This document discusses different types of instruction set addressing modes including immediate, direct, indirect, register, register indirect, displacement (indexed), and stack addressing. It provides examples and diagrams of how each addressing mode works. It also covers instruction formats used by different processors like PDP-8, PDP-10, PDP-11, VAX, x86, and ARM and how they allocate bits within instructions. The use of assemblers to simplify programming at the assembly level is discussed as well as Thumb, a compressed instruction set of ARM.
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3. Immediate Addressing
• Operand is part of instruction
• Operand = address field
• e.g. ADD 5
—Add 5 to contents of accumulator
—5 is operand
• No memory reference to fetch data
• Fast
• Limited range
5. Direct Addressing
• Address field contains address of operand
• Effective address (EA) = address field (A)
• e.g. ADD A
—Add contents of cell A to accumulator
—Look in memory at address A for operand
• Single memory reference to access data
• No additional calculations to work out
effective address
• Limited address space
7. Indirect Addressing (1)
• Memory cell pointed to by address field
contains the address of (pointer to) the
operand
• EA = (A)
—Look in A, find address (A) and look there for
operand
• e.g. ADD (A)
—Add contents of cell pointed to by contents of
A to accumulator
8. Indirect Addressing (2)
• Large address space
• 2n where n = word length
• May be nested, multilevel, cascaded but
rarely used
—e.g. EA = (((A)))
• Multiple memory accesses to find operand
• Hence slower
10. Register Addressing (1)
• Operand is held in register named in
address filed
• EA = R
• Limited number of registers
• Very small address field needed
—Shorter instructions
—Faster instruction fetch
11. Register Addressing (2)
• No memory access
• Very fast execution
• Very limited address space
• Multiple registers helps performance
—Requires good assembly programming or
compiler writing
• c.f. Direct addressing
13. Register Indirect Addressing
• C.f. indirect addressing
• EA = (R)
• Operand is in memory cell pointed to by
contents of register R
• Large address space (2n)
• One fewer memory access than indirect
addressing
14. Register Indirect Addressing Diagram
Register Address R
Opcode
Instruction
Memory
Operand
Pointer to Operand
Registers
15. Displacement Addressing
• EA = A + (R)
• Address field hold two values
—A = base value
—R = register that holds displacement
—or vice versa
17. Relative Addressing
• A version of displacement addressing
• R = Program counter, PC
• EA = A + (PC)
• i.e. get operand from A cells from current
location pointed to by PC
• c.f locality of reference & cache usage
18. Base-Register Addressing
• A holds displacement
• R holds pointer to base address
• R may be explicit or implicit
• e.g. segment registers in 80x86
19. Indexed Addressing
• A = base
• R = displacement
• EA = A + R
• Good for accessing arrays
—EA = A + R
—R++
21. Stack Addressing
• Operand is (implicitly) on top of stack
• e.g.
—ADD Pop top two items from stack
and add
22. x86 Addressing Modes
• Virtual or effective address is offset into segment
—Starting address plus offset gives linear address
—This goes through page translation if paging enabled
• 12 addressing modes available
—Immediate
—Register operand
—Displacement
—Base
—Base with displacement
—Scaled index with displacement
—Base with index and displacement
—Base scaled index with displacement
—Relative
24. ARM Addressing Modes
Load/Store
• Only instructions that reference memory
• Indirectly through base register plus offset
• Offset
— Offset added to or subtracted from base register contents to
form the memory address
• Preindex
— Memory address is formed as for offset addressing
— Memory address also written back to base register
— So base register value incremented or decremented by offset
value
• Postindex
— Memory address is base register value
— Offset added or subtracted
Result written back to base register
• Base register acts as index register for preindex and
postindex addressing
• Offset either immediate value in instruction or another
register
• If register scaled register addressing available
— Offset register value scaled by shift operator
— Instruction specifies shift size
26. ARM Data Processing Instruction Addressing
& Branch Instructions
• Data Processing
—Register addressing
– Value in register operands may be scaled using a
shift operator
—Or mixture of register and immediate
addressing
• Branch
—Immediate
—Instruction contains 24 bit value
—Shifted 2 bits left
– On word boundary
– Effective range +/-32MB from PC.
27. ARM Load/Store Multiple Addressing
• Load/store subset of general-purpose
registers
• 16-bit instruction field specifies list of
registers
• Sequential range of memory addresses
• Increment after, increment before,
decrement after, and decrement before
• Base register specifies main memory
address
• Incrementing or decrementing starts
before or after first memory access
29. Instruction Formats
• Layout of bits in an instruction
• Includes opcode
• Includes (implicit or explicit) operand(s)
• Usually more than one instruction format
in an instruction set
30. Instruction Length
• Affected by and affects:
—Memory size
—Memory organization
—Bus structure
—CPU complexity
—CPU speed
• Trade off between powerful instruction
repertoire and saving space
31. Allocation of Bits
• Number of addressing modes
• Number of operands
• Register versus memory
• Number of register sets
• Address range
• Address granularity
37. ARM Instruction Formats
• S = For data processing instructions, updates condition codes
• S = For load/store multiple instructions, execution restricted to supervisor
mode
• P, U, W = distinguish between different types of addressing_mode
• B = Unsigned byte (B==1) or word (B==0) access
• L = For load/store instructions, Load (L==1) or Store (L==0)
• L = For branch instructions, is return address stored in link register
39. Thumb Instruction Set
• Re-encoded subset of ARM instruction set
• Increases performance in 16-bit or less
data bus
• Unconditional (4 bits saved)
• Always update conditional flags
—Update flag not used (1 bit saved)
• Subset of instructions
—2 bit opcode, 3 bit type field (1 bit saved)
—Reduced operand specifications (9 bits saved)
41. Assembler
• Machines store and understand binary
instructions
• E.g. N= I + J + K initialize I=2, J=3, K=4
• Program starts in location 101
• Data starting 201
• Code:
• Load contents of 201 into AC
• Add contents of 202 to AC
• Add contents of 203 to AC
• Store contents of AC to 204
• Tedious and error prone
42. Improvements
• Use hexadecimal rather than binary
—Code as series of lines
– Hex address and memory address
—Need to translate automatically using program
• Add symbolic names or mnemonics for
instructions
• Three fields per line
—Location address
—Three letter opcode
—If memory reference: address
• Need more complex translation program
44. Symbolic Addresses
• First field (address) now symbolic
• Memory references in third field now
symbolic
• Now have assembly language and need
an assembler to translate
• Assembler used for some systems
programming
—Compliers
—I/O routines