1st Semester Outcome All Subjects BS EDUCATION UOS.docx

BS EDUCATION
SEMESTER 1st
Session (2023-2027)
From March 2023 to July 2023
Important Question and their Answers Notes
Kamran Abdullah
EDUC51S23R004
SUBJECTS
1. ENGLISH…………………………………Ms Sana Umar
2. Instructional Methods………………Mr Akhyar Ahmed
3. Computer Application………………Ch Naveed Afzal
4. Introduction to Education ………Dr. Tariq Saleem Ghayyur
5. Pakistan Studies ……………………Mr Fazal Karim
6. Language and Linguistics ………Ms Naseem Kousar

1. ENGLISH…………………….Ms Sana Umar
1. Language:
 Definition: A system of communication using words and symbols, allowing people to express
thoughts, ideas, and emotions.
2. Communication:
 Definition: The process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, or feelings between
individuals or groups.
3. Grammar:
 Definition: A set of rules governing the structure of language, including syntax, semantics, and
phonetics.
4. Sentence:
 Definition: A group of words expressing a complete thought, consisting of a subject and a
predicate.
5. Parts of Sentence:
 Subject: The main noun or pronoun that the sentence is about.
 Predicate: The action or state of being performed by the subject.
6. Phrase:
 Definition: A group of words that functions as a single unit within a sentence but does not
contain a complete thought.
7. Clause:
 Definition: A group of words containing a subject and a verb, forming part of a sentence.
8. Types of Sentences:
 Simple Sentence: Contains one independent clause.
 Compound Sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses.
 Complex Sentence: Contains an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
 Multiple Sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause.
 Declarative Sentence: Makes a statement.
 Interrogative Sentence: Asks a question.
 Imperative Sentence: Gives a command.
 Exclamatory Sentence: Expresses strong emotion.
 Optative Sentence: Expresses a wish or desire.

Noun Types Brief Definition Examples
Common Noun
General name for a person, place, thing, or
idea. Book, City, Idea
Proper Noun
Specific name for a particular person or
place. London, Shakespeare, iPhone
Abstract Noun Represents ideas, concepts, or qualities. Love, Courage, Knowledge
Concrete Noun Refers to tangible, physical objects. Table, Car, Tree
Countable Noun Can be counted as individual units. Apple, Chair, Dog
Uncountable
Noun Cannot be counted as individual units. Water, Advice, Happiness
Collective Noun Represents a group or collection of entities. Team, Family, Flock
Compound Noun Composed of two or more words. Toothpaste, Sunflower, Classroom
Pronoun Types Brief Definition Examples
Personal Pronoun Refers to specific people or things. I, You, He
Demonstrative Pronoun Points to a specific person, thing, or idea. This, Those, That
Interrogative Pronoun Used to ask questions. Who, What, Which
Relative Pronoun Introduces a relative clause and relates it to the noun. Who, Which, That
Reflexive Pronoun Reflects the action of the verb back on the subject. Myself, Yourself, Himself
Intensive Pronoun Emphasizes a preceding noun, pronoun, or phrase. Himself, Itself, Myself
Adjective Types Brief Definition Examples
Descriptive Adjective
Provides more information about a noun's
characteristics. Beautiful, Cold, Enormous
Demonstrative
Adjective Specifies which noun is referred to. This, Those, These
Interrogative
Adjective Asks a question about a noun. Which, What, Whose
Possessive Adjective Shows ownership or possession. My, Your, Their
Quantitative Adjective Indicates the quantity or amount of a noun. Few, Many, Some
Qualitative Adjective Describes the quality or kind of a noun. Honest, Intelligent, Beautiful
Part of Speech Brief Definition Examples
Noun Represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Dog, City, Happiness
Pronoun Takes the place of a noun. He, She, It
Adjective Describes or modifies a noun. Red, Tall, Happy
Verb Indicates an action or state of being. Run, Jump, Think
Adverb Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Quickly, Loudly, Very
Preposition Indicates relationships between other words in a sentence. In, On, Under
Conjunction Connects words, phrases, or clauses. And, But, Or
Interjection Expresses strong emotion. Wow, Ouch, Alas

Verb Types Brief Definition Examples
Action Verb Describes an action performed by the subject. Run, Jump, Sing
Linking Verb Connects the subject to a subject complement. Is, Am, Are
Helping Verb Assists the main verb in a sentence. Have, Do, Can
Adverb Types Brief Definition Examples
Adverb of Time Describes when an action occurs. Now, Yesterday, Soon
Adverb of Place Describes where an action occurs. Here, There, Everywhere
Adverb of
Manner Describes how an action is performed. Quickly, Carefully, Slowly
Adverb of
Degree
Modifies the intensity or degree of an adjective or
adverb. Very, Too, Quite
Conjunction Types Brief Definition Examples
Coordinating
Conjunction
Joins words, phrases, or clauses of equal
importance. And, But, Or
Subordinating
Conjunction
Introduces dependent clauses and connects
them to independent clauses. Because, Although, While
Correlative
Conjunction
Occur in pairs and connect similar words or
groups of words. Either...Or, Neither...Nor, Both...And
Interjection Types Brief Definition Examples
Wow Interjection Expresses strong amazement or admiration. Wow, Amazing, Unbelievable
Oh Interjection Indicates surprise, realization, or understanding. Oh, I see, Oh no
Alas Interjection Conveys sorrow, regret, or grief. Alas, Poor me, Alas, we lost

