1_Intro-to-Psychological-Assessment-1-2.pptx

PSYCH 11:
Psychological Testing And
Assessment: An Introduction
to Tests and Measurement
Second Semester,
2023-2024
Subject Instructor:
Ina Joy S. Reysoma, RPm

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
TABLE OF SPECIFICATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
WHEN YOU HAVE COMPLETED THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE
ABLE TO:
◼ Define the basic terms pertaining to psychological and educational tests
◼ Distinguish between an individual test and a group test
◼ Define the terms achievement, aptitude, and intelligence and identify a
concept that can encompass all three terms
◼ Distinguish between ability tests and personality tests
◼ Define the term structured personality test
◼ Explain how structured personality tests differ from projective personality
tests
◼ Explain what a normative or standardization sample is and why such a sample
is important
◼ Identify the major developments in the history of psychological testing
◼ Explain the relevance of psychological tests in contemporary society

Have you experienced taking an
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Test?
Personality Test?
WHAT WERE YOUR EXPERIENCES WITH
TESTS?

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND
ASSESSMENT
◼All fields of human endeavor use measurement in
some form, and each field has its own set of
measuring tools and measuring units.
◼Examples?
▪ Ring carat
▪ Computer byte
▪ Weighing scale for weight
◼As a student of psychological measurement, you
need a working familiarity with some of the
commonly used units of measure in psychology as
well as knowledge of some of the many measuring
tools employed.
6

MEASUREMENT
ASSESSMENT
TESTING

PSYCHOLOGICAL
MEASUREMENT
◼Development of procedures to measure
people's characteristics
◼The process of assigning values to
represent the amounts and kinds of
specified attributes, to describe people
◼Psychometrics- field of study concerned
with the theory, technique, and
development of psychological
measurement.

PSYCHOLOGICAL
MEASUREMENT
◼Measurement consists of rules for
assigning numbers to objects in
such a way as to represent quantities of
attributes
▪ The procedures for assigning numbers must be explicitly
formulated
▪ There must be a standard
▪ In quizzes, we assign 1 to a correct answer and 0 to an incorrect
answer

PSYCHOLOGICAL
MEASUREMENT
◼Measurement consists of rules for assigning
numbers to objects in such a way as to
represent quantities of attributes
▪ Measurement always concerns some particular feature of the
object
▪ Each measure should concern one thing, some isolatable, unitary
attribute
▪ If these attributes are to be combined to make an appraisal (e.g. of
adjustment), they must have separate measurements

PSYCHOLOGICAL
MEASUREMENT
◼Measurement consists of rules for
assigning numbers to objects in such a
way as to represent quantities of
attributes
▪ How much of an attribute is present in an
object
▪ Measurement is counting similar units
▪ Can only be done if units are qualitatively and
quantitatively the same

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
◼Gathering and integration of psychology-
related data
◼Purpose: assessing and evaluating diverse
psychological functions
◼Use of tools: tests, interviews, case studies,
behavioral observation, and specially designed
apparatuses and measurement procedures.

THE PROCESS OF ASSESSMENT
Referral for assessment
Prepares for the assessment by
selecting the tools of assessment to be
used
Formal Assessment
Writing a report designed to answer
the referral question.
Feedback sessions with the
assessee and/or interested third
parties.

◼Educational assessment refers to, broadly
speaking, the use of tests and other tools to
evaluate abilities and skills relevant to success
or failure in a school or pre-school context.
▪ Intelligence tests, achievement tests, and reading comprehension
tests
VARIETIES OF ASSESSMENT

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
◼Measuring psychology-related variables by
means of devices or procedures designed to
obtain a sample of behavior.
◼Process of administering, scoring, and
interpreting psychological tests
◼Psychological tests are often used to evaluate
individuals at some turning point or significant
juncture in their lives.

Assessment Testing
Objective
Typically, to answer
question, solve
problem, or arrive at a
decision through the
use of tools of
evaluation
Typically to obtain
some gauge, usually
numerical in nature,
with regard to an
ability or attribute.
18
ASSESSMENT VS. TESTING

Assessment Testing
Process
-Individualized
Role of Evaluator
-Key in the choice of tests
Skills of Evaluator
-educated selection of tools of
evaluation, skill in evaluation, and
thought organization and integration of
data
Process
- Individualized or grouped
Role of Evaluator
-May be substituted
Skills of Evaluator
- Technician-like skills in terms of the
standardization of the test
19

Assessment Testing
Outcome
Logical problem solving
approach that brings to bear
many source of data designed to
shed light to referral question.
Outcome
Yields a test score or series of
test scores.
20

TOOLS OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSESSMENT

WHAT IS A PSYCHOLOGICAL
TEST?
◼A device or procedure designed to
measure variables related to
psychology
⮚intelligence, personality, aptitude,
interests, attitudes, and values
◼Analysis of a sample of behavior.
⮚responses to a pencil-and-paper
questionnaire, oral responses to questions,
performance of some task

PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST/ TESTING
◼A test is a measurement device or technique
used to quantify behavior or aid in the
understanding and prediction of behavior (of
both overt and covert).
◼A set of items used for testing/ measuring/
determining individual difference.
◼The process of measuring psychology related
variables by means of a device.
24

Content Format Administration
Procedures
Scoring and
Interpretation
procedures
Technical
Quality
ASPECTS WHERE PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND
OTHER TOOLS OF ASSESSMENT DIFFER

CONTENT
◼The content (subject matter) of the test will
vary with the focus of the particular test. But
even two psychological tests purporting to
measure the same thing—for example,
personality—may differ widely in item content.
▪ different views regarding what is important in
measuring “personality”;
▪ different test developers employ different definitions
of “personality.”;
▪ different test developers come to the test
development process with different theoretical
orientations. 26

FORMAT
◼Format - pertains to the form, plan, structure,
arrangement, and layout of test items as well as to
related considerations such as time limits.
◼Format is also used to refer to the form in which a test
is administered: computerized, pencil-and-paper,
performance test or some other form.
◼The term format is not confined to tests. Format is also
used to denote the form or structure of other
evaluative tools and processes, such as the guidelines
for creating a portfolio work sample.
27

ADMINISTRATION PROCEDURES
◼The test administration may involve demonstration of
various kinds of tasks demanded of the assessee, as
well as trained observation of an assessee’s
performance.
◼Alternatively, some tests, particularly those designed
for administration to groups, may not even require the
test administrator to be present while the testtakers
independently complete the required tasks.
28

SCORING AND INTERPRETATION
PROCEDURES
◼score is a code or summary statement, usually but not
necessarily numerical in nature, that reflects an
evaluation of performance on a test, task, interview, or
some other sample of behavior.
◼Scoring is the process of assigning such evaluative
codes or statements to performance on tests, tasks,
interviews, or other behavior samples.
◼In the world of psychological assessment, many
different types of scores exist. Some scores result
from the simple summing of responses (such as the
summing of correct/incorrect or agree/disagree
responses), and some scores are derived from more
elaborate procedures. 29

PROCEDURES
One of the Categories of Score
◼A cut score (cutoff score or cutoff) is a reference point,
usually numerical, derived by judgment and used to
divide a set of data into two or more classifications.
◼Some action will be taken or some inference will be
made on the basis of these classifications. Cut scores
on tests, usually in combination with other data, are
used in schools in many contexts. For example, they
may be used in grading, and in making decisions about
the class or program to which children will be assigned.
30

PROCEDURES
◼Tests differ widely in terms of their guidelines for scoring and
interpretation.
▪ self-scored by the test takers themselves,
▪ scored by computer,
▪ require scoring by trained examiners.
◼Some tests, such as most tests of intelligence, come with test
manuals that are explicit not only about scoring criteria but also
about the nature of the interpretations that can be made from the
scores. Other tests, such as the Rorschach Inkblot Test, are sold
with no manual at all. The (presumably qualified) purchaser buys
the stimulus materials and then selects and uses one of many
available guides for administration, scoring, and interpretation.
31

TECHNICAL QUALITY OR
PSYCHOMETRIC SOUNDNESS
◼Psychometric soundness of a test
refers to
1. how consistently (reliable), and how
accurately a psychological test
measures what it purports to measure
(valid).
2. how useful or of practical value a test
or other tool of assessment has for a
particular purpose (utility)
32

CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
TESTS
A. Objective – psychological test results are free
from the subjective perception of the test
administrator
B. Standardized – Uniformity exists in
administration, scoring, and interpretation of
psychological test data.
C. Reliable – there is consistency in test results
D. Valid – the test measures what it purports to
measure
E. Good Predictive Validity – test results
suggest future behavior. 33

ITEM
◼A stimulus wherein a sample is expected to respond
overtly.
◼Suggests a sample of behavior of an individual.
◼Scale – Process by which a response can be scored.

TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
◼I. According to the number of test taker
▪ Individual
▪ Group
◼II. According to the variable being measured
▪ Ability
▪ Achievement
▪ Aptitude
▪ Intelligence
▪ Personality
▪ Objective/Structured
▪ Projective/Unstructured
▪ Interests 35

INDIVIDUAL TESTS
◼Administered by a registered Psychologist one
by one, face to face.
◼Requires special training to be able to
administer
◼Assessor are free to interact with the test
takers.
◼Information gathered are usually extensive and
more than what the tests intends to measure.
◼Usually given in a clinical setting and purpose.
▪ Ex. Wechsler Scales, Rorschach Inkblot Test

GROUP TEST
◼Administered by a test administrator to large
number of people, preferably with a ratio of
1:25, all at the same time.
◼Usually in a paper and pen tests.
◼Administered in educational and industrial
setting.
◼Information gathered is limited to purpose to
which the test is created.
◼Ex. Culture Fair Intelligence Test, RPM
37

