Cyber language and internet linguistics have been subjects of linguistics debates among researchers in recent years with the proliferation of the use of technology for communication. Along with its various other aspects, its analysis in determining the gender boundaries is a useful area of research. The present study was conducted to analyze cyber language to identify the gender boundaries among one hundred Facebook users of various age groups (13-30 years). In the Pakistani context the study examined the hypothesis that gender based linguistic differences exist in cyber space. For this purpose, the corpus was collected in natural form from the Facebook walls of its users. Gender boundaries were examined on the basis of new word formation and reduction at lexical level. These parameters were further divided into blending, conversion, compounding, derivation and coinage for new word formation, acronyms, phonetic spellings, non-standard spellings, letter/number homophones, clippings and contractions for reduction.Having suggested new parameters for gender identification
The document discusses adolescents' use of language and identity establishment in online social networks. It aims to analyze how male and female adolescents differently express themselves through language use, "netspeak", and emoticons on social media platforms. The study will collect data through surveys, observations of social media profiles, and analysis of text-based social media posts to determine gender differences and evolving online communication patterns among adolescents. The research seeks to contribute to the understanding of online identity development and provide insights on current online discourse trends among youths.
The complaint about the deleterious effect of Facebook on language is long standing; of course in the time past the main gripes have been how the social networking site has sapped the meaning of 'Friend' and 'Like'. But now, the reverse of these words are showing up in everyday conversation on Facebook : 'Unfriend' and 'Unlike'.
A Description of Sebuano English CyberloguesYogeshIJTSRD
This paper describes the Sebuano English cyberlogues in cybersocieties, a code mixing phenomenon in Facebook and Youtube. Code mixing is an unconscious, extensive and regular transfer of linguistic units from one language or more to another, below the level of a sentence by a large population of bilingual and monolingual speakers. More particularly, this paper describes the patterns of code mixing, as well as the morphophonemic and morphosyntactic processes involved in the mixing process as reflected in the cyberlogues in the selected cybersocieties. Findings of this study will fill a research gap related to code mixing in written text and will partially indicate the Sebuano’s current lexicon. The data were gathered through documentation of cyberlogues in three Cebuano Facebook groups and one Youtube channel. The data were examined through the Relative Congruence Methodology adapted by the researcher from Rasul’s 2006 Context of Situation and other existing approaches in code mixing to provide an analysis of the patterns of code mixing from word to clausal levels and to describe the orthographical, morphological and syntactic processes involved in the mixing process. The results show that code mixing is manifested by insertion, nativization and miscellaneous attachments of the cooperating language to the accommodating language. Jann Dainver L. Maravilla "A Description of Sebuano-English Cyberlogues" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd41136.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comhumanities-and-the-arts/english/41136/a-description-of-sebuanoenglish-cyberlogues/jann-dainver-l-maravilla
This study examined the relationship between 88 British children's knowledge of text message abbreviations ("textisms") and their school literacy skills. The children were assessed on their use of textisms, word reading, vocabulary, phonological awareness, and other measures. Those who used more textisms performed better on literacy measures like word reading, even after controlling for individual differences. The positive relationship between textism knowledge and literacy suggests that exposure to text, including abbreviated forms, may help children's literacy development in terms of increased print exposure and phonological awareness.
Code-Mixing as a Marker of Gender Identity in SMS language in Pakistaniosrjce
This research deals with the gender based code-mixing in mobile phone SMS texting in Pakistani
society. It is generally observable fact that code-mixing is used by both males and females while sending
messages through their mobile phones. This research has explored the happening of code mixing i.e. mixing of
the two varieties or two different languages, which can mark the gender differences in using text messages. In
this research paper quantitative method is used to collect and analyze the data. One thousand non-forwarded
conversational SMS were collected through random sampling of 25 males and 25 females with an equal
quantity of sample from both counter parts. The findings of the study have shown that there are gender based
differences in SMS language used in Pakistan on the basis of Code-Mixing in term of frequency, nature and
topic & purpose of conversation. The findings are generalized for all males and females citizens of Pakistan.
The study of intertextuality in Classical poetry often presents itself as a specialized case of text-reuse detection: commentaries and other close readings of a work concern themselves with the identification and exegesis of phrases borrowed from earlier texts. Yet it has long been understood that larger-scale, structural parallelisms can also exist between texts (Genette 1997), and that these can provide the context necessary to establish an allusive or intertextual link between two phrases (Wills 1996). Automatic detection of intertextuality must take into account features at various scales: from individual phonemes to larger syntactic units and type scenes.