Tense Active Passive
Simple
Present
Zaid cleans the room.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫ا‬ ‫رت‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ے۔‬ ‫ہ‬
The room is cleaned by Zaid.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫عے‬ ‫ذری‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫یا‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ا‬ ‫جات‬ ‫ے۔‬ ‫ہ‬
Present
Continuous
Zaid is cleaning the room.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ا‬‫رہ‬ ‫ے۔‬ ‫ہ‬
The room is being cleaned by Zaid.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫عے‬ ‫ذری‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫یا‬ ‫ک‬ ‫جا‬ ‫ا‬‫رہ‬ ‫ے۔‬ ‫ہ‬
Present
Perfect
Zaid has cleaned the room.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ردی‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ے۔‬ ‫ہ‬
The room has been cleaned by Zaid.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫عے‬ ‫ذری‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫یا‬ ‫ک‬ ‫یا‬ ‫گ‬ ‫ے۔‬‫ہ‬
Simple Past
Zaid cleaned the room.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫یا۔‬ ‫ک‬
The room was cleaned by Zaid.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫عے‬ ‫ذری‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫یا‬ ‫ک‬ ‫یا۔‬ ‫گ‬
Past
Continuous
Zaid was cleaning the room.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ا‬‫رہ‬ ‫ھا۔‬ ‫ت‬
The room was being cleaned by Zaid.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫عے‬ ‫ذری‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫یا‬ ‫ک‬ ‫جا‬ ‫ا‬‫رہ‬ ‫ھا۔‬ ‫ت‬
Past Perfect
Zaid had cleaned the room.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ا‬ ‫دی‬ ‫ھا۔‬ ‫ت‬
The room had been cleaned by Zaid.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫عے‬ ‫ذری‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ا‬ ‫دی‬ ‫یا‬ ‫گ‬ ‫ھا۔‬ ‫ت‬
Future Simple
Zaid will clean the room.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫رے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ا۔‬ ‫گ‬
The room will be cleaned by Zaid.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫عے‬ ‫ذری‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫یا‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ے‬ ‫جائ‬ ‫ا۔‬ ‫گ‬
Going to
Zaid is going to clean the room.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫ے‬ ‫رن‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ا‬‫جارہ‬ ‫ے۔‬ ‫ہ‬
The room is going to be cleaned by Zaid.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫عے‬ ‫ذری‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫یا‬ ‫ک‬ ‫ے‬ ‫جان‬ ‫ال‬ ‫وا‬ ‫ے۔‬ ‫ہ‬
Future Perfect
Zaid will have cleaned the room.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫کا‬ ‫چ‬ ‫ا۔‬ ‫وگ‬ ‫ہ‬
The room will have been cleaned by Zaid.
‫د‬ ‫زی‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫عے‬ ‫ذری‬ ‫ہ‬‫مر‬ ‫ک‬ ‫صاف‬ ‫یا‬ ‫ک‬ ‫جا‬ ‫کا‬ ‫چ‬ ‫ا۔‬ ‫وگ‬ ‫ہ‬
Active Voice (‫ہیلعاف‬ ‫)زاوآ‬:
 The subject performs the action.
 Follows the Subject-Object-Verb (‫لعاف‬ - ‫عول‬‫ف‬ ‫م‬- (‫عل‬ ‫ف‬order.
 Example: ‫ے‬‫ہ‬ ‫ا‬‫رہ‬ ‫ڑھ‬ ‫پ‬ ‫تاب‬ ‫ک‬ ‫چہ‬ ‫(ب‬Baccha kitaab parh raha hai) - The child is reading a book.
Passive Voice (:(‫آواز‬ ‫یہ‬ ‫عول‬ ‫ف‬ ‫م‬
 The action is performed on the subject.
 Often uses the auxiliary verb "‫"انوہ‬ (hona) in its various conjugations.
 Subject (now the object of the action) is usually added afterwards, often with the preposition " ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬
‫عے‬ ‫"ذری‬ (ke zariye) meaning "by."
 Example: ‫ے‬‫ہ‬ ‫ی‬ ‫رہ‬ ‫جا‬ ‫ڑھی‬ ‫پ‬ ‫عے‬ ‫ذری‬ ‫ے‬ ‫ک‬ ‫چے‬ ‫ب‬ ‫تاب‬ ‫(ک‬Kitaab bacche ke zariye padhi jaa rahi hai) - The
book is being read by the child.
2. Introduction to Education………………. Dr. Tariq Saleem Ghayyur
1. Education: The process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values,
beliefs, and habits.

2. Education as Process and Product:
 Process: Refers to the methods, techniques, and activities involved in teaching and
learning.
 Product: Refers to the outcomes or results of the educational process, such as knowledge,
skills, attitudes, and behaviors acquired by learners.
3. Functions of Education:
 Transmitting knowledge and culture.
 Socialization and personal development.
 Preparation for work and citizenship.
 Promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
 Fostering social cohesion and unity.
4. Elements of Education: Include teachers, students, curriculum, learning resources, teaching
methods, assessment tools, and learning environments.
5. Modes of Education:
 Formal Education: Structured and systematic education provided in schools, colleges, and
universities.
 Informal Education: Learning that occurs through daily life experiences, interactions with
others, and self-directed activities.
 Non-formal Education: Organized educational activities outside the formal system, often
targeting specific groups or communities.
6. Islamic Foundation of Education: Derived from principles found in the Quran, Hadith (sayings
of Prophet Muhammad), and Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh), emphasizing the pursuit of knowledge,
morality, social justice, and holistic development.
7. Philosophical Foundation of Education: The philosophical theories and ideas that underpin
educational practices and goals, such as idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism.
8. Relationship of Philosophy and Education: Philosophy provides the theoretical framework and
principles that guide educational practices and decision-making, influencing curriculum
development, teaching methods, and educational goals.
9. School: An institution where formal education is imparted to students under the guidance of
teachers.
10. Society: A group of individuals living together in a community and sharing common customs,
traditions, and institutions.
11. Culture: The beliefs, values, customs, and behaviors shared by a group of people and transmitted
from one generation to the next.
12. Community: A group of people living in the same locality or sharing common interests, values,
or characteristics.
13. Diversity: The presence of different social, cultural, ethnic, or demographic groups within a
society or community.
14. Politics: The activities, processes, and principles involved in governance and decision-making
within a society.
15. Learning: The process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviors through study,
experience, or teaching.
16. Maturation: The natural process of physical, mental, and emotional development that occurs
with age.
17. Instruction: The act of teaching or providing guidance to learners to facilitate learning.
18. Training: The process of developing specific skills or competencies through structured activities
or exercises.
19. Experience: The knowledge or skills acquired through direct observation, participation, or
involvement in events or activities.

20. Aims and Goals: The desired outcomes or objectives of education, such as intellectual
development, moral growth, career preparation, or social transformation.
21. Curriculum: The planned sequence of learning experiences and activities designed to achieve
specific educational goals.
22. Syllabus: An outline or summary of the topics, themes, and learning objectives covered in a
course or educational program.
23. Guidance and Counselling: Support services provided to students to help them make informed
decisions, address personal or academic challenges, and develop self-awareness and life skills.
24. Types of Learning:
 Cognitive Learning: Acquisition of knowledge, understanding, and problem-solving skills.
 Affective Learning: Development of attitudes, values, and beliefs.
 Psychomotor Learning: Acquisition of physical skills and coordination.
25. Types of Societies and Communities:
 Traditional Society: Characterized by strong social ties, shared customs, and limited
technological advancement.
 Industrial Society: Marked by urbanization, industrialization, and economic specialization.
 Post-Industrial Society: Emphasizes information, technology, and knowledge-based economy.
 Rural Community: Predominantly agricultural or rural areas with close-knit social networks.
 Urban Community: Large, densely populated areas with diverse populations and economic
activities.
3. Instructional Methods ……………….Mr Akhyar Ahmad
1. Effective Teaching Measures: Techniques, strategies, or actions employed by teachers to
enhance student learning and engagement in the classroom.
2. Principles of Effective Teaching: Fundamental guidelines or beliefs that guide teachers in their
instructional practices, such as clarity, relevance, engagement, and assessment.
3. Approaches to Teaching: Different philosophies or frameworks used by teachers to guide their
instructional practices, such as behaviorism, constructivism, and social constructivism.
4. Teaching Methods: Specific techniques or strategies used by teachers to deliver instruction and
facilitate learning, such as lectures, discussions, cooperative learning, and hands-on activities.
5. Styles and Outcomes of Teaching: Refers to the various teaching styles employed by educators
(e.g., authoritative, facilitative, demonstrative) and the desired learning outcomes or objectives of
instruction.
6. Inquiry Approach: A teaching approach that emphasizes critical thinking, problem-solving, and
exploration through questioning, investigation, and discovery.
7. Factors of Effective Teaching: Includes factors such as teacher knowledge and expertise,
classroom management skills, instructional clarity, student engagement, and feedback
mechanisms.
8. Steps of Lesson Planning: Typically involve setting learning objectives, designing instructional
activities, selecting teaching materials, implementing strategies, and assessing student learning.
9. Importance of Lesson Planning: Provides a roadmap for effective instruction, ensures alignment
with learning goals, optimizes instructional time, and facilitates student learning and engagement.
10. Formative and Summative Assessment: Formative assessment occurs during the learning
process to provide feedback and guide instruction, while summative assessment occurs at the
end to evaluate student learning outcomes.