ACHIEVEMENT TEST
◼Measures previous learning.
◼Used to measure the effectiveness of an
educational or training program.
◼Result of a relatively structured input
◼Two Types include:
▪ Fact based
▪ Conceptual
◼Ex. National Achievement Test, NCAE
38

APTITUDE TEST
◼Measures the potential for acquiring specific skill.
◼Suggests how well a test taker might succeed in a
certain area of vocation.
◼Tend to focus on informal learning than formal learning
◼Also called as prognostic test or readiness test, used to
make predictions and measures the readiness of the
test taker to a certain program.
▪ Ex. Differential Aptitude Test
39

INTELLIGENCE TEST
◼Measures the potential to solve problems
adapt to changing circumstances and profit
from experience.
◼Ex. Raven’s Progressive Matrices
40

STRUCTURED/ OBJECTIVE PERSONALITY
TEST
◼Paper and pencil tests, often in multiple-choice
or true or false formats, that assess various
aspects of personality. Often used to increase
client insight.
◼Faster and easier to score.
◼Interpretations are ready made and manual
based.
◼Ex. MBTI, MMPI
41

UNSTRUCTURED/ PROJECTIVE
PERSONALITY TEST
◼Tests that present a stimulus, usually
ambiguous stimuli, to which individuals can
respond freely. Personality factors are based
on the individual’s response. Often used to
identify psychopathology and to assist in
treatment planning.
◼Trained psychologists are able to administer,
score, and interpret.
42

INTEREST INVENTORIES
◼Tests that measure likes and dislikes as
well as one’s personality orientation
toward the world of work.
◼Generally used in career counseling.
43

◼method of gathering information through direct
communication involving reciprocal exchange.
▪ typically involves more than talk.
▪ taking note of not only the content of what is said but
also the way it is being said.
▪ taking note of both verbal and nonverbal behavior.
▪ Nonverbal behavior may include the interviewee’s “body
language,” movements, and facial expressions in response to
the interviewer, the extent of eye contact, apparent
willingness to cooperate, and general reaction to the demands
of the interview.
▪ Taking note of the way the interviewee is dressed.
▪ Here, variables such as neat versus sloppy, and appropriate
versus inappropriate, may be noted.
INTERVIEW

I. Appearance
a. Physically kempt, unclean
b. Clothing disheveled and dirty
c. Clothing atypical or unusual
d. Unusual physical characteristics
II. Posture
III. Facial Expression
IV. General Body Movements
V. Amplitude and Quality of Speech
MENTAL STATUS EXAM (MSE)

VI. Psychologist-Patient Relationship
VII.Mood and Affect
a) Inappropriate to thought content
b) Flat/Blunted
VIII.Perception
a) Illusion
b) Hallucination
IX. Orientation (Time, Place, Self)
a) Oriented
b) Disoriented

X. Intellectual Functioning
▪ Thinking
▪ Judgment
▪ Memory
▪ Thought Content (Stream of Thought as
manifested by speech)

◼In a telephone interview, the interviewer may still
be able to gain information beyond the responses
to questions by being sensitive to variables such
as changes in the interviewee’s voice pitch or the extent to
which particular questions precipitate long pauses or signs of
emotion in response.
◼Interviews may also be conducted by various
electronic means, as would be the case with
online interviews, e-mail interviews, and
interviews conducted by means of text
messaging.
INTERVIEW

◼Help make diagnostic, treatment, selection, or other
decisions.
▪ Examples:
▪ school psychologists may use an interview to help make a
decision about the appropriateness of various educational
interventions or class placements.
▪ A court-appointed psychologist may use an interview to help
guide the court in determining whether a defendant was insane at
the time of a commission of a crime.
▪ A specialist in head injury may use an interview to help shed light
on questions related to the extent of damage to the brain that
was caused by the injury.
▪ A psychologist studying consumer behavior may use an interview
to learn about the market for various products and services, as
well as how best to advertise and promote them.
USES OF INTERVIEW

◼Help professionals in human resources to make more
informed recommendations about the hiring, firing, and
advancement of personnel.
◼In the context of clinical and counseling settings, has as its
objective not only the gathering of information from the
interviewee, but a targeted change in the interviewee’s
thinking and behavior.
USES OF INTERVIEW

What interviewing skills
do a professional have in
the field of psychological
assessment?
T
THIN
K…

◼work products—whether retained on paper,
canvas, film, video, audio, or some other
medium—constitute Portfolio.
◼As samples of one’s ability and accomplishment, a portfolio
may be used as a tool of evaluation.
PORTFOLIO

◼Case history data refers to records, transcripts,
and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other
form that preserve archival information, official
and informal accounts, and other data and items
relevant to an assessee.
◼Case history data may include files or excerpts
from files maintained at institutions and agencies
such as schools, hospitals, employers, religious
institutions, and criminal justice agencies.
CASE HISTORY DATA