This work addresses the challenge of hate speech detection in Internet memes, and attempts using visual information to automatically detect hate speech, unlike any previous work of our knowledge. Memes are pixel-based multimedia documents that contain photos or illustrations together with phrases which, when combined, usually adopt a funny meaning. However, hate memes are also used to spread hate through social networks, so their automatic detection would help reduce their harmful societal impact. Our results indicate that the model can learn to detect some of the memes, but that the task is far from being solved with this simple architecture. While previous work focuses on linguistic hate speech, our experiments indicate how the visual modality can be much more informative for hate speech detection than the linguistic one in memes. In our experiments, we built a dataset of 5,020 memes to train and evaluate a multi-layer perceptron over the visual and language representations, whether independently or fused.
https://github.com/imatge-upc/hate-speech-detection
The document discusses adolescents' use of language and identity establishment in online social networks. It aims to analyze how male and female adolescents differently express themselves through language use, "netspeak", and emoticons on social media platforms. The study will collect data through surveys, observations of social media profiles, and analysis of text-based social media posts to determine gender differences and evolving online communication patterns among adolescents. The research seeks to contribute to the understanding of online identity development and provide insights on current online discourse trends among youths.
The complaint about the deleterious effect of Facebook on language is long standing; of course in the time past the main gripes have been how the social networking site has sapped the meaning of 'Friend' and 'Like'. But now, the reverse of these words are showing up in everyday conversation on Facebook : 'Unfriend' and 'Unlike'.
A Description of Sebuano English CyberloguesYogeshIJTSRD
This paper describes the Sebuano English cyberlogues in cybersocieties, a code mixing phenomenon in Facebook and Youtube. Code mixing is an unconscious, extensive and regular transfer of linguistic units from one language or more to another, below the level of a sentence by a large population of bilingual and monolingual speakers. More particularly, this paper describes the patterns of code mixing, as well as the morphophonemic and morphosyntactic processes involved in the mixing process as reflected in the cyberlogues in the selected cybersocieties. Findings of this study will fill a research gap related to code mixing in written text and will partially indicate the Sebuano’s current lexicon. The data were gathered through documentation of cyberlogues in three Cebuano Facebook groups and one Youtube channel. The data were examined through the Relative Congruence Methodology adapted by the researcher from Rasul’s 2006 Context of Situation and other existing approaches in code mixing to provide an analysis of the patterns of code mixing from word to clausal levels and to describe the orthographical, morphological and syntactic processes involved in the mixing process. The results show that code mixing is manifested by insertion, nativization and miscellaneous attachments of the cooperating language to the accommodating language. Jann Dainver L. Maravilla "A Description of Sebuano-English Cyberlogues" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd41136.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comhumanities-and-the-arts/english/41136/a-description-of-sebuanoenglish-cyberlogues/jann-dainver-l-maravilla
This study examined the relationship between 88 British children's knowledge of text message abbreviations ("textisms") and their school literacy skills. The children were assessed on their use of textisms, word reading, vocabulary, phonological awareness, and other measures. Those who used more textisms performed better on literacy measures like word reading, even after controlling for individual differences. The positive relationship between textism knowledge and literacy suggests that exposure to text, including abbreviated forms, may help children's literacy development in terms of increased print exposure and phonological awareness.
Code-Mixing as a Marker of Gender Identity in SMS language in Pakistaniosrjce
This research deals with the gender based code-mixing in mobile phone SMS texting in Pakistani
society. It is generally observable fact that code-mixing is used by both males and females while sending
messages through their mobile phones. This research has explored the happening of code mixing i.e. mixing of
the two varieties or two different languages, which can mark the gender differences in using text messages. In
this research paper quantitative method is used to collect and analyze the data. One thousand non-forwarded
conversational SMS were collected through random sampling of 25 males and 25 females with an equal
quantity of sample from both counter parts. The findings of the study have shown that there are gender based
differences in SMS language used in Pakistan on the basis of Code-Mixing in term of frequency, nature and
topic & purpose of conversation. The findings are generalized for all males and females citizens of Pakistan.
The study of intertextuality in Classical poetry often presents itself as a specialized case of text-reuse detection: commentaries and other close readings of a work concern themselves with the identification and exegesis of phrases borrowed from earlier texts. Yet it has long been understood that larger-scale, structural parallelisms can also exist between texts (Genette 1997), and that these can provide the context necessary to establish an allusive or intertextual link between two phrases (Wills 1996). Automatic detection of intertextuality must take into account features at various scales: from individual phonemes to larger syntactic units and type scenes.
This work addresses the challenge of hate speech detection in Internet memes, and attempts using visual information to automatically detect hate speech, unlike any previous work of our knowledge. Memes are pixel-based multimedia documents that contain photos or illustrations together with phrases which, when combined, usually adopt a funny meaning. However, hate memes are also used to spread hate through social networks, so their automatic detection would help reduce their harmful societal impact. Our results indicate that the model can learn to detect some of the memes, but that the task is far from being solved with this simple architecture. While previous work focuses on linguistic hate speech, our experiments indicate how the visual modality can be much more informative for hate speech detection than the linguistic one in memes. In our experiments, we built a dataset of 5,020 memes to train and evaluate a multi-layer perceptron over the visual and language representations, whether independently or fused.
https://github.com/imatge-upc/hate-speech-detection
Digital semiospheres and L2 development was a lecture given by Steven Thorne at the University of Iowa on October 5, 2012. The lecture covered several topics:
1) Digital demographics and how they shape semiospheres, or spheres of communication and representation.
2) The phenomenological primacy of first order languaging through direct interaction, as well as the affordances and constraints of second order displaced language.