11. Scientific Method and its Steps: A systematic approach to inquiry involving observation,
hypothesis formation, experimentation, data collection, analysis, and conclusion.
12. Discussion Methods: Instructional techniques that promote student dialogue, critical thinking,
and collaboration, such as Socratic seminars, debates, and group discussions.
13. Inquiry Methods: Teaching approaches that encourage student-driven exploration, investigation,
and discovery to construct knowledge and understanding.
14. Cooperative and Activity Methods: Teaching strategies that involve collaborative learning tasks,
group projects, and hands-on activities to promote active engagement and social interaction
among students.
15. Traditional and Modern Teaching Methods: Traditional methods include lectures and rote
memorization, while modern methods incorporate technology, active learning, and differentiated
instruction.
16. All Generations and Their Years: Refers to different generations of learners, such as Baby
Boomers, Generation X, Millennials, and Generation Z, each with its own characteristics, values,
and learning preferences.
17. Qualities of Effective Teaching: Include passion, enthusiasm, subject expertise, communication
skills, adaptability, empathy, and a commitment to student success.
18. Problem-Solving Approach: Emphasizes critical thinking, analysis, and creative problem-solving
skills to address challenges or issues encountered in learning or real-life situations.
19. Pedagogy: The art and science of teaching, encompassing instructional strategies,
methodologies, and theories of learning.
20. Holistic Development: Fosters the intellectual, emotional, social, and physical growth of learners,
promoting well-rounded individuals.
21. Structured and Unstructured Guidance: Structured guidance involves planned interventions
and support, while unstructured guidance allows for spontaneous interactions and informal
mentoring.
22. Active and Passive Learning: Active learning engages students in meaningful activities, while
passive learning involves receiving information without active participation.
23. Teaching vs. Instruction: Teaching involves facilitating learning through various methods and
approaches, while instruction focuses on conveying information or skills to learners.
24. Reflective Learner: A learner who engages in self-assessment, critical thinking, and
metacognition to monitor and improve their learning process.
25. Teacher and Learner-Centered Pedagogy: Teacher-centered pedagogy emphasizes teacher-led
instruction and control, while learner-centered pedagogy prioritizes student autonomy,
collaboration, and inquiry-based learning.
Aspect Traditional Teaching Methods Modern Teaching Methods
Approach
Teacher-centered approach with
the teacher as the primary source
of knowledge and instruction.
Student-centered approach that emphasizes active
learning and student engagement.
Learning
Environment
Typically classroom-based with
desks in rows facing the front.
Flexible learning spaces that encourage collaboration
and interaction.

Aspect Traditional Teaching Methods Modern Teaching Methods
Instructional
Tools
Reliance on textbooks,
chalkboards, and paper-based
materials.
Integration of technology, multimedia resources, and
interactive learning platforms.
Teaching Style
Emphasis on lectures, rote
memorization, and passive
learning.
Utilization of varied teaching strategies such as
group work, problem-solving tasks, and experiential
learning.
Assessment
Primarily summative assessments
such as exams and quizzes.
Combination of formative and summative
assessments, including project-based assessments,
portfolios, and peer evaluations.
Role of
Teacher
Seen as the authority figure
delivering information to
students.
Facilitator and guide who facilitates inquiry, critical
thinking, and independent learning.
Student
Engagement
Limited opportunities for student
participation and interaction.
Active engagement through discussions, hands-on
activities, and collaborative projects.
Flexibility
Limited flexibility in adapting to
diverse learning needs and
preferences.
Adaptability to individual learning styles and
preferences, allowing for personalized instruction.
Focus on
Content
Emphasis on covering a
predetermined curriculum and
content.
Focus on depth of understanding and mastery of key
concepts, with flexibility in content delivery.
Skills
Development
Emphasis on rote memorization
and knowledge acquisition.
Focus on developing critical thinking, problem-
solving, communication, and collaboration skills.
Teaching Method Description Examples
Lecture
Teacher delivers information verbally to
students. University lectures, guest lectures, TED talks.
Discussion
Facilitated conversation among students on a
topic.
Socratic seminars, group discussions,
debates.
Cooperative
Learning
Students work in groups to achieve common
goals.
Group projects, collaborative tasks, peer
tutoring.
Problem-Based
Learning
Students solve real-world problems or
scenarios.
Case studies, simulations, project-based
learning.
Inquiry-Based
Learning
Students explore questions, problems, or
topics.
Scientific investigations, research projects,
discovery learning.
Flipped Classroom
Students learn content outside of class and
apply it during class time.
Pre-recorded lectures, online tutorials, in-
class activities.
Experiential
Learning
Learning through direct experience and
reflection. Field trips, internships, role-playing exercises.
Demonstrations
Teacher shows students how to perform a
task or procedure.
Science experiments, cooking
demonstrations, art techniques.
Role-Playing
Students act out scenarios, assuming
different roles.
Historical reenactments, simulations, drama
activities.
Games and
Gamification
Learning through game-based activities and
incentives.
Educational board games, online quizzes,
classroom competitions.
Generation Birth Years Key Features
Silent
Generation 1928 - 1945 - Experienced the Great Depression and World War II.
Baby Boomers 1946 - 1964 - Post-war optimism
- Emphasis on hard work and loyalty to employers.

Generation Birth Years Key Features
Generation X 1965 - 1980 - Technology advancements (e.g., rise of personal computers).
- Embrace of individualism and skepticism of institutions.
Millennials 1981 - 1996 - Technologically savvy (e.g., growth of the internet).
- Focus on work-life balance and social causes.
Generation Z 1997 - 2012 - Digital natives, grew up with smartphones and social media.
- Embrace diversity and inclusivity.
Generation
Alpha
2013 -
present - Born into the era of smartphones and tablets.
- Likely to be the most technologically immersed generation.
Teaching Skill/Quality Description
Subject Knowledge Proficiency in the subject matter being taught.
Clear
Communication Ability to convey ideas and information clearly and effectively.
Classroom
Management Skill in maintaining order, discipline, and a positive learning environment.
Adaptability Flexibility to adjust teaching methods and strategies to meet student needs.
Differentiation Ability to tailor instruction to accommodate diverse learning styles and abilities.
Engaging
Presentation Skill in delivering lessons in an interesting, interactive, and captivating manner.
Active Listening Ability to attentively listen to students' questions, concerns, and feedback.
Empathy Capacity to understand and empathize with students' perspectives and feelings.
Patience Ability to remain calm, patient, and supportive, especially during challenging situations.
Critical Thinking Skill in fostering critical thinking skills and encouraging inquiry and analysis.
Creativity Ability to innovate and incorporate creative teaching methods and approaches.
Collaboration Willingness to collaborate with colleagues, parents, and students to enhance learning.
Reflective
Practice Habit of reflecting on teaching practices and experiences to continuously improve.
Growth Mindset Belief in the potential for growth and learning, for both oneself and students.
Passion Genuine enthusiasm and passion for teaching and learning.
Role Description
Teacher Facilitates learning by delivering instruction, guiding students, and assessing their progress.
Lecturer
Delivers formal presentations or lectures to large groups of students, typically in a university
setting.
Mentor
Provides guidance, support, and advice to individuals based on their personal and professional
development needs.
Professor
An academic rank typically held by individuals who teach and conduct research in higher
education institutions.
Facilitator
Guides group discussions, activities, or workshops to encourage participation, collaboration, and
learning.
Trainer
Delivers training sessions or workshops to develop specific skills or competencies in individuals or
groups.
Guide
Provides assistance, direction, and information to individuals navigating a process, journey, or
experience.
Instructor
Leads instructional sessions, provides demonstrations, and offers guidance to learners in a
specific subject or skill area.
Steps of lesson planning and their importance:

Step Description Importance
Identify Learning
Objectives
Determine what students should know,
understand, or be able to do by the end of the
lesson.
Provides clarity and focus on the desired
learning outcomes.
Assess Prior
Knowledge
Determine students' existing knowledge, skills,
and experiences related to the lesson topic.
Helps tailor instruction to meet students'
needs and build on prior learning.
Develop
Instructional
Materials
Select and prepare resources, materials, and
activities to support teaching and learning.
Ensures that adequate resources are
available to facilitate instruction and
engage students.
Plan Learning
Activities
Outline the sequence of activities, tasks, and
strategies to achieve the lesson objectives.
Provides structure and coherence to the
lesson, keeping students engaged and on
track.
Consider
Differentiation
Modify instruction to accommodate diverse
learning needs, abilities, and interests of
students.
Ensures that all students have access to the
curriculum and can participate
meaningfully.
Anticipate
Challenges
Identify potential obstacles or difficulties that
students may encounter during the lesson.
Allows for proactive problem-solving and
adjustment of instruction to address
challenges.
Assess Learning
Develop formative assessment strategies to
monitor student understanding and progress.
Provides ongoing feedback to inform
instructional decisions and adjust teaching
as needed.
Reflect and
Adjust
Reflect on the effectiveness of the lesson and
make adjustments based on student
performance and feedback.
Promotes continuous improvement in
teaching practices and student learning
outcomes.
 Different types of teaching approaches:
Teaching Approach Description
Direct
Instruction
Teacher-centered approach where the teacher leads instruction and provides information
directly to students through lectures, demonstrations, or explicit teaching methods.
Inquiry-Based
Learning
Student-centered approach that emphasizes active learning, critical thinking, and problem-
solving through exploration, investigation, and discovery.
Cooperative
Learning
Collaborative approach where students work together in small groups to achieve shared
learning goals, engage in peer teaching, and develop social and communication skills.
Experiential
Learning
Hands-on approach that involves learning through direct experience, reflection, and
experimentation, often in real-world or simulated contexts.
Problem-Based
Learning
Student-centered approach where students solve complex, authentic problems or scenarios,
applying knowledge and skills to develop solutions and learn new concepts.
Flipped
Classroom
Blended learning approach where traditional instruction is reversed, with students learning
content outside of class through pre-recorded lectures or online resources, and using class
time for interactive activities and application.
Differentiated
Instruction
Tailored approach that accommodates diverse learning needs, preferences, and abilities by
adjusting instruction, content, and assessment to meet individual student needs.
Montessori
Approach
Child-centered approach inspired by the educational philosophy of Maria Montessori,
emphasizing hands-on learning, self-directed exploration, and mixed-age classrooms.
Reggio Emilia
Approach
Child-centered approach originating from the Reggio Emilia region of Italy, focusing on
creativity, collaboration, and project-based learning, with an emphasis on the arts and
expression.
Waldorf
Education
Holistic approach that nurtures intellectual, emotional, and physical development through a
balanced curriculum, experiential learning, and artistic expression, based on the educational
philosophy of Rudolf Steiner.
4. Computer Application ………………. Ch Naveed Afzal

What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device capable of performing various tasks by executing instructions given to
it through software programs. It processes data, performs calculations, stores information, and
communicates with other devices.
Components of a Computer:
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer, responsible for executing instructions
and performing calculations.
2. Memory (RAM): Temporary storage space used by the CPU to hold data and instructions currently
being processed.
3. Storage Devices: Permanent storage for data and programs, including hard disk drives (HDDs),
solid-state drives (SSDs), and optical drives (e.g., CD/DVD drives).
4. Motherboard: The main circuit board that connects and coordinates the various components of
the computer.
5. Input Devices: Devices used to input data into the computer, such as keyboards, mice, touchpads,
and scanners.
6. Output Devices: Devices used to receive information from the computer, such as monitors,
printers, and speakers.
7. Peripheral Devices: Additional devices connected to the computer, such as external hard drives,
USB drives, and webcams.
Uses of Computers:
1. Information Processing: Processing and organizing data, performing calculations, and generating
reports.
2. Communication: Sending and receiving emails, accessing the internet, and video conferencing.
3. Entertainment: Playing games, watching videos, listening to music, and streaming media.
4. Education: Researching topics, accessing educational resources, and online learning platforms.
5. Business: Managing finances, inventory, and customer records, as well as creating presentations
and documents.
6. Creative Work: Graphic design, video editing, music production, and digital art.
Qualities of Computers:
1. Speed: Computers can process data and perform calculations at incredible speeds, enabling
efficient task execution.
2. Accuracy: Computers perform tasks with a high degree of accuracy, minimizing errors and
inconsistencies.
3. Reliability: When properly maintained, computers are reliable devices that can consistently
perform tasks over extended periods.
4. Versatility: Computers are versatile tools capable of performing a wide range of tasks, from basic
calculations to complex simulations.
5. Scalability: Computers can be scaled up or down in terms of processing power, memory, and
storage capacity to accommodate changing needs.
6. Connectivity: Computers can connect to networks and other devices, enabling communication,
sharing of resources, and collaboration.
7. Storage Capacity: Computers offer large storage capacities to store vast amounts of data and
information for future use.
Input Devices:
1. Keyboard: Allows users to input text, commands, and other alphanumeric characters by pressing
keys.
2. Mouse: Enables users to interact with graphical user interfaces by moving a cursor on the screen
and clicking buttons.
3. Touchscreen: A display screen with touch-sensitive capabilities, allowing users to input commands
and interact directly with the screen using their fingers or stylus.
4. Trackpad: A touch-sensitive pad on laptops and some external peripherals, used as an alternative to a
mouse for cursor control.