◼Other examples of case history data are letters
and written correspondence, photos and family
albums, newspaper and magazine clippings, home
videos, movies, audiotapes, work samples, artwork,
doodlings, and accounts and pictures pertaining to
interests and hobbies.
◼Postings on social media such as Facebook or
Twitter may also serve as case history data.
CASE HISTORY DATA

◼In a clinical evaluation, it can shed light on an individual’s
past and current adjustment as well as on the events and
circumstances that may have contributed to any changes in
adjustment.
◼In neuropsychological evaluations, it often provides
information about neuropsychological functioning prior to
the occurrence of a trauma or other event that results in a
deficit.
◼School psychologists rely on case history data for insight
into a student’s current academic or behavioral standing.
Case history data is also useful in making judgments
concerning future class placements.
USES OF CASE HISTORY DATA

◼The assembly of case history data, as well as related data,
into an illustrative account is referred to by terms such as
case study or case history.
◼We may formally define a case study (or case history) as a
report or illustrative account concerning a person or an
event that was compiled on the basis of case history data.
◼A case study might, for example, shed light on how one
individual’s personality and a particular set of
environmental conditions combined to produce a
successful world leader.
USES OF CASE HISTORY DATA

◼monitoring the actions of others or oneself by visual or
electronic means while recording quantitative and/or
qualitative information regarding those actions.
▪ Ex: test of Grocery Shopping Skills
◼Naturalistic Observation - observe behavior of humans in a
natural setting—that is, the setting in which the behavior
would typically be expected to occur.
▪ Ex: naturalistic observation on the playground of a culturally
different child suspected of having linguistic problems might
reveal that the child does have English language skills but is
unwilling—for reasons of shyness, cultural upbringing, or
whatever—to demonstrate those abilities to adults.
BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION

◼A diagnostic aid in various settings such as
inpatient facilities, behavioral research
laboratories, and classrooms.
◼Selection or placement in corporate or
organizational settings.
USES OF BEHAVIORAL
OBSERVATION

◼Role play may be defined as acting an improvised
or partially improvised part in a simulated situation.
◼A role-play test is a tool of assessment wherein
assessees are directed to act as if they were in a
particular situation. Assessees may then be
evaluated with regard to their expressed thoughts,
behaviors, abilities, and other variables. (Note that
role play is hyphenated when used as an adjective
or a verb but not as a noun.)
ROLE PLAY

◼Useful in evaluating various skills (Ex. grocery shopping
skills)
◼Depending upon how the task is set up, an actual trip to the
supermarket could or could not be required.
◼Role play may not be as useful as “the real thing” in all
situations. Still, role play is used quite extensively,
especially in situations where it is too time-consuming, too
expensive, or simply too inconvenient to assess in a real
situation.
▪ Example, astronauts in training may be required to role-play
many situations “as if” in outer space. Such “as if” scenarios for
training purposes result in truly “astronomical” savings.
ROLE PLAY

◼Has a role in test administration, scoring, and
interpretation.
◼As test administrators, computers do much more than
replace the “equipment” that was so widely used in the
past (a number 2 pencil).
◼Computers can serve as test administrators (online or
off) and as highly efficient test scorers. Within seconds
they can derive not only test scores but patterns of test
scores.
◼SPSS -Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
COMPUTER AS TOOLS

◼Has a role in test administration, scoring, and
interpretation.
◼As test administrators, computers do much more than
replace the “equipment” that was so widely used in the
past (a number 2 pencil).
◼Computers can serve as test administrators (online or
off) and as highly efficient test scorers. Within seconds
they can derive not only test scores but patterns of test
scores.
COMPUTER AS TOOLS

◼Types of Scoring
1. Local processing - scoring done on-site
2. Central processing – scoring conducted at some
central location
• If processing occurs at a central location, test-
related data may be sent to and returned from this
central facility by means of phone lines
(teleprocessing), mail, or courier.
COMPUTER AS TOOLS

◼Simple scoring report - Whether processed locally or
centrally, an account of a test taker’s performance can
range from a mere listing of a score or scores
◼Extended scoring report - more detailed listing of scores,
which includes statistical analyses of the test taker’s
performance.
◼Interpretive report - distinguished by its inclusion of
numerical or narrative interpretive statements in the
report.
◼Some interpretive reports contain relatively little
interpretation and simply call attention to certain high, low,
or unusual scores that need to be focused on.
TYPES OF SCORING REPORT

◼Consultative report –found at the high end of interpretive reports. This
type of report, usually written in language appropriate for
communication between assessment professionals, may provide
expert opinion concerning analysis of the data.
◼Yet another type of computerized scoring report is designed to
integrate data from sources other than the test itself into the
interpretive report. Such an integrative report will employ previously
collected data (such as medication records or behavioral observation
data) into the test report.
TYPES OF SCORING REPORT