3) Approaches to potentially improving conditions for language development, including online intercultural exchanges, the linguistic complexity of online games, and designing augmented reality experiences.
This document summarizes Elina Tapio's research on English language learning among Finnish Sign Language users from a multimodal perspective. Her research examines the use of English through fingerspelling words and interactions in online chats. She uses Mediated Discourse Analysis and Nexus Analysis to study two cases - informal online interactions and fingerspelling English words in sign language contexts. Her goal is to understand indigenous practices and how English is encountered in everyday life to inform teaching English to the deaf community.
Comparative studies on detecting abusive language on twitterNAVER Engineering
Recently, major social media companies have utilized multiple resources in effort to censor offensive language, yet it seems very challenging to successfully handle this issue. In this talk, I introduce the field of abusive language detection, as well as my research on comparing different machine learning models in classifying abusiveness of social media texts.
This document provides Pinfan Zhu's curriculum vitae. It outlines her educational background, including degrees earned from Texas Tech University, Kunming University of Science and Technology, and Guangxi Normal University. It also details her professional experience, including positions held at Texas State University-San Marcos, Texas Tech University, and institutions in China. The CV highlights Zhu's teaching experience, scholarly publications, conference presentations, translations, honors and awards.
Cultural Aspects of Communication Processes Online - Identity, Gender, and Language in Synchronous Cybercultures
educacao a distancia
joao jose saraiva da fonseca
joaojosefonseca1.blogspot.com
Cultural Aspects of Communication Processes Online: Identity, Gender, and Language in Synchronous Cybercultures. Charlotte N.(Lani) Gunawardena. Professor
All & sundry use English for text messaging. They use ‘techniques’ & appear ‘message-savvy’ & adopt ‘cults’. Their primary motive is relationship building, sustenance, enrichment and social interaction. Many researchers have studied the language of the text messages. They have opined that textese English can have a positive or negative or no effect whatsoever on the English of the students. This presentation is an attempt to show how textese English has had a negative impact/adverse effect on students in India.
Integration Into Canadian Society: How Armenian Syrian Millennial Refugees Us...ijejournal
Using a conceptual framework that builds on the constructs of community of practice (Homles & Meyerhoff, 1990; Lave & Wenger 1998; Wenger 1998) and superdiversity (Blommaert, 2013; Blommaert & Rampton, 2012; Jørgensen, Karrebæk, Madsen, & Møller, 2011; Vertovec, 2007), this study reports on the ways Armenian Syrian millennial refugees access information via social media. Findings are based on data collected through participant observations, interviews and survey protocols. The study showed the use of semiotic resources as social media allowed respondents to extend the social implicatures of language beyond their verbal proficiency levels.
29 An Intercultural Study of Refusal Strategies in English between Jordanian ...Yasser Al-Shboul
This document summarizes a study that investigated the similarities and differences in refusal strategies used by Jordanian and Malay postgraduate students in English. Data was collected using a modified Discourse Completion Test where situations requiring refusal were read aloud and participants responded verbally. Responses were analyzed based on refusal strategy frequency and type. Key findings were that both groups used similar strategies like excuses and explanations most frequently. However, Jordanians used indirect strategies more often than Malays. Additionally, Jordanians expressed gratitude less when refusing equals or lower status individuals. The study aimed to contribute to understanding intercultural communication between these groups.
This document discusses communication and provides details on several topics related to communication including:
- The definition of language and how it employs words to communicate ideas in a meaningful way.
- The different levels of communication including extra personal, intrapersonal, interpersonal, organizational, and mass communication.
- The different flows of communication such as downward, upward, lateral, and diagonal.
- The different types of communication networks including formal and informal models.
- The definition of barriers to communication and the classification of different types of barriers including intrapersonal, interpersonal, and organizational barriers.
The effect of relational mobility on sns user behavior -a study of japanese d...Leung Man Yin Daniel
This document summarizes a study that examined how 131 Japanese users who use both Mixi and Facebook interact differently on each social media platform. The study found that these dual users showed lower levels of self-disclosure, connected with fewer people, had smaller social networks, and felt more committed to Mixi compared to Facebook. The researchers suggest these differences stem from how the users perceive relationship stability differently on each site, with Mixi reflecting the typically low relational mobility of Japanese society while Facebook reflects the higher relational mobility of North American social environments.
A study on_global_communication_in_english_languageAlexander Decker
This document summarizes communication as an academic discipline. It discusses early models of communication and defines it as the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver. It also describes potential barriers to effective communication, called "noise," including environmental, physiological, semantic, and cultural factors. Finally, it concludes that communication is complex, occurring at many levels and in many forms between humans and some machines. The field of communication integrates perspectives from multiple disciplines to develop an expanding understanding of how communication works.
