The Unification of Italy was a 19th-century political and social movement that resulted in the unification of the different states of the Italian Peninsula into a single state – the Kingdom of Italy. The unification was completed in 1871, the same year as the unification of Germany. The process was a two-step procedure; first was to gain freedom from Austria and second was the process of independent states of Italy into a single domain. The Risorgimento successfully united most of Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia by 1861, and the unification of peninsular Italy was completed by 1870.

1. Italy Before Unification
(1848)
CAIE O LEVEL HISTORY 2147 | OPTION A: DEVELOPMENT OF
MODERN NATION STATES

2. Learning Objectives
Understand the political/geographical structure of Italy before 1848
Identify the key powers in the Italian Peninsula
Examine the role of Austria and the Papacy
Introduce early nationalists such as Giuseppe Mazzini and Charles Albert

3. What Did 'Italy' Look Like in 1848?
No unified country: a patchwork of independent states
Dominated by Austria, the Pope, and monarchies

4. Key Regions of Pre-Unification Italy
Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont)
Papal States
Lombardy-Venetia (Austrian rule)
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Duchies of Parma, Modena, Tuscany

5. Why Was Italy Divided?
Legacy of the Congress of Vienna (1815)
Austrian dominance
Lack of common language, economy, or leadership
Conservative rulers resisting change
Feudalism

6. Early Nationalist Movements
Giuseppe Mazzini: founder of "Young Italy" in 1831
Aimed for a unified, democratic Italian republic
Also part of "Young Europe," a broader revolutionary network
His writings inspired revolutionaries and helped spread nationalist ideas.
Quote: “Ideas grow quickly when watered by the blood of martyrs.”
Charles Albert: initially hesitant but later seen as a potential unifier of Italy under monarchy

7. Who Were the Key Powers?
Austria: ruled Lombardy-Venetia, backed monarchies
Papacy: central authority of the Papal States
Local monarchs: Charles Albert in Sardinia, Ferdinand II in Naples

8. Why would nationalism appeal to some
Italians in 1848?

9. The Revolutions of 1848 in
Italy
Understand the causes of the 1848 revolutions in Italy
Examine where uprisings occurred and who led them
Evaluate the reasons for their failure

10. Where Did Revolts Occur?
Sicily: Uprising against King Ferdinand II
Lombardy and Venetia: Revolts against Austrian rule
Rome: Brief establishment of the Roman Republic
Piedmont: Charles Albert declares war on Austria

11. Role of Key Individuals
Giuseppe Mazzini: Inspires nationalists
Charles Albert: Declares war on Austria, loses at Novara
Pope Pius IX: Initially liberal, retreats after violence

12. Outcome of the Revolutions
All revolts eventually crushed by 1849
Austria regains control in the North
Pope restored in Rome by French troops
Charles Albert abdicates, Victor Emmanuel II takes over

13. Why Did the Revolutions Fail?
Lack of coordination among states
Poor military leadership
Divisions between republicans and monarchists
Foreign intervention (Austria, France)

14. “Why do you think the 1848 revolutions
failed so quickly despite wide support?”
Lack of Unity: Although support was widespread, different groups had conflicting goals—some
wanted a republic, others a monarchy.
Poor Coordination: Uprisings in different cities were not synchronized, making it easier for
Austrian and French forces to crush them individually.
Foreign Intervention: Austria and France had strong military power and strategic interests in
keeping Italy fragmented.
Weak Leadership: Leaders like Charles Albert lacked military success and clear vision, while
Mazzini’s idealism didn’t translate into political strategy.
Internal Divisions: Class differences, regional loyalties, and religious conservatism (e.g., the
Pope turning against the revolution) undercut momentum.

16. 1852–59: Cavour’s Diplomacy and Modernization
Cavour modernized Piedmont’s economy, military, and infrastructure.
Made alliances with France (Napoleon III) through diplomacy.
1859: Second War of Italian Independence
◦ Piedmont + France vs Austria.
◦ Austria defeated in Lombardy; Lombardy joined Piedmont.
◦ But France pulled out early – Venetia remained with Austria.

17. 1860: Garibaldi’s Campaign in the South
Garibaldi landed in Sicily with 1,000 Redshirts.
Won over the south with popular support and military victories.
Marched to Naples, but refused to rule – handed it over to Victor Emmanuel.

18. This scene depicts Mazzini and a young Garibaldi
(in sailor attire), symbolizing Mazzini’s influence on
future military leaders and the mentoring relationships
within the nationalist movement.