◼the word assisted typically refers to the assistance computers provide
to the test user, not the testtaker.
◼One specific brand of CAPA, for example, is Q-Interactive. Available
from Pearson Assessments, this technology allows test users to
administer tests by means of two iPads connected by bluetooth (one
for the test administrator and one for the testtaker).
◼Test items that require a verbal response may be recorded, as may be
written notes using a stylus with the iPad. Scoring is immediate.
Sweeney (2014) reviewed Q-Interactive and was favorably impressed.
He liked the fact that it obviated the need for many staples of paper-
and-pencil test administration (including test kits and a stopwatch).
COMPUTER-ASSISTED
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT (CAPA)

◼The adaptive in this term is a reference to the computer’s
ability to tailor the test to the testtaker’s ability or test-taking
pattern.
◼Example, on a computerized test of academic abilities, the computer
might be programmed to switch from testing math skills to English
skills after three consecutive failures on math items.
◼Another way a computerized test could be programmed to
adapt is by providing the testtaker with score feedback as the
test proceeds. Score feedback in the context of CAT may,
depending on factors such as intrinsic motivation and external
incentives, positively affect testtaker engagement as well as
performance (Arieli-Attali & Budescu, 2015).
COMPUTER ADAPTIVE TESTING (CAT)

1. Test administrators have greater access to potential
test users because of the global reach of the Internet,
2. Scoring and interpretation of test data tend to be
quicker than for paper-and-pencil tests,
3. Costs associated with Internet testing tend to be lower
than costs associated with paper-and-pencil tests, and
4. The Internet facilitates the testing of otherwise
isolated populations, as well as people with disabilities
for whom getting to a test center might prove a
hardship.
ADVANTAGES OVER PAPER-AND-
PENCIL TESTS

◼Corporate personnel may be asked to respond to a
variety of video-presented incidents of sexual
harassment in the workplace.
◼Police personnel may be asked how they would
respond to various types of emergencies, which
are presented either as reenactments or as video
recordings of actual occurrences.
◼Psychotherapists may be asked to respond with a
diagnosis and a treatment plan for each of several
clients presented to them on video.
VIDEOS

◼Psychologists may use many of the tools traditionally associated
with medical health, such as thermometers to measure body
temperature and gauges to measure blood pressure.
◼Biofeedback equipment is sometimes used to obtain measures
of bodily reactions (such as muscular tension) to various sorts of
stimuli.
◼Penile plethysmograph - instrument, designed to measure male
sexual arousal, may be helpful in the diagnosis and treatment of
sexual predators.
◼Impaired ability to identify odors is common in many disorders in
which there is central nervous system involvement, and simple
tests of smell may be administered to help determine if such
impairment is present. Somatic manifestaions
OTHER TOOLS

Who, What, Why, How, and
Where of Testing and
Assessment

Who are the parties in the
assessment enterprise?
In what types of settings are
assessments conducted?
Why is assessment
conducted?
How are assessments
conducted?
Where does one go for
authoritative information

W
H
O
1. Test developer
2. Test user
3.Testtaker
4.Society at large
5.Other parties
Who are the
parties?

W
H
O
◼Test developers and publishers create tests
or other methods of assessment.
◼The American Psychological Association
(APA) has estimated that more than 20,000
new psychological tests are developed each
year.
◼Among these new tests are some that were
created for a specific research study, some
that were created in the hope that they
would be published, and some that
represent refinements or modifications of
existing tests.
Test developer

W
H
O
◼A number of professional organizations have
published standards of ethical behavior that
specifically address aspects of responsible test
development and use.
Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
▪ Commonly referred to as “The Standards”
▪ jointly written by the American Educational Research
Association, the American Psychological Association,
and the National Council on Measurement in Education
(NCME).
▪ covers issues related to test construction and
evaluation, test administration and use, and special
applications of tests, such as special considerations
when testing linguistic minorities.
▪ Initially published in 1954, revisions of the Standards
were published in 1966, 1974, 1985, 1999, and 2014.
The Standards is an indispensable reference work not
only for test developers but for test users as well.
Test developer

W
H
O
◼Wide range of professionals, including clinicians,
counselors, school psychologists, human resources
personnel, consumer psychologists, experimental
psychologists, and social psychologists.
◼In fact, with respect to the job market, the demand
for psychologists with measurement expertise far
outweighs the supply (Dahlman & Geisinger, 2015).
◼Still, questions remain as to who exactly is qualified
to use psychological tests.
Test user

W
H
O
◼The Standards and other published guidelines from
specialty professional organizations have had much
to say in terms of identifying just who is a qualified
test user and who should have access to (and be
permitted to purchase) psychological tests and
related tools of psychological assessment.
◼Still, controversy exists about which professionals
with what type of training should have access to
which tests.
◼Members of various professions, with little or no
psychological training, have sought the right to
obtain and use psychological tests.
◼In many countries, no ethical or legal regulation of
psychological test use exists (Leach & Oakland,
2007).
Test user