Differences in Frequencies between Linking Verbs and Relative Pronouns in Wri...CSCJournals
This document summarizes a research study that analyzed differences in frequencies of linking verbs and relative pronouns in written language. The study aimed to analyze two types of linguistic associations: lexical-grammatical associations and grammatical-grammatical associations. For lexical-grammatical analysis, four linking verbs (be, seem, look, feel) were analyzed to identify differences in occurrences. For grammatical-grammatical analysis, two relative pronouns (who, that) were analyzed when used as subjects in restrictive adjective clauses to identify differences in occurrences. The findings showed no significant differences between linking verb occurrences, though "be" occurred most frequently and "look" least frequently. Significant differences were found between relative pronoun occurrences, with "who
SOCIAL NETWORK HATE SPEECH DETECTION FOR AMHARIC LANGUAGEcscpconf
The anonymity of social networks makes it attractive for hate speech to mask their criminal
activities online posing a challenge to the world and in particular Ethiopia. With this everincreasing
volume of social media data, hate speech identification becomes a challenge in
aggravating conflict between citizens of nations. The high rate of production, has become
difficult to collect, store and analyze such big data using traditional detection methods. This
paper proposed the application of apache spark in hate speech detection to reduce the
challenges. Authors developed an apache spark based model to classify Amharic Facebook
posts and comments into hate and not hate. Authors employed Random forest and Naïve Bayes
for learning and Word2Vec and TF-IDF for feature selection. Tested by 10-fold crossvalidation,
the model based on word2vec embedding performed best with 79.83%accuracy. The
proposed method achieve a promising result with unique feature of spark for big data.
Text Messaging: “Negative Behavioral Effects on Human”Stine Sehcliv
1. The document discusses the negative behavioral effects of text messaging on humans. It explores how excessive use of texting can negatively impact behavior over time.
2. Various types of text messages are classified that can influence behavior, such as advertisements, gossip, romance, and sexting. Negative behaviors developed from texting include disrespect, impatience, laziness, and lack of cooperation.
3. Dangers of texting include texting while driving, walking, eating, or in other unsafe situations. Excessive texting is linked to relationship issues, lower academic performance, and cheating. Overall, the document analyzes how the language and overuse of text messaging can gradually change human behavior for the worse
The document discusses how communication methods are shifting from written to more oral styles, as seen through new technologies like blogs, listservs, and social media. It summarizes the key differences between written and oral communication based on linguistics research. Written communication focuses on transmitting planned content from author to readers, while oral communication aims to build connections through spontaneous, less organized exchanges between participants. As technologies evolve, more communication forms are adopting oral characteristics. Libraries will need to organize and preserve increasingly unstructured information from open conversations in multiple directions.
The document summarizes research on female use of entertainment technology compared to males. It finds that while females are more likely to use communication technologies like email, males engage with social media and online communities more. A study was conducted using an anonymous online survey of Facebook users and forum members, and found that males scored higher in most areas of social technology use. However, females engaged more with Neopets, while males preferred PC games. Overall the research suggests technology is still perceived as a masculine domain and female mastery is limited by a lack of relatable entertainment venues exemplifying femininity.
Language and communication patterns in Universities in Pakistan: creating som...Ayesha Majid
Language and communication patterns of different universities is what the paper aimed to explore and found answers to. Every country happens to have a distinct language culture which is represented by the majority of its population. Although, it is not possible to claim that University students form the largest chunk of Pakistan's population. Nonetheless, it would not be incorrect that these are the members of society who have been fully initiated in to the secondary level of language socialisation. They therefore, rightly depict the present-day association with language. The linguistic dilemma as faced by a country whose constitution declares that Urdu is the National language but, has several regional languages. On top of those indigenous tongues is English which, is propagated by the global need for its acceptance and to great extent by Elite of Pakistan. Hence, in this brewing hotpot of culture and linguistic heritage deciphering which language truly prevails becomes, an eminent question. The researchers have tried to provide insights and solution concerning the observation they have made regarding, the linguistic loophole in a multilingual society.
Social media and new technologies like social networking sites and text messaging are changing how people communicate and form interpersonal relationships. Researchers are interested in studying these effects because social networking sites allow people to get to know one another without nonverbal cues. Some criticisms argue that texting may not be true interpersonal communication. Studies have found that spending more time on voice calls is linked to less relationship uncertainty and more love and commitment, and that women tend to use Facebook to maintain existing relationships while men use it to form new connections.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
Digital semiospheres and L2 development was a lecture given by Steven Thorne at the University of Iowa on October 5, 2012. The lecture covered several topics:
1) Digital demographics and how they shape semiospheres, or spheres of communication and representation.
2) The phenomenological primacy of first order languaging through direct interaction, as well as the affordances and constraints of second order displaced language.
3) Approaches to potentially improving conditions for language development, including online intercultural exchanges, the linguistic complexity of online games, and designing augmented reality experiences.
This document summarizes Elina Tapio's research on English language learning among Finnish Sign Language users from a multimodal perspective. Her research examines the use of English through fingerspelling words and interactions in online chats. She uses Mediated Discourse Analysis and Nexus Analysis to study two cases - informal online interactions and fingerspelling English words in sign language contexts. Her goal is to understand indigenous practices and how English is encountered in everyday life to inform teaching English to the deaf community.
Comparative studies on detecting abusive language on twitterNAVER Engineering
Recently, major social media companies have utilized multiple resources in effort to censor offensive language, yet it seems very challenging to successfully handle this issue. In this talk, I introduce the field of abusive language detection, as well as my research on comparing different machine learning models in classifying abusiveness of social media texts.