19. 1861: Kingdom of Italy Declared
victor Emmanuel II declared King of Italy (excluding Venetia and Rome).
Turin became the capital.
1866: Venetia Added
Italy allied with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War.
Though Italy’s military failed, Prussian victory led to Austria ceding Venetia.
1870: Rome Captured
French troops left Rome due to the Franco-Prussian War.
Italian troops moved in; Rome was annexed.
Rome became the capital of united Italy.

20. The Roman Question
The Roman Question refers to the political dispute between the Papal States (led by the Pope)
and the Kingdom of Italy about who should control Rome, especially after the unification of
most of Italy in the 19th century.
🔹 Background:
Before 1860s: The Pope ruled over the Papal States, including Rome, as both a spiritual leader
and temporal ruler.
1861: The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, but Rome was not part of it — it was still under
papal control, protected by French troops under Napoleon III.
Italian nationalists, including Cavour, Garibaldi, and later Victor Emmanuel II, saw Rome as the
rightful capital of a unified Italy.

21. Key Events of the Roman Question:
Year Event
1861 Italy is unified except for Rome. Rome is declared the capital "in theory."
1862
Garibaldi tries to take Rome but is stopped by the Italian government (Battle of
Aspromonte).
1867 Another failed attempt by Garibaldi to seize Rome (Battle of Mentana).
1870
France withdraws troops from Rome due to the Franco-Prussian War. The Italian
army enters Rome, ending papal rule.
1871
Rome officially becomes the capital of Italy. Pope refuses to recognize the Italian
state. He calls himself the "Prisoner of the Vatican."

22. Resolution:
In 1929, the Lateran Treaty (signed by Mussolini and the Pope) resolved the Roman Question:
◦ The Vatican City was established as an independent state.
◦ The Pope recognized Italy and its rule over Rome.
◦ Italy agreed to compensate the Church and give it certain privileges.

23. ANALYSIS: Why Was Italy Unified?
Driving Forces:
Nationalism – Growing idea of a shared Italian identity.
Leadership – Cavour’s diplomacy and Garibaldi’s bravery.
Foreign Assistance – French support in 1859, Prussian war in 1866.
Weakening of Austria – Austria's defeats in 1859 and 1866.

24. The Role of Key Individuals in the Italian Unification
Movement (Part 1)
Learning Objectives
Identify and describe the contributions of key nationalist leaders.
Assess the impact of Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy.
Explore the ideological foundations of Italian nationalism.

25. Key Figures in Italian Unification
Giuseppe Mazzini
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Count Camillo di Cavour
King Victor Emmanuel II
Charles Albert (predecessor of Victor Emmanuel II)

26. KEY FIGURES IN THE UNIFICATION PROCESS
1. Giuseppe Mazzini – The Thinker
Founder of Young Italy, a nationalist movement.
Believed in democratic republic and popular uprising.
Attempted revolutions in the 1830s and 1848 failed but
spread the nationalist idea.
2. Count Camillo di Cavour – The Statesman
Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia under King Victor
Emmanuel II.
Believed in realpolitik – practical politics and
diplomacy.
Wanted unification under Piedmontese monarchy, not
a republic.
3. Giuseppe Garibaldi – The Fighter
Military leader and charismatic nationalist.
Led the Expedition of the Thousand to liberate
southern Italy (1860).
A republican at heart, but handed over the south to
the king.
4. Victor Emmanuel II – The King
King of Sardinia and later the first King of United Italy
(1861).
A constitutional monarch who played a unifying
symbolic role.

27. Giuseppe Mazzini: The Idealist
Founded "Young Italy" in 1831
Advocated for a democratic, republican Italy
Believed in popular uprising and youth-led revolution
Attempted revolts in 1830s–1840s; all failed but inspired
nationalists

28. Young Italy and Young Europe
Secret societies for republican nationalism
Spread revolutionary ideas across Italy and Europe
Motto: "God and the People"
Strongly anti-monarchist and anti-Austrian

29. Challenges Faced by Mazzini
Lack of military support
Failure to coordinate with moderate reformers or monarchists
Alienated Catholic population
Exiled much of his life

30. Charles Albert and the 1848 Revolutions
King of Piedmont-Sardinia
Declared war on Austria in 1848
Initially hailed as a nationalist leader
Defeated at the Battle of Novara (1849)
Abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II

31. Legacy of Mazzini and Albert
Mazzini: Inspired future revolutionaries, laid ideological groundwork
Charles Albert: Paved way for stronger leadership under Victor Emmanuel II
Was Mazzini's idealism helpful or harmful to the cause of unification?
Did Charles Albert’s actions represent genuine nationalism or royal ambition?

32. Homework Assignment
Write a profile of either Mazzini or Charles Albert
Include: background, goals, actions, results, and impact on unification