation could be due to the low number of
sampled animals in this age group and The
placenta is a favored site for replication of the
6. Asero-Prevalence of Small Ruminant Brucellosis in Selected Settlements of Dire Dawa Administrative
Council Area, Eastern Ethiopia
ARC Journal of Immunology and Vaccines Page | 12
organism large numbers of the organism can be
found in chorionic trophoblasts, which contain
metabolically active cells capable of producing
a variety of hormones and secretory proteins
that may stimulate the growth of brucella [31].
Among the selected sites, sero-prevalence of
small ruminant brucellosis was highest in sheep
and goats sampled from Goro and Dire Dawa;
and lowest in that Dujuma, Jeldessa and Koriso
although this difference was not found to be
statistically significant.
This may due to favoring factors (husbandry,
climate, season, lambing): The system of
husbandry as well as the environmental
conditions greatly influence the spread of
infection. Thus lambing/kidding in dark,
crowded enclosures is more favorable to spread
than lambing/kidding in the open air in a dry
environment. The spread of infection between
flocks generally follows the movement or
gathering of infected animals. The main risk for
introducing the disease into a previously non-
infected area is by purchase of infected animal
(animal movement). Intermingling of flocks
may occur under nomadic or semi nomadic
conditions of husbandry and also in static
village flocks where animals are taken daily for
grazing on common pastures are also considered
as a factor of different in prevalence’s in
different PAs.
Brucellosis is transmissible from animals to
humans through contaminated milk, raw milk
products, meat or direct contact with infected
animals. During the study questioner survey was
collected from different age groups of person
(Table 4) on ways handling of fetal membrane,
consumption of milk, sharing of night
accommodation. From the 54 of the respondents
tradition of consuming raw milk 39 (72.2%),
sharing night accommodation with their animals
33 (61.1%) and handling of abortion and
retained fetal membranes with bare hands 52
(96.3 %), in lack of awareness of the zoonotic
nature of the disease 36 (66.7 %) have put the
people at high risk of contracting the infection
from the animals. It is the fact that the ingestion
of raw milk is the main source of infection in
human. Milk contaminated with
brucellamelitensis is particularly hazardous as it
drink in fairly large volume and may contain
large number of pathogen organisms [9]. Certain
occupations are associated with high risk of
infections with brucellosis. These include
people who work with farm animals,
veterinarians, laboratory staff, and abattoir
workers [9]. The questioner survey also
indicates that children and women are more
vulnerable to brucella infection as most of
activities related with sheep and goat like
herding (children 98.1%), milking (children
37.03%, women 96.3%) and milk handling
(women 100%) are carried out by them. Some
studies show that sero positivity in humans was
significantly associated with raw milk ingestion
[36, 37].
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The result of this study reveals that there is a
spread of small ruminant brucellosis in the study
area with over all prevalence of 2.6%.Such
finding of prevalence in the absence of
vaccination against brucellosis indicate
occurrence of natural infection. This study also
indicate that there is a tradition of consuming
raw milk, sharing night accommodation, with
animals and handling abortion and retained fetal
membrane without wearing protective glove,
which in lack of awareness of the disease and its
zoonotic nature put the people at high risk of
brucella infection. Children and women have
been found at high risk of contracting the
brucella infection as they carry out most of the
activities related with small ruminants. In line
with the above conclusion, the following
recommendations are forwarded:
Further epidemiological studies and
identification and isolation of the biotype of
Brucella responsible for infection in study
areas
A routine vaccination scheme should be
practiced in order to reduce its prevalence
among animals and subsequently in humans.
There should be public education about
brucellosis in general and its Zoonotic
importance.
Human brucellosis should be considered in
the differential diagnosis of certain febrile
disease in the study area.
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