This document provides Pinfan Zhu's curriculum vitae. It outlines her educational background, including degrees earned from Texas Tech University, Kunming University of Science and Technology, and Guangxi Normal University. It also details her professional experience, including positions held at Texas State University-San Marcos, Texas Tech University, and institutions in China. The CV highlights Zhu's teaching experience, scholarly publications, conference presentations, translations, honors and awards.
Cultural Aspects of Communication Processes Online - Identity, Gender, and Language in Synchronous Cybercultures
educacao a distancia
joao jose saraiva da fonseca
joaojosefonseca1.blogspot.com
Cultural Aspects of Communication Processes Online: Identity, Gender, and Language in Synchronous Cybercultures. Charlotte N.(Lani) Gunawardena. Professor
All & sundry use English for text messaging. They use ‘techniques’ & appear ‘message-savvy’ & adopt ‘cults’. Their primary motive is relationship building, sustenance, enrichment and social interaction. Many researchers have studied the language of the text messages. They have opined that textese English can have a positive or negative or no effect whatsoever on the English of the students. This presentation is an attempt to show how textese English has had a negative impact/adverse effect on students in India.
Integration Into Canadian Society: How Armenian Syrian Millennial Refugees Us...ijejournal
Using a conceptual framework that builds on the constructs of community of practice (Homles & Meyerhoff, 1990; Lave & Wenger 1998; Wenger 1998) and superdiversity (Blommaert, 2013; Blommaert & Rampton, 2012; Jørgensen, Karrebæk, Madsen, & Møller, 2011; Vertovec, 2007), this study reports on the ways Armenian Syrian millennial refugees access information via social media. Findings are based on data collected through participant observations, interviews and survey protocols. The study showed the use of semiotic resources as social media allowed respondents to extend the social implicatures of language beyond their verbal proficiency levels.
29 An Intercultural Study of Refusal Strategies in English between Jordanian ...Yasser Al-Shboul
This document summarizes a study that investigated the similarities and differences in refusal strategies used by Jordanian and Malay postgraduate students in English. Data was collected using a modified Discourse Completion Test where situations requiring refusal were read aloud and participants responded verbally. Responses were analyzed based on refusal strategy frequency and type. Key findings were that both groups used similar strategies like excuses and explanations most frequently. However, Jordanians used indirect strategies more often than Malays. Additionally, Jordanians expressed gratitude less when refusing equals or lower status individuals. The study aimed to contribute to understanding intercultural communication between these groups.
This document discusses communication and provides details on several topics related to communication including:
- The definition of language and how it employs words to communicate ideas in a meaningful way.
- The different levels of communication including extra personal, intrapersonal, interpersonal, organizational, and mass communication.
- The different flows of communication such as downward, upward, lateral, and diagonal.
- The different types of communication networks including formal and informal models.
- The definition of barriers to communication and the classification of different types of barriers including intrapersonal, interpersonal, and organizational barriers.
The effect of relational mobility on sns user behavior -a study of japanese d...Leung Man Yin Daniel
This document summarizes a study that examined how 131 Japanese users who use both Mixi and Facebook interact differently on each social media platform. The study found that these dual users showed lower levels of self-disclosure, connected with fewer people, had smaller social networks, and felt more committed to Mixi compared to Facebook. The researchers suggest these differences stem from how the users perceive relationship stability differently on each site, with Mixi reflecting the typically low relational mobility of Japanese society while Facebook reflects the higher relational mobility of North American social environments.
A study on_global_communication_in_english_languageAlexander Decker
This document summarizes communication as an academic discipline. It discusses early models of communication and defines it as the transmission of information from a sender to a receiver. It also describes potential barriers to effective communication, called "noise," including environmental, physiological, semantic, and cultural factors. Finally, it concludes that communication is complex, occurring at many levels and in many forms between humans and some machines. The field of communication integrates perspectives from multiple disciplines to develop an expanding understanding of how communication works.
Differences in Frequencies between Linking Verbs and Relative Pronouns in Wri...CSCJournals
This document summarizes a research study that analyzed differences in frequencies of linking verbs and relative pronouns in written language. The study aimed to analyze two types of linguistic associations: lexical-grammatical associations and grammatical-grammatical associations. For lexical-grammatical analysis, four linking verbs (be, seem, look, feel) were analyzed to identify differences in occurrences. For grammatical-grammatical analysis, two relative pronouns (who, that) were analyzed when used as subjects in restrictive adjective clauses to identify differences in occurrences. The findings showed no significant differences between linking verb occurrences, though "be" occurred most frequently and "look" least frequently. Significant differences were found between relative pronoun occurrences, with "who
SOCIAL NETWORK HATE SPEECH DETECTION FOR AMHARIC LANGUAGEcscpconf
The anonymity of social networks makes it attractive for hate speech to mask their criminal
activities online posing a challenge to the world and in particular Ethiopia. With this everincreasing
volume of social media data, hate speech identification becomes a challenge in
aggravating conflict between citizens of nations. The high rate of production, has become
difficult to collect, store and analyze such big data using traditional detection methods. This
paper proposed the application of apache spark in hate speech detection to reduce the
challenges. Authors developed an apache spark based model to classify Amharic Facebook
posts and comments into hate and not hate. Authors employed Random forest and Naïve Bayes
for learning and Word2Vec and TF-IDF for feature selection. Tested by 10-fold crossvalidation,
the model based on word2vec embedding performed best with 79.83%accuracy. The
proposed method achieve a promising result with unique feature of spark for big data.