5. Scanner: Converts physical documents, images, or objects into digital formats for computer use, such as
scanning documents or photographs.
6. Microphone: Captures audio input, such as voice commands, speech, or recordings, for communication,
dictation, or audio processing.
7. Webcam: Records video input, allowing users to capture video footage, participate in video calls, or
create multimedia content.
8. Touchpad: A small touch-sensitive area on laptops used for cursor control, scrolling, and gesture-based
commands.
9. Joystick: Input device primarily used for controlling video games or simulating aircraft or vehicle
movements in flight simulators.
10. Graphics Tablet: Allows users to input drawings, sketches, or handwritten annotations directly into
digital format using a stylus or pen-like device.
Output Devices:
1. Monitor: Displays visual output from a computer, such as text, images, videos, and graphical user
interfaces.
2. Printer: Produces hard copies of digital documents, images, or graphics on paper or other print media.
3. Speakers: Output audio output from a computer, such as music, voice, or sound effects, for listening
purposes.
4. Headphones: Output audio output devices worn over the ears, allowing users to listen to audio privately
without disturbing others.
5. Projector: Displays visual output from a computer onto a larger screen or surface, such as a wall or
projection screen, for presentations or entertainment purposes.
6. Plotter: Produces high-precision drawings, diagrams, or technical illustrations on paper or other media,
often used in engineering and design applications.
7. Braille Display: Outputs tactile output by converting digital text into Braille characters, allowing visually
impaired users to read digital content.
8. LED/LCD Panel: Displays visual output from a computer, similar to a monitor, but often used in signage,
advertising, or information displays.
9. Haptic Feedback Device: Provides tactile feedback or vibrations in response to user interactions,
enhancing the user experience in gaming, virtual reality, and simulations.
10. Actuators: Devices that convert digital signals into physical movements or actions, such as motors,
servos, or solenoids, used in robotics, automation, and control systems.
Printer
Type Description
Working
Principle Common Uses
Invention
Year
Printing
Speed
(PPM)
Resolution
(PPI)
Dot Matrix
Printer
Uses impact pins to
strike an inked ribbon,
forming characters and
images by dots.
Impact
printing
mechanism
Invoices, receipts,
forms, and
multipart
documents 1970 200 - 500 60 - 90
Inkjet
Printer
Propels droplets of
liquid ink onto paper to
create text and images.
Ink droplet
ejection
through
printhead
nozzles
Documents,
photos, graphics,
and color printing 1976 10 - 30
1200 -
4800
Laser
Printer
Uses a laser beam to
transfer toner onto
paper, which is then
fused onto the page
using heat.
Electrostatic
printing
process
High-volume text
printing, office
documents 1969 15 - 100 600 - 2400
Thermal
Printer
Uses heat to transfer ink
onto paper, typically
Thermal
printing
mechanism
Receipts, labels,
tickets, and
barcode printing 1972 100 - 600 Varies

Printer
Type Description
Working
Principle Common Uses
Invention
Year
Printing
Speed
(PPM)
Resolution
(PPI)
through a thermal
printhead.
3D Printer
Builds three-
dimensional objects
layer by layer from
digital models or CAD
files.
Additive
manufacturing
process
Prototyping,
product design,
engineering, and
healthcare 1980s Varies Varies
Display Type
Invention
Year
Number
of Colors Working Principle Common Uses
Resolution
Range
Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT) 1897 Millions
Electron beams
illuminate
phosphor-coated
screen
TVs, computer monitors,
arcade machines
480p - 1080p (SD
- Full HD)
Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD) 1963 Millions
Liquid crystals
modulate light
passing through
Computer monitors, TVs,
smartphones, tablets
720p - 4K (HD -
Ultra HD)
Twisted Nematic
(TN) 1970 Millions
Liquid crystals
twisted to control
light
Computer monitors, gaming
monitors, laptops
1080p - 4K (Full
HD - Ultra HD)
Super LCD (S-LCD) 2004 Millions
Enhanced version of
LCD technology
High-end smartphones,
tablets, digital signage
720p - 4K (HD -
Ultra HD)
In-Plane Switching
(IPS) 1996 Millions
Liquid crystals align
in plane to control
light
High-end monitors,
smartphones, tablets
1080p - 8K (Full
HD - Ultra HD)
Quantum Dot (QD-
LCD) 1990s Billions
Quantum dots
enhance color purity
and brightness
High-end TVs, gaming
monitors, professional
displays
1080p - 8K (Full
HD - Ultra HD)
Field-Effect Liquid
Crystal (FELC) 2010 Millions
Liquid crystals
controlled by
electric fields
E-book readers, digital
signage, wearables Varies
Light Emitting
Diode (LED) 1962 Millions
LEDs serve as
backlight sources
TVs, monitors, digital
signage, outdoor displays
1080p - 8K (Full
HD - Ultra HD)
Organic Light
Emitting Diode
(OLED) 1987 Millions
Organic compounds
emit light directly
Smartphones, TVs, wearable
devices, automotive
displays
720p - 4K (HD -
Ultra HD)
MicroLED 2000s Millions
LEDs made of
microscopic pixels
High-end TVs, digital
signage, VR/AR displays
1080p - 8K (Full
HD - Ultra HD)
Plasma Display 1964 Millions
Gas discharge cells
emit UV light to
excite phosphors
High-definition TVs, digital
signage, displays
720p - 4K (HD -
Ultra HD)
Transparent
Display 2010s Millions
Transparent OLED or
LCD technology
Retail displays, automotive
HUDs, smart windows Varies
Types Of Softwares

Software Type Description Examples
Operating System
System software that manages hardware
resources and provides essential services for
other software. Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS
Application
Software
Software designed for specific tasks or
applications, such as word processing,
spreadsheets, or multimedia editing.
Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint),
Adobe Creative Cloud (Photoshop, Premiere
Pro), VLC Media Player
Utility Software
Tools and programs that perform specific
tasks to enhance system performance,
security, or management.
Antivirus software (Norton, McAfee), Disk
Cleanup, Backup software, File compression
tools (WinRAR, 7-Zip)
Development
Software
Tools used by developers to create, debug,
and maintain software applications and
systems.
Integrated Development Environments
(IDEs) like Visual Studio, Eclipse, JetBrains
IntelliJ IDEA
Database
Software
Software used to create, manage, and
manipulate databases, allowing storage and
retrieval of data.
Oracle Database, MySQL, Microsoft SQL
Server
Graphic Design
Software
Software used to create and manipulate
visual content, such as images, graphics,
and animations. Adobe Photoshop, Illustrator, CorelDRAW
Multimedia
Software
Software for creating, editing, and playing
multimedia content, including audio, video,
and animations.
Adobe Premiere Pro, Audacity, VLC Media
Player
Web Browsers
Software for accessing and navigating the
World Wide Web, allowing users to view
websites and web pages.
Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft
Edge
Communication
Software
Software used for communication purposes,
including email clients, messaging apps, and
video conferencing tools. Microsoft Outlook, Skype, WhatsApp, Zoom
Educational
Software
Software designed for educational
purposes, including interactive tutorials,
simulations, and learning management
systems. Moodle, Khan Academy, Duolingo
Entertainment
Software
Software for entertainment purposes,
including video games, streaming platforms,
and digital media players. Fortnite, Netflix, Spotify, iTunes
Business Software
Software used for business operations and
management, including accounting, ERP,
CRM, and office productivity tools.
QuickBooks, Salesforce, SAP, Microsoft
Office 365
Financial
Software
Software for financial management,
including personal finance, accounting, tax
preparation, and investment tracking. Quicken, TurboTax, Bloomberg Terminal
Different types of software distribution models