W
H
O
◼anyone who is the subject of an
assessment or an evaluation can be a
testtaker or an assessee.
◼Testtakers may vary with respect to numerous
variables, including these:
✔The amount of test anxiety they are experiencing
and the degree to which that test anxiety might
significantly affect their test results
✔The extent to which they understand and agree
with the rationale for the assessment
✔Their capacity and willingness to cooperate with
the examiner or to comprehend written test
instructions
Test taker

W
H
O
◼Testtakers may vary with respect to
numerous variables, including these:
✔The amount of physical pain or emotional
distress they are experiencing
✔The amount of physical discomfort
brought on by not having had enough to
eat, having had too much to eat, or other
physical conditions
✔The extent to which they are alert and
wide awake as opposed to nodding off
✔The extent to which they are predisposed
to agree or disagree when presented with
stimulus statements
Test taker

W
H
O
◼Testtakers may vary with respect to
numerous variables, including these:
✔The extent to which they have received
prior coaching
✔The importance they may attribute to
portraying themselves in a good (or bad)
light
✔The extent to which they are, for lack of a
better term, “lucky” and can “beat the
odds” on a multiple-choice achievement
test (even though they may not have
learned the subject matter).
Test taker

W
H
O
◼Psychological Autopsy - may be
defined as a reconstruction of a
deceased individual’s psychological
profile on the basis of archival
records, artifacts, and interviews
previously conducted with the
deceased assessee or people who
knew him or her.
▪ Ex: using psychological autopsies,
Townsend (2007) explored the question
of whether suicide terrorists were indeed
suicidal from a classical psychological
perspective. She concluded that they
were not.
Test taker

W
H
O
◼The uniqueness of individuals is one
of the most fundamental
characteristic facts of life. . . . At all
periods of human history men have
observed and described differences
between individuals. . . . But
educators, politicians, and
administrators have felt a need for
some way of organizing or
systematizing the many-faceted
complexity of individual differences.
(Tyler, 1965, p. 3)
Society at
large

W
H
O
◼The societal need for “organizing” and
“systematizing” has historically manifested
itself in such varied questions as “Who is a
witch?,” “Who is schizophrenic?,” and “Who is
qualified?”
◼The methods used to determine the answers
have varied throughout history as a function
of factors such as intellectual sophistication
and religious preoccupation.
◼Proponents of palmistry, podoscopy,
astrology, and phrenology, among other
pursuits, have argued that the best means of
understanding and predicting human behavior
was through the study of the palms of the
hands, the feet, the stars, bumps on the head,
tea leaves, and so on.
Society at
large

W
H
O
◼Unlike such pursuits, the assessment
enterprise has roots in science.
◼Through systematic and replicable
means that can produce compelling
evidence, the assessment enterprise
responds to what Tyler (1965, p. 3)
described as society’s demand for
“some way of organizing or
systematizing the many-faceted
complexity of individual differences.”
Society at
large

W
H
O
◼Organizations, companies, and
governmental agencies sponsor the
development of tests for various
reasons, such as to certify personnel.
◼Companies and services offer test-
scoring or interpretation services. In
some cases these companies and
services are simply extensions of test
publishers, and in other cases they
are independent.
Other parties

W
H
O
◼There are people whose sole
responsibility is the marketing and
sales of tests.
◼Sometimes these people are
employed by the test publisher;
sometimes they are not. There are
academicians who review tests and
evaluate their psychometric
soundness. All of these people, as
well as many others, are parties to a
greater or lesser extent in the
assessment enterprise.
Other parties

W
H
A
T
◼tests are administered early in school
life to help identify children who may
have special needs.
◼Tests like achievement tests
evaluate accomplishment or the
degree of learning that has taken
place.
In What Types of Settings Are
Assessments Conducted, and Why?
Educational Setting

W
H
A
T
▪ Diagnosis may be defined as a description or conclusion
reached on the basis of evidence and opinion.
◼Typically this conclusion is reached through a
process of distinguishing the nature of something
and ruling out alternative conclusions.
◼Similarly, the term diagnostic test refers to a tool of
assessment used to help narrow down and identify
areas of deficit to be targeted for intervention.
◼In educational settings, diagnostic tests of reading,
mathematics, and other academic subjects may be
administered to assess the need for educational
intervention as well as to establish or rule out
eligibility for special education programs.
Educational Setting

W
H
A
T
◼Schoolchildren receive grades on their
report cards that are not based on any
formal assessment.
▪ For example, the grade next to “Works and plays
well with others” is probably based more on the
teacher’s informal evaluation in the classroom
than on scores on any published measure of social
interaction.
◼We may define informal evaluation as a
typically nonsystematic assessment that
leads to the formation of an opinion or
attitude.
Educational Setting

W
H
A
T
◼Tests and many other tools of assessment
are widely used in clinical settings such as
public, private, and military hospitals,
inpatient and outpatient clinics, private-
practice consulting rooms, schools, and
other institutions.
◼These tools are used to help screen for or
diagnose behavior problems.
Clinical Setting