Text Messaging: “Negative Behavioral Effects on Human”Stine Sehcliv
1. The document discusses the negative behavioral effects of text messaging on humans. It explores how excessive use of texting can negatively impact behavior over time.
2. Various types of text messages are classified that can influence behavior, such as advertisements, gossip, romance, and sexting. Negative behaviors developed from texting include disrespect, impatience, laziness, and lack of cooperation.
3. Dangers of texting include texting while driving, walking, eating, or in other unsafe situations. Excessive texting is linked to relationship issues, lower academic performance, and cheating. Overall, the document analyzes how the language and overuse of text messaging can gradually change human behavior for the worse
The document discusses how communication methods are shifting from written to more oral styles, as seen through new technologies like blogs, listservs, and social media. It summarizes the key differences between written and oral communication based on linguistics research. Written communication focuses on transmitting planned content from author to readers, while oral communication aims to build connections through spontaneous, less organized exchanges between participants. As technologies evolve, more communication forms are adopting oral characteristics. Libraries will need to organize and preserve increasingly unstructured information from open conversations in multiple directions.
The document summarizes research on female use of entertainment technology compared to males. It finds that while females are more likely to use communication technologies like email, males engage with social media and online communities more. A study was conducted using an anonymous online survey of Facebook users and forum members, and found that males scored higher in most areas of social technology use. However, females engaged more with Neopets, while males preferred PC games. Overall the research suggests technology is still perceived as a masculine domain and female mastery is limited by a lack of relatable entertainment venues exemplifying femininity.
Language and communication patterns in Universities in Pakistan: creating som...Ayesha Majid
Language and communication patterns of different universities is what the paper aimed to explore and found answers to. Every country happens to have a distinct language culture which is represented by the majority of its population. Although, it is not possible to claim that University students form the largest chunk of Pakistan's population. Nonetheless, it would not be incorrect that these are the members of society who have been fully initiated in to the secondary level of language socialisation. They therefore, rightly depict the present-day association with language. The linguistic dilemma as faced by a country whose constitution declares that Urdu is the National language but, has several regional languages. On top of those indigenous tongues is English which, is propagated by the global need for its acceptance and to great extent by Elite of Pakistan. Hence, in this brewing hotpot of culture and linguistic heritage deciphering which language truly prevails becomes, an eminent question. The researchers have tried to provide insights and solution concerning the observation they have made regarding, the linguistic loophole in a multilingual society.
Social media and new technologies like social networking sites and text messaging are changing how people communicate and form interpersonal relationships. Researchers are interested in studying these effects because social networking sites allow people to get to know one another without nonverbal cues. Some criticisms argue that texting may not be true interpersonal communication. Studies have found that spending more time on voice calls is linked to less relationship uncertainty and more love and commitment, and that women tend to use Facebook to maintain existing relationships while men use it to form new connections.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
The C Club is a specialized recruitment unit that helps companies recruit executive-level management positions across the country discreetly. It ensures a close coordination between hiring companies and candidates to understand core values, organizational structure, and company culture to find the best fit. The C Club evaluates candidates' career goals to only share their details with companies aligned with their professional objectives, maintaining candidates' personal and professional dignity. It is led by Principal Consultant Jahanara Khan of Strategic Solutions.
Chile has established programs like CORFO and Startup Chile to boost entrepreneurship. CORFO, founded in 1939, provides financing for startups but mostly helped small, local businesses. Startup Chile, founded in 2010, provides seed funding and visas to attract global entrepreneurs but startups often leave after the program. While these programs had some impact, Chile needs to focus on building scalable startups in specific fields and connecting them to enterprises and investors to truly establish itself as Latin America's innovation hub.
This document appears to be a collection of images, text, and code snippets discussing various topics like cute images, colors, food items, and Friendster layouts. It includes images of people, animals, objects, as well as snippets of CSS code for customizing profiles and descriptions of different modules.
This document proposes connecting all of Kuwait's government ministries and services through a single smart app. Kuwait plans to invest over $150 billion in infrastructure over the next 5 years, including a new airport and subway/railway system. With high smartphone penetration and ambitions for development, the author believes now is the time to pursue this idea. Partnering with Golden Gekko could provide financial opportunities while establishing Kuwait as a tech hub. The next steps suggested are a Skype meeting followed by an in-person presentation of the vision to government officials. The author profiles himself as a Kuwaiti entrepreneur who can contribute to early planning and relationship building.
Strategic Solutions provides assistance across various business functions including startup, restructuring, human resources, marketing, branding, and training. They pride themselves on being powerful game changers that can help clients with investing, setting up, redefining, expanding, evaluating, or turning around their business. Their services include researching investment sectors, preparing financial plans and budgets, developing business and HR strategies, conducting market analysis, creating branding strategies, and providing various types of training.