Software
Type Description
Freeware
Software that is made available for free, typically without any restrictions on usage,
distribution, or modification. Users can download and use it at no cost.
Shareware
Software that is initially provided for free but requires payment or registration for full
functionality or continued use beyond a trial period.
Open Source
Software with its source code made available to the public, allowing users to view, modify, and
distribute it freely. Often governed by specific open-source licenses.
Closed
Source
Software whose source code is not made available to the public. Users are unable to view or
modify the code, and it is typically distributed as compiled binaries.
Commercial
Software developed and sold by a company or vendor for profit. Users must purchase licenses
or subscriptions to use the software legally.
Adware
Software that is available for free but displays advertisements to users. Revenue from
advertisements supports the development and distribution of the software.
Trialware
Software that offers a limited-time trial period for users to evaluate its features and
functionality before requiring payment for continued use.
Subscription
Software provided to users under a subscription model, where users pay periodic fees (monthly
or annually) to access and use the software.
Proprietary
Software owned and developed by a specific company or organization. The source code and
distribution rights are restricted to the owner.
Public
Domain
Software that is not protected by copyright and can be freely used, modified, and distributed
by anyone without restriction.
Different storage media types
Storage
Media Description Capacity Range Read/Write Speed Lifespan Common Uses
Floppy Disk
Magnetic storage
media consisting of a
thin, flexible disk
coated with iron
oxide. 1.44 MB Low Limited
Legacy file
storage, boot
disks
CD
(Compact
Disc)
Optical storage media
using a laser to read
and write data onto a
reflective disc coated
with a layer of dye.
650 MB - 700
MB
Up to 1x (Read), Up to
52x (Write) Moderate
Music albums,
software
distribution
DVD
(Digital
Versatile
Disc)
Optical storage media
similar to CDs but
with higher capacity.
4.7 GB (Single
Layer), 8.5 GB
(Dual Layer)
Up to 16x (Read), Up
to 16x (Write) Moderate
Movies, software
distribution
Blu-ray
High-definition optical
storage media
utilizing a blue-violet
laser for increased
storage capacity.
25 GB (Single
Layer), 50 GB
(Dual Layer)
Up to 12x (Read), Up
to 16x (Write) Moderate
High-definition
movies, data
backup
Flash Drive
Solid-state storage
device using NAND
flash memory to store
data. 512 MB - 2 TB
Variable (USB 2.0: Up
to 60 MB/s, USB 3.0:
Up to 625 MB/s)
Limited
(Limited
write cycles)
Portable data
storage, file
transfer

Storage
Media Description Capacity Range Read/Write Speed Lifespan Common Uses
HDD (Hard
Disk Drive)
Magnetic storage
device consisting of
spinning platters
coated with magnetic
material, read/write
heads, and actuator
arms. 250 GB - 16 TB
Variable (SATA: Up to
600 MB/s, SATA SSD:
Up to 560 MB/s,
NVMe SSD: Up to
7000 MB/s) Moderate
Desktop and
laptop storage,
data backup
SSD (Solid
State Drive)
Solid-state storage
device utilizing NAND
flash memory without
moving parts for
faster access times. 120 GB - 8 TB
Variable (SATA: Up to
560 MB/s, NVMe: Up
to 7000 MB/s)
Moderate
(Limited
write cycles)
Operating system
installation, data
storage
NVMe
(Non-
Volatile
Memory
Express)
Protocol designed for
accessing SSDs via
PCIe interface,
offering significantly
faster data transfer
speeds. 256 GB - 16 TB Up to 7000 MB/s
Moderate
(Limited
write cycles)
High-
performance
computing,
gaming, data
centers
Different generations of computers:
Generation
Time
Period Characteristics
Key
Technologies
Example
Computers Pros Cons
First
Generation
1940s -
1950s
- Utilized
vacuum tubes
for processing - Vacuum tubes
ENIAC,
UNIVAC I, IBM
701
- Pioneering
stage of
computing
- Large size and high
power consumption
Second
Generation
1950s -
1960s
- Used
transistors
instead of
vacuum tubes - Transistors
IBM 1401,
UNIVAC 1107,
CDC 1604
- Smaller and
more reliable
than first gen
- Still relatively large
and expensive
Third
Generation
1960s -
1970s
- Introduced
integrated
circuits (ICs) for
better
performance
and reliability
- Integrated
Circuits (ICs)
IBM
System/360,
DEC PDP-8,
CDC 6600
- Increased
processing power
- Limited memory
and storage
capabilities
Fourth
Generation
1970s -
1980s
- Featured
microprocessors,
shrinking size
and cost
-
Microprocessors
IBM PC, Apple
II,
Commodore
PET
- Mass
production,
affordability
- Limited memory
and processing
power
Fifth
Generation
1980s -
Present
- Advanced
microprocessor
technology,
emphasis on
parallel
processing and
AI
- Parallel
Processing, AI
Cray X-MP,
IBM PS/2,
Apple
Macintosh
- Increased
computing power
and speed
- Concerns about job
displacement due to
AI
Sixth
Generation Future
- Expected to
focus on
advanced AI,
quantum
computing, and
biotechnology
- Quantum
Computing,
Biotechnology
Expected
Future
Developments
- Potential for
revolutionary
advancements
- Uncertainty
regarding technical
feasibility

Media
Type Description Examples
Wire Media
Media that utilize physical cables or wires to
transmit data signals.
Ethernet cables, coaxial cables, fiber optic
cables
Wireless
Media
Media that transmit data signals over the airwaves
without the need for physical cables.
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Infrared (IR), Radio Frequency
(RF)
Types of Networks Description Examples
LAN (Local Area
Network)
A network that covers a small geographical area,
such as a single building or campus. Ethernet LAN, Wi-Fi LAN, LAN parties
WAN (Wide Area
Network)
A network that spans a large geographical area,
connecting multiple LANs over long distances.
Internet, private leased lines, MPLS
networks
MAN (Metropolitan
Area Network)
A network that covers a larger geographical area
than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, typically
serving a city or town.
Cable TV network, city-wide Wi-Fi
networks
WLAN (Wireless
Local Area Network)
A type of LAN that uses wireless communication
technology (e.g., Wi-Fi) to connect devices within a
limited area.
Wi-Fi networks, hotspots, mesh
networks
PAN (Personal Area
Network)
A network that connects devices within a person's
immediate environment, typically covering a range
of a few meters.
Bluetooth connections, USB
connections
CAN (Campus Area
Network)
A network that connects multiple buildings within a
campus or enterprise environment, often using
high-speed fiber optic cables.
University campus networks, corporate
campuses
SAN (Storage Area
Network)
A specialized network that provides high-speed
access to storage resources, allowing multiple
servers to access shared storage devices. Fibre Channel SAN, iSCSI SAN, NAS
Different types of webpages
Type of
Webpage Description Examples
Static Webpage
Webpage with fixed content that remains the
same for all users and does not change
dynamically.
About Us page, Contact page, Terms
and Conditions page
Dynamic
Webpage
Webpage that generates content dynamically in
response to user input or other variables, often
using server-side scripting languages or client-
side scripting.
News website, Weather forecast page,
Stock market tracker
Single Page
Application
(SPA)
Web application that loads a single HTML page
and dynamically updates the content as the user
interacts with it, without requiring page reloads. Gmail, Google Maps, Trello
Landing Page
Webpage designed specifically for a marketing or
advertising campaign, usually with a focused call-
to-action (CTA) to encourage user engagement or
conversion.
Product launch page, Event registration
page, Ebook download page
Blog
Webpage or section of a website containing
regularly updated articles, posts, or entries
typically arranged in reverse chronological order.
The Huffington Post, TechCrunch,
Smashing Magazine
E-commerce
Website
Website designed for online shopping, allowing
users to browse products, add them to a cart, and
complete transactions for goods or services. Amazon, eBay, Shopify