W
H
A
T
◼Type of Situations where these tools of
assessment are used:
✔A private psychotherapy client wishes
to be evaluated to see if the
assessment can provide any
nonobvious clues regarding his
maladjustment.
✔A school psychologist clinically
evaluates a child experiencing learning
difficulties to determine what factors
are primarily responsible for it.
Clinical Setting

W
H
A
T
✔A psychotherapy researcher uses
assessment procedures to determine if a
particular method of psychotherapy is
effective in treating a particular problem.
✔A psychologist-consultant retained by an
insurance company is called on to give an
opinion as to the reality of a client’s
psychological problems; is the client really
experiencing such problems or just
malingering?
Clinical Setting

W
H
A
T
✔A court-appointed psychologist is
asked to give an opinion as to a
defendant’s competency to stand
trial.
✔A prison psychologist is called on to
give an opinion regarding the extent
of a convicted violent prisoner’s
rehabilitation.
Clinical Setting

W
H
A
T
◼The tests employed in clinical settings may be
intelligence tests, personality tests,
neuropsychological tests, or other specialized
instruments, depending on the presenting or
suspected problem area.
◼The hallmark of testing in clinical settings is
that the test or measurement technique is
employed with only one individual at a time.
◼Group testing is used primarily for
screening—that is, identifying those
individuals who require further diagnostic
evaluation.
Clinical Setting

W
H
A
T
◼The ultimate objective of many such
assessments is the improvement of the
assessee in terms of adjustment, productivity,
or some related variable.
◼Measures of social and academic skills and
measures of personality, interest, attitudes, and
values are among the many types of tests that a
counselor might administer to a client.
◼Referral questions to be answered range from
▪ “How can this child better focus on tasks?” to
▪ “For what career is the client best suited?” to
▪ “What activities are recommended for
retirement?”
Counseling Setting

W
H
A
T
◼Older Americans may live at home, in special
housing designed for independent living, in
housing designed for assisted living, or in long-
term care facilities such as hospitals and
hospices.
◼Wherever older individuals reside, they may at
some point require psychological assessment to
evaluate cognitive, psychological, adaptive, or
other functioning.
◼At issue in many such assessments is the extent
to which assessees are enjoying as good a
quality of life as possible.
Geriatric Setting

W
H
A
T
◼A wide range of achievement, aptitude,
interest, motivational, and other tests may be
employed in the decision to hire as well as in
related decisions regarding promotions,
transfer, job satisfaction, and eligibility for
further training.
◼For a prospective air traffic controller,
successful performance on a test of sustained
attention to detail may be one requirement of
employment.
◼For promotion to the rank of officer in the
military, successful performance on a series
of leadership tasks may be essential.
Business and Military
Setting

W
H
A
T
◼Engineering psychologists employ a variety of
existing and specially devised tests in
research designed to help people at home, in
the workplace, and in the military.
◼Products ranging from home computers to
office furniture to jet cockpit control panels
benefit from the work of such research
efforts.
◼Using tests, interviews, and other tools of
assessment, psychologists who specialize in
the marketing and sale of products are
involved in taking the pulse of consumers.
Business and Military
Setting

W
H
A
T
◼One of the many applications of
measurement is in governmental licensing,
certification, or general credentialing of
professionals. Before they are legally entitled
to practice medicine, physicians must pass an
examination. Law school graduates cannot
present themselves to the public as attorneys
until they pass their state’s bar examination.
◼Psychologists, too, must pass an examination
before adopting the official title
“psychologist.”
Governmental and organizational
credentialing

W
H
A
T
Academic research
settings
◼Conducting any sort of research typically entails
measurement of some kind, and any
academician who ever hopes to publish
research should ideally have a sound knowledge
of measurement principles and tools of
assessment.
◼To emphasize this simple fact of research life,
imagine the limitless number of questions that
psychological researchers could conceivably
raise, and the tools and methodologies that
might be used to find answers to those
questions.

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
Responsible test users have obligations before, during, and after a
test or any measurement procedure is administered.
Before the test is administered..
◼Test users have discretion with regard to the
tests administered, they should select and use
only the test/s that are most appropriate for the
individual being tested.
◼Tests should be stored in a way that reasonably
ensures that its specific contents will not be
made known to the testtaker in advance.
◼Ensure that a prepared and suitably trained
person administers the test properly.

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
◼Test administrator/examiner must be familiar
with the test materials and procedures and
must have at the test site all the materials
needed to properly administer the test.
▪ Materials needed might include a stopwatch, a
supply of pencils, and a sufficient number of test
protocols.
▪ Protocol refers to the form or sheet or booklet on
which a testtaker’s responses are entered. Also, it
refers to a description of a set of test- or
assessment-related procedures, as in the
sentence “The examiner dutifully followed the
complete protocol for the stress interview.”

