The document describes the geography and early civilizations of India, highlighting its mountain ranges, rivers, and climatic influences like monsoons. It details the Indus Valley Civilization, notable cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, and the societal structure that included the emergence of the Aryans and the development of the caste system. Additionally, it discusses family dynamics, emphasizing the importance of extended families and arranged marriages in ancient Indian society.

1. 9.1 Early Civilizations

2. The Geography of India
 India and several other
countries make up the
subcontinent of India.
 A subcontinent is a large
landmass that is smaller
than a continent. The Indian
subcontinent is part of the
continent of Asia.

3. Mountains, Plains, and Rivers
 To the north, India is separated from the
rest of Asia by rugged mountain system.
One of these mountain systems is the
Himalayas that has the tallest mountain in
the world, Mount Everest.
 Wide fertile plains lie at the foot of India’s
extensive mountain ranges. The plains owe
their rich soil to the three great rivers that
flow through the region. These are the
Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra
rivers.

4. Mountains, Plains, and Rivers
The landforms in central and southern India are much
different from the landforms in the north. Along the
west and east coasts are lush, fertile lands. Further
inland there are eroded mountains that left areas of
rugged hills. Between the mountains is a dry highland
known as the Deccan Plateau.

5. Mountains, Plains, and Rivers
Seasonal winds called monsoons have a large influence on
India’s climate. The summer rains bring farmers water
that they need for their crops. People celebrate the
arrival of the monsoon rains. However, they sometimes
cause floods that destroy crops and can even kill people
and animals. And if the rain comes late, there may be a
long dry period called a drought.

6. The Indus Valley Civilization
India’s first civilization began in the valley around the Indus River.
The Indus Valley civilization is called the cradle of ancient India
and developed near a great river system.
• About 5,000 years ago, nomads settled in valleys on the shores of the river. The
soil was rich there, and farmers grew large crops of wheat, barley, and beans.
• The Indus people prospered and built cities.

7. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
At their peak, both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa had more
than 35,000 residents. Each city had dozens of streets,
some paved with tan-colored bricks. At the west end of
each city stood and fortress built on a brick platform
and surrounded by strong, thick walls.

8. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
The Indus Valley people used oven-baked
bricks to build their homes. Most houses
had enclosed courtyards and some were
several stories tall. The civilization’s
engineers and builders were highly
skilled. Large buildings stored grain, wells
supplied water and every house had at
least one indoor bathroom. Wastewater
flowed through pipes and houses also had
garbage chutes connected to bins in the
streets.

9. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
What was life like?
• Ruins show that cities’ royal
palaces and temples may have
been enclosed in a fortress.
This shows the importance of both
religion and government in
the settlements.

10. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
Most Indus Valley people resided in farming villages surrounding
the cities. City residents were merchants, shopkeepers and artisans.
Indus Valley merchants traveled as far as Mesopotamia to trade.

11. Aryan Migrations and Settlements
• Around 1900 B.C., the people of the Indus Valley began to abandon
their cities and villages due to a severe drought that destroyed crops
and caused people to starve. Earthquakes and floods killed
many people and changed the course of the Indus River.
• Meanwhile, groups of peopled called the Aryans migrated to India
and soon a new civilization emerged.

12. The Indo-Europeans
•The Aryans were not a race
or ethnic group, many
historians believe that the
Aryan’s language was
part of a large language
family known as Indo-
European. A language
family is a group of
similar languages.

13. The Indo-Europeans
•Indo-Europeans lived in central Asia but began migrating
to other places. Some moved west to Europe or south to
Iran. The Aryans went to India and raised cattle for meat,
milk and butter. They were expert horse riders and
hunters as well as fierce warriors.
•Over time, the Aryans adopted a new way of life. They
settled down in one place and became farmers. Eventually,
the Aryans saw their herds as sacred and banned the use of
cattle as food.

14. The Indo-Europeans
The Aryans began to make iron tools to
clear forest so they could farm the land
and they built irrigation systems.
Gradually, they turned the Ganges River
valley into productive farmland.
• The Aryans lived in tribes that were led by a
raja. Rajas created their own small kingdoms
that fought each other over cattle, treasure
and land.
• Like most nomads, early Aryans had no
written language. After settling in villages,
they developed Sanskrit which gave people a
way to record sales, trade and land ownership.
Eventually hymns, stories, poems and
prayers were written in Sanskirt.
• Later, they were recorded and collected into
sacred texts known as Vedas.

15. Ancient Indian Society
As Aryans settled into India,
people set up towns along
India’s Ganges River. As
India’s economy grew, a system
of social classes gradually
developed.

16. Ancient Indian Society
What were the Varnas?
• The four social classes of ancient India are called
varnas. People were considered members of the varna
into which they were born:
• The most powerful were the Brahmins and Kshatriyas:
priests who performed religious ceremonies and
warriors who ran the government and army.
• The Vaisyas or commoners were usually farmers,
craftspeople and merchants.
• Below the Vaisyas cames the Sudras who were manual
workers and servants who had few rights. Most Indians
are in the Sudra varna.
• The four varna were divided into thousands of smaller
groups known as jati. Most jati were based on the type of
work a person did – they had their own strict rules for
diet, marriage, and social customs.

17. The Caste System
In such a system, people remain in the
same caste or social group for life.
People’s castes determine the jobs they
take and who they marry.
At the lowest level of society were the
Untouchables. These people were not
even part of the varna system. They did
work that varna Indians would not do
such as collecting trash, skinning
animals and carrying dead bodies.

18. Family
• In ancient India, the family was the center of life.
Grandparents, parents and children lived together in an
extended family. The oldest male in the family was in
charge of the entire household.
• Indian men had more rights than women. Males inherited
property unless there were no sons, and men attended
school or became priests. Women were educated at
home.

19. Family
In India’s leading families, boys had a guru
or teacher until he attended school in the city.
Young men from these families could marry
only after finishing 12 years of education.
Parents arranged marriages for children
and even today, marriages are arranged. In
early India, boys and girls often married in
their teens and people could not get
divorced.