This document provides an overview and introduction of the StartupQ8 event held on September 26, 2012 in Kuwait. It discusses why the event was conducted in English, announces the winning logo, and introduces Abdullah Alshalabi, the speaker for the event. Alshalabi's background and experience living in multiple countries is summarized. The document then defines what a startup is, how it differs from a small business, and why developing a startup ecosystem is important for Kuwait. It outlines some of StartupQ8's initial successes in its first 100 days and encourages attendees to learn from each other.
This document outlines modules for corporate training that cover personal hygiene, developing a signature wardrobe, projecting the right aura through posture, body language and etiquette, hosting business meals and travel, as well as short modules on topics like congratulating others, elevator pitches, small talk, listening skills, and attending social events. The goal is to teach professionals skills for success in business and life.
The document discusses establishing a startup ecosystem in Kuwait through the use of incubators. It explains that an incubator would provide funding, mentors, and services to startups in exchange for a small equity stake. This would bring together the necessary elements of entrepreneurs, mentors, investors, and service providers. However, questions remain about who should operate the incubator, how to attract mentors and talent, and how the incubator should be structured to accelerate the startup scene in Kuwait. The next post will seek to address these open questions.
J's School of Etiquette provides personality development and etiquette training for individuals and organizations in Pakistan. It offers customized one-on-one sessions and training modules focused on confidence building, personality enhancement, and developing an individual's desired lifestyle. For organizations, J's provides trainings to groom sales teams, prepare executives for global business, and help redefine company culture in order to project the correct image and mission. All trainings, whether for individuals or organizations, are customized based on a needs analysis.
Multicultural Education and Cultural LagMichelle Cruz
The document discusses the concept of multicultural education. It provides several key points about multicultural education:
1) Multicultural education is a process that aims to ensure academic success for all students by permeating all aspects of school practices, policies and organization.
2) It helps students develop positive self-concepts by providing knowledge about diverse histories and cultures.
3) Multicultural education challenges discrimination and promotes democratic values of social justice. It prepares students for responsibilities in an interdependent world.
An Ethnography Of Communication Viva Voce In A Ghanaian UniversityHolly Fisher
This document summarizes a study that examined viva voce examinations at a Ghanaian university using an ethnographic approach. The study analyzed three recordings of viva voce defenses focusing on setting, participants, and act sequence as outlined in Hymes' framework for ethnography of communication. The analysis revealed that the formal setting of the viva voce highlights the professional nature of academics. It also showed that the asymmetric relationship between candidates and assessors is demonstrated through forms of address and language choices. Finally, the study found that the viva voce examinations follow four schematic structures.
Stylistics Variations: An Understanding of Language of Gay People Based on Ph...bijsshrjournal
The gay vernacular, a language created by the LGBT community, is one of the amazing modern languages of today. To protect themselves from the hurt of societal disgrace, gay individuals started to establish their own language. It also has linguistic characteristics shared by LGBT educators who frequently talk about phonemic diphthongs. To identify the phonetic diphthongs uttered, their focus on their everyday lives of teaching as well
as their meanings, this qualitative research employed a case study in conjunction with discourse analysis through production task and elicitation. Semi-structured interviews were used to gather data from purposively selected 8 informants in a secondary school of Don Sergio Osmena Sr. Memorial National High School, Cebu City, Philippines. ˘ The study revealed that the stylistic variation of gay faculty members is in the coinage through colleagues’ speech influence, the creation of own words was through attachment and cropping wherein an original word is cut off and has a new component and meaning, and there are existing words used in gay lingo that have different meanings. In order for everyone to have a deeper understanding of the culture, discursive studies of gay lingo are needed. School administrators should also mandate seminars and other activities for teachers about understanding gay language and its neologisms or the creation of their own words and structural processes.
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An Analysis of Word Formation Process in Everyday.docxMiaManayaga
This document provides an analysis of word formation processes used in Facebook posts by students at Bohol Island State University - Bilar Campus in the Philippines. It begins with introducing concepts of language and discusses how language allows for human communication. It then reviews related literature on social network theory and discusses how Facebook has become a popular social media platform. The document aims to identify the most common word formation methods used by students in their Facebook posts and understand the reasons behind using these methods.
A Study of the Influence of Gender on Second Language Acquisition A Field Bas...ijtsrd
Language acquisition has turned out to be a popular field of research. In this field the process of first language acquisition and second language acquisition are studied. Various factors have influenced the process of second language acquisition. The main purpose of the study is to evaluate the influence of gender difference in the process of second language acquisition. Data for this study has been collected through questionnaires and interviews. The sources of data is both primary and secondary. It is a Quantitative Study. The primary source of data has been acquired through questionnaires. The secondary source of data has been acquired from the journals, articles and the other works. The outcome of this study would help in the process of teaching of second languages. It would also help to nullify the effect of gender difference if there has been any in language teaching and learning process. Arnab Sarmah "A Study of the Influence of Gender on Second Language Acquisition (A Field Based Study on the Nepali Language)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-3 , April 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd30351.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/other/30351/a-study-of-the-influence-of-gender-on-second-language-acquisition-a-field-based-study-on-the-nepali-language/arnab-sarmah
A research paper about Gender Discourse Analysis in "Hamlet". Gender discrimination has been highlighted in perspective of discussion between the characters of the drama.