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
◼Ensure that the testing room is suitable and
conducive to the testing. Distracting conditions
such as excessive noise, heat, cold, interruptions,
glaring sunlight, crowding, inadequate ventilation,
and so forth should be avoided.
In 1917, new Army
recruits sat on the floor
as they were
administered the first
group tests of
intelligence—not ideal
testing conditions by
current standards.

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
During the test administration..
◼Rapport between the examiner and the
examinee can be critically important. Rapport
is defined as a working relationship between
the examiner and the examinee.
◼Such a working relationship can sometimes
be achieved with a few words of small talk
when examiner and examinee are introduced.

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
After the test administration..
◼Test users should safeguard the test
protocols to conveying the test results in a
clearly understandable fashion.
◼If third parties were present during testing or
if anything else that might be considered out
of the ordinary happened during testing, it is
the test user’s responsibility to make a note of
such events on the report of the testing.

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
After the test administration..
◼Test scorers have obligations as well. If a test
is to be scored by people, scoring needs to
conform to pre- established scoring criteria.
◼Test users who have responsibility for
interpreting scores or other test results have
an obligation to do so in accordance with
established procedures and ethical guidelines.

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
Assessment of people with disabilities
◼People with disabilities are assessed for
exactly the same reasons people with no
disabilities are assessed: to obtain
employment, to earn a professional
credential, to be screened for
psychopathology, and so forth.
◼A number of laws have been enacted that
affect the conditions under which tests are
administered to people with disabling
conditions.

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
◼Example, one law mandates the development
and implementation of “alternate assessment”
programs for children who, as a result of a
disability, could not otherwise participate in
state- and district-wide assessments.
◼Individual states or their local school districts
define who requires alternate assessment, how
such assessments are to be conducted, and
how meaningful inferences are to be drawn
from the assessment data.

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
◼Alternate assessment is an
evaluative or diagnostic procedure or
process that varies from the usual,
customary, or standardized way a
measurement is derived, either by
virtue of some special
accommodation made to the
assessee or by means of alternative
methods designed to measure the
same variable(s).

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
◼Alternate assessment is typically
accomplished by means of some
accommodation made to the assessee.

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
◼In the context of
psychological testing and
assessment,
accommodation may be
defined as the adaptation of
a test, procedure, or
situation, or the substitution
of one test for another, to
make the assessment more
suitable for an assessee with
exceptional needs.

H
O
W
How Are Assessments
Conducted?
Alternate assessment Examples:
◼The individual who has difficulty reading the small
print of a particular test may be accommodated
with a large-print version of the same test or with
a specially lit test environment.
◼A student with a hearing impairment may be
administered the test in sign language.
◼An individual with ADHD might have an extended
evaluation time, with frequent breaks during
periods of evaluation. Although this may all seem
simple at first, it can actually become quite
complicated.

W
H
E
R
E
Where to Go for Authoritative
Information: Reference Sources
Test Catalogues
◼One of the most readily accessible
sources of information is a catalogue
distributed by the publisher of the test.
◼Publishers’ catalogues usually contain
only a brief description of the test and
seldom contain the kind of detailed
technical information that a prospective
user might require. Moreover, the
catalogue’s objective is to sell the test.

W
H
E
R
E
Test manuals
◼Detailed information concerning the
development of a particular test and
technical information relating to it
should be found in the test manual,
which usually can be purchased from
the test publisher.

W
H
E
R
E
Professional books
◼Many books written for an audience of
assessment professionals are available
to supplement, re-organize, or enhance
the information typically found in the
manual of a very widely used
psychological test.

W
H
E
R
E
Reference volumes
◼The Buros Center for Testing has
compiled tests by Oscar Buros in 1938
(currently updated about every three
years). This volume, which is also
updated periodically, provides detailed
information for each test listed,
including test publisher, test author,
test purpose, intended test population,
and test administration time.

W
H
E
R
E
Journal articles
◼Articles in current journals may contain
reviews of the test, updated or
independent studies of its
psychometric soundness, or examples
of how the instrument was used in
either research or an applied context.

W
H
E
R
E
Journal articles
◼Such articles may appear in a wide
array of behavioral science journals,
such as Psychological Bulletin,
Psychological Review, Professional
Psychology: Research and Practice,
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, Psychology & Marketing,
Psychology in the Schools, School
Psychology Quarterly, and School
Psychology Review.

W
H
E
R
E
Online databases
◼Websites that contain a wealth of
resources and news about tests,
testing, and assessment.
◼There are abstracts of articles, original
articles, and links to other useful
websites.

W
H
E
R
E
Online databases
◼The American Psychological Association (APA)
maintains a number of databases useful in locating
psychology-related information in journal articles, book
chapters, and doctoral dissertations.
◼PsycINFO
◼ClinPSYC
◼PsycARTICLES
◼PsycLAW www.apa.org/psyclaw.
▪ For more information on any of these databases, visit APA’s
website at www.apa.org.

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