Type of
Webpage Description Examples
Portfolio
Website
Website showcasing a person's or organization's
work, projects, skills, or achievements, often used
by artists, designers, photographers, and
professionals. Behance, Dribbble, LinkedIn
Wiki
Website that allows collaborative editing and
updating of its content by multiple users, typically
organized around topics or subjects. Wikipedia, Wikia, Fandom
Forum or
Discussion
Board
Website allowing users to post messages,
participate in discussions, and interact with each
other, often organized by topics or categories. Reddit, Stack Overflow, Quora
Social
Networking
Site
Website or platform that enables users to create
profiles, connect with others, and share content,
updates, and media with their network of friends
or followers. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram
 5. Pakistan Studies ………………. Mr Fazal Karim
 Two Nation Theory:
 Conceptualizes that Muslims and Hindus are two distinct nations with separate religious, cultural,
and social identities.
 Advocates for the creation of separate nations for Muslims and Hindus in the Indian subcontinent.
 Asserts that Muslims require their own independent state to safeguard their rights, beliefs, and
interests.
 Central idea behind the partition of British India and the creation of Pakistan in 1947.
 Quaid-e-Azam and His Political Idea about Pakistan:
 Vision of Pakistan: Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah envisioned Pakistan as a modern,
democratic, and progressive Islamic state.
 Unity: Emphasized the importance of unity among Muslims and fostering a sense of nationhood.
 Rights and Equality: Stressed the principles of democracy, social justice, and equal rights for all
citizens, irrespective of their religion, caste, or creed.
 Constitutionalism: Advocated for a constitution-based governance system that guarantees
fundamental rights, rule of law, and parliamentary democracy.
 Education and Development: Highlighted the significance of education, economic development,
and scientific progress for the prosperity of Pakistan.
 Foreign Policy: Pursued a policy of peaceful coexistence, friendship with neighboring countries,
and maintaining sovereignty and independence on the international stage.

 Political dynamics of Pakistan
Military Influence: Military has historically played a significant role in Pakistani politics, often directly or
indirectly influencing governance and decision-making processes.
Civilian Governments: Pakistan has experienced periods of civilian rule interspersed with military
interventions, reflecting a complex political landscape.
Political Parties: Multiple political parties, representing diverse ideologies and interests, compete for
power and influence in Pakistan's democratic system.
Ethnic and Regional Dynamics: Ethnic and regional identities shape political dynamics, with tensions
often arising between different provinces and ethnic groups over resource allocation and representation.
Islamist Movements: Islamist movements and parties wield considerable influence, advocating for the
implementation of Islamic principles in governance and society.
Foreign Relations: Pakistan's foreign policy is influenced by geopolitical considerations, particularly its
relationships with neighboring countries such as India, Afghanistan, and China, as well as major global
powers like the United States.

 Socio economic issues of Pakistan
Poverty:
 Pakistan faces significant poverty levels, with a large segment of the population living below the
poverty line, exacerbating socio-economic disparities.
Unemployment:
 High unemployment rates contribute to economic instability and social unrest, particularly among
the youth who struggle to find employment opportunities.
Education:
 Despite efforts to improve access to education, Pakistan still grapples with low literacy rates and
inadequate educational infrastructure, hindering socio-economic development.
Healthcare:
 Access to quality healthcare remains a challenge, especially in rural areas, leading to widespread
health issues and disparities in healthcare services.
Gender Inequality:
 Gender disparities persist in Pakistan, with women facing barriers to education, employment, and
political participation, limiting their socio-economic empowerment.
Corruption:
 Rampant corruption permeates various sectors of society, undermining economic growth, eroding
public trust in institutions, and perpetuating socio-economic inequalities.
Infrastructure:
 Inadequate infrastructure, including transportation, energy, and water supply, hinders economic
growth and exacerbates socio-economic disparities between urban and rural areas.
Population Growth:
 Rapid population growth strains resources and infrastructure, making it challenging to provide
essential services and address socio-economic issues effectively.
Housing and Urbanization:
 Rapid urbanization exacerbates housing shortages, inadequate urban planning, and slum
proliferation, posing socio-economic challenges for urban residents.
Environmental Degradation:
 Environmental degradation, including pollution, deforestation, and water scarcity, threatens public
health, livelihoods, and socio-economic sustainability.
 Diplomatic dynamics of Pakistan
Regional Relations:
 Pakistan maintains complex diplomatic relations with neighboring countries such as India,
Afghanistan, and Iran, characterized by historical tensions, border disputes, and security concerns.
China-Pakistan Relations:
 Pakistan enjoys close diplomatic and strategic ties with China, exemplified by the China-Pakistan
Economic Corridor (CPEC) and extensive cooperation in defense, infrastructure, and economic
development projects.
United States Relations:
 Pakistan's relationship with the United States has been marked by periods of cooperation and
strain, particularly regarding counterterrorism efforts, nuclear proliferation concerns, and regional
stability in South Asia.
Afghanistan Peace Process:
 Pakistan plays a crucial role in facilitating the Afghan peace process, engaging with various Afghan
stakeholders and international partners to promote dialogue and reconciliation in Afghanistan.
Islamic Cooperation:
 Pakistan actively participates in diplomatic forums such as the Organization of Islamic Cooperation
(OIC), advocating for Muslim unity, cooperation, and solidarity on global issues affecting the
Muslim world.
Kashmir Dispute:
 The longstanding Kashmir dispute with India remains a central issue in Pakistan's diplomatic
engagements, with Pakistan advocating for the rights of Kashmiri people and seeking international
support for a peaceful resolution.


International Partnerships:
 Pakistan engages with various regional and international organizations, including the United
Nations, SAARC, and SCO, to address global challenges, enhance economic cooperation, and
promote peace and stability in the region.
Economic Diplomacy:
 Pakistan pursues economic diplomacy to attract foreign investment, promote trade relations, and
enhance economic cooperation with countries worldwide, leveraging its strategic geographic
location and resources.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation:
 As a nuclear-armed state, Pakistan actively engages in diplomatic efforts to promote nuclear non-
proliferation, disarmament, and global nuclear security initiatives while safeguarding its own
national security interests.
 20 salient features of constituent of Pakistan 1973
1. Islamic Republic:
 Pakistan's constitution declares it as an Islamic Republic, recognizing Islam as the state
religion and providing for Islamic principles to guide legislation.
2. Federal Structure:
 The constitution establishes Pakistan as a federation, comprising four provinces with a
federal government and provincial governments, each with defined powers.
3. Parliamentary System:
 Pakistan follows a parliamentary system of government, with a bicameral legislature
consisting of the National Assembly and the Senate.
4. Fundamental Rights:
 The constitution guarantees fundamental rights to all citizens, including equality before the
law, freedom of speech, religion, and association, and protection from discrimination.
5. Islamic Provisions:
 The constitution incorporates Islamic provisions, including the Objectives Resolution, which
outlines principles of democracy, freedom, equality, and social justice in accordance with
Islam.
6. Independence of Judiciary:
 The constitution ensures the independence of the judiciary, with a Supreme Court and
subordinate courts empowered to interpret laws and safeguard constitutional rights.
7. Islamic Advisory Council:
 The constitution establishes an Islamic Advisory Council (Majlis-e-Shoora) to advise the
president on whether legislation is in accordance with Islamic principles.
8. Provincial Autonomy:
 The constitution grants significant autonomy to provinces, empowering them to legislate
on various subjects within their jurisdiction, including education, health, and agriculture.
9. Islamic Banking:
 The constitution allows for the establishment of Islamic banking and financial institutions,
adhering to Islamic principles of interest-free banking and profit-sharing.
10. Separation of Powers:
 The constitution enshrines the principle of separation of powers between the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches of government to ensure checks and balances.
11. Protection of Minorities:
 The constitution guarantees the rights of religious minorities, safeguarding their freedom of
worship, culture, and education.
12. Official Languages:
 The constitution recognizes Urdu as the national language and English as an associate
official language, while also preserving the rights of provinces to promote their languages.
13. Women's Rights:
 The constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender and promotes gender
equality, with provisions for women's participation in political and social spheres.
14. Local Government:

 The constitution provides for the establishment of local government systems to ensure
effective governance and decentralization of power to grassroots levels.
15. Electoral System:
 The constitution outlines the electoral system for conducting free and fair elections at the
federal and provincial levels, ensuring representation of diverse interests.
16. Judicial Review:
 The constitution grants the judiciary the power of judicial review, enabling it to review the
constitutionality of laws and government actions.
17. Emergency Provisions:
 The constitution delineates provisions for declaring a state of emergency in times of
national crisis, outlining the circumstances and procedures for its imposition.
18. Media Freedom:
 The constitution guarantees freedom of expression and press freedom, ensuring the
independence of media organizations and journalists.
19. Citizenship Rights:
 The constitution defines criteria for citizenship and outlines rights and obligations of
citizens, including the right to vote and participate in public affairs.
20. Constitutional Amendments:
 The constitution includes procedures for its amendment, ensuring that changes reflect the
will of the people and are consistent with democratic principles.
 6. Fundamental of Language and Linguistics….…Ms Naseem Kousar
Meaning of Language:
 Language is a system of communication consisting of sounds, words, and grammar used by
humans to convey meaning, express ideas, and interact with others.
Nature of Language:
 Language is a complex and dynamic system that evolves over time, influenced by cultural, social,
and historical factors. It is inherently flexible, allowing for creativity and innovation in expression.
Additionally, language is arbitrary, meaning that there is often no direct connection between words
and their meanings. It is also symbolic, enabling abstract concepts to be represented through
words and symbols.
Functions of Language:
1. Expressive Function: Language allows individuals to express their thoughts, feelings, and
emotions.
2. Informative Function: Language facilitates the exchange of information and knowledge between
individuals.
3. Social Function: Language enables social interaction, cooperation, and the formation of
relationships within communities.
4. Directive Function: Language is used to give commands, make requests, and provide instructions
to others.
5. Aesthetic Function: Language is employed for artistic expression, including poetry, literature, and
creative writing.
6. Metalinguistic Function: Language enables individuals to discuss and analyze language itself,
including its structure, rules, and usage.
Classification of Language:
1. Natural vs. Constructed Languages:
 Natural languages, such as English, Spanish, and Mandarin, evolve naturally within human
communities. Constructed languages, like Esperanto and Klingon, are intentionally created
by individuals or groups.
2. Genetic Classification:
 Languages are classified into language families based on their historical relationships and
shared ancestry. Examples include the Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and Afro-Asiatic
language families.

3. Typological Classification:
 Languages are categorized based on their structural features, such as word order,
grammatical systems, and phonological characteristics. Examples include analytic, synthetic,
agglutinative, and fusional languages.
4. Geographical Classification:
 Languages are classified based on their geographical distribution, such as regional
languages, national languages, and international languages.
5. Functional Classification:
 Languages can be classified based on their functions within society, such as official
languages, minority languages, and lingua francas.
6. Temporal Classification:
 Languages can be classified based on their historical development and period of use, such
as ancient languages, classical languages, and modern languages.
Phonetics:
 Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that studies the physical properties of speech sounds,
including their production, transmission, and perception.
Branches of Phonetics:
1. Articulatory Phonetics: Examines how speech sounds are produced by the articulatory organs
(e.g., lips, tongue, vocal cords).
2. Acoustic Phonetics: Analyzes the physical properties of speech sounds, such as frequency,
amplitude, and duration, as they are transmitted through the air.
3. Auditory Phonetics: Studies how speech sounds are perceived and processed by the human
auditory system.
Factors of Sound Production:
 Sound production involves the coordination of various factors, including the movements of the
speech organs (lips, tongue, vocal cords), the airflow from the lungs, and the resonance of the
vocal tract.
Speech Organs:
 Speech sounds are produced by the coordinated movement of speech organs, including the lips,
tongue, teeth, alveolar ridge, hard and soft palate, uvula, vocal cords, and nasal cavity.
Place and Manner of Articulation:
 Place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract a consonant sound is produced (e.g., bilabial,
alveolar, velar).
 Manner of articulation refers to how airflow is obstructed or modified to produce a consonant
sound (e.g., stops, fricatives, nasals).
Phonology:
 Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies the systematic organization and patterns of
speech sounds in languages, including their distribution and behavior in different contexts.
Phonemes:
 Phonemes are the smallest distinctive units of sound in a language that distinguish one word from
another. They are abstract mental representations that are contrastive in meaning (e.g., /p/ and /b/
in "pat" and "bat").
Morphology:
 Morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies the structure and formation of words, including
the rules and processes by which words are created and modified.
Morphemes:
 Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of language, consisting of roots, prefixes, suffixes,
and inflections (e.g., "un-" in "undo" and "-ed" in "walked").
Phones and Allophones:
 Phones are the actual physical realizations of speech sounds produced by speakers.
 Allophones are variant pronunciations of a phoneme that do not change the meaning of a word
but occur in different phonetic environments (e.g., the aspirated and unaspirated /p/ sounds in
English "pat" and "spat").

Word Formation and Word Coining:
 Word formation refers to the processes by which new words are created in a language, including
derivation, compounding, blending, and borrowing.
 Word coining involves the creation of entirely new words, often through innovation or invention,
such as "googling" or "selfie."
Syntax:
 Syntax is the branch of linguistics that studies the structure, order, and arrangement of words and
phrases to form sentences and larger units of meaning in a language.
Semantics and Pragmatics:
 Semantics focuses on the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in language, while pragmatics
deals with the use of language in context and its effect on communication.
Lexical Meaning:
 Lexical meaning refers to the meaning of individual words and the associations or concepts they
evoke in speakers' minds.
Slang, Jargon, Taboos, and Euphemism:
 Slang refers to informal language used within specific social groups or communities.
 Jargon is specialized vocabulary used by professionals or enthusiasts in a particular field or domain.
 Taboos are cultural or social prohibitions on certain words or topics.
 Euphemisms are polite or indirect expressions used to replace harsh or unpleasant words or
phrases.
Applied Linguistics:
 Applied linguistics is the interdisciplinary field that applies linguistic theories and methods to real-
world problems and contexts, such as language teaching, translation, language policy, and
language disorders.
Second Language Acquisition:
 Second language acquisition refers to the process by which individuals learn a language other than
their native language. It involves cognitive, social, and linguistic factors and can occur through
formal instruction, immersion, or natural exposure. For example, a person learning English as a
second language might attend classes, watch English-language movies, or communicate with
native speakers to improve their proficiency.

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