The article analyzes the emergence of grammar in a new sign language called ABSL used among a community of congenitally deaf children in Israel. The study finds that ABSL has developed distinct grammatical structures like subject-verb-object word order that are not influenced by surrounding spoken languages like Arabic and Hebrew. This supports the claim that universal grammar internal to the human mind, not external influences, drives the development of systematic structure in a new language.
The study is entitled “Analyzing the Extent of Using Gender Fair Language in CMU’s Instructional Materials”. It aimed to 1. Evaluate the system of language choice used in the IMs following the NCTE guidelines; 2. Describe possible explanations for such choice of language; and 3. Determine if there is a relationship between author’s sex/gender and language choice. The data were gathered Instructional Materials Development Center, Central Mindanao University, there were about 52 available Instructional Materials that were used. The books and instructional materials were analysed on the language used in all parts of the books, from preface, to body, discussion and even the examples. The guide used during this stage is the guidelines set by the National Council of Teachers in English (NCTE) in the use of gender-fair language. Results showed Gender-bias language is present among the IMs evaluated. The common biases found were the following: a. generic used of “he his and man” and .gender stereotyping.
The present study aims to investigate the language functionality in
promotional and informational texts on social media within the Pakistani
context. The primary focus is on exploring the distinctions between promotional
and informational content on social media platforms. To achieve this objective,
data is collected from 10 influential Facebook users in Pakistan, with a balanced
representation of both informational and promotional content creators. The
collected data forms a corpus, and an analysis is conducted using the
Multidimensional Analysis Tagger (MAT) as the chosen corpus tool. The
theoretical framework for this research is based on Biber's (1988) first five
dimensions. The results indicate marked differences in language functionality
between informational and promotional texts. Across all dimensions proposed
by Biber, particularly in Dimensions 1 and 2, there are similarities in the
language features of both types of content, emphasizing a commonality in
written and formal language use. However, variations are evident in Dimensions
3 and 5, where promotional texts exhibit a slightly more sophisticated language
structure and a greater prevalence of spoken or interactive language. This study
is valuable for researchers, marketers, and content producers seeking a deeper
understanding of the linguistic shades in influencer marketing on social media
platforms like Facebook. The findings contribute insightful information for
those interested in navigating the complexities of language use in promotional
and informational contexts on social networking sites.
MAGLANA RESEARCH- Gender Fair Language in grade 8 high school modules.docxMelodinaSolis
Over the years men have reliably been placed in a platform and women are considered straightforward appendage even to the purpose for being non-existent. Gender equality never genuinely was a thing in the past not until the eighteenth century. Women begin to fight for their own spot in the general public. They needed to change the overall population by having their own affiliation. They struggled for a wide extent of issues like property freedoms, admittance to advanced education , equivalent compensation , testimonial and a lot more which a large number of the present ladies are campaigning for.
In the quest for equality, women needed to destroy all types of separation and generalizing particularly on the jobs they depict in the family or in the general public. They have likewise needed to further develop the language utilized in depicting or characterizing women and the utilization of words that trivializes women.
This document presents a research study on the morphological analysis of slang words used in the online discourse of digitally savvy Generation Z. The study aims to investigate the morphological processes involved in constructing slang words found in tweets and comments by Generation Z, and to understand how these words are formed and structured. It will employ qualitative research methods like morphological analysis of frequently used slang terms and interviews. The study is significant as it can help understand linguistic and social changes with the rise of new media and provide insights into language evolution among younger generations in the digital age.
The dynamic interplay between language and mind Exploring cognitive impacts t...Faiz Ullah
The relationship between language and mind has long intrigued scholars, prompting
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conveying thoughts; rather, it is a potent cognitive instrument that actively shapes
cognition. Drawing from the Whorfian hypothesis and contemporary cognitive linguistic
theories, this study explores various approaches to understanding the nature of the
language-thought link. The Whorfian hypothesis suggests that language structures and
lexicons influence cognitive processes and perceptions. While this hypothesis has
garnered both support and criticism, recent research has shed light on the bidirectional
nature of this relationship. Additionally, cognitive linguistic theories posit that language
not only reflects but also constructs cognitive categories and conceptual frameworks.
Concepts such as linguistic relativity and embodiment theory elucidate how language
impacts perception, categorization, and reasoning. Neuroscientific studies further
elucidate the neurological mechanisms underlying the language-thought link. This review
also examines the role of bilingualism and linguistic diversity in cognitive processes,
highlighting how multilingual individuals exhibit enhanced cognitive flexibility and
divergent thinking. Moreover, cultural factors play a significant role in shaping the
language-thought link, influencing concepts of self, time, and social relationship. This
study offers valuable insights into the dynamic interaction between language and
thoughts, underscoring their intertwined nature and the profound implications for
cognition and culture.
Sociolinguistic study of language contact in ubolo speech community, enugu st...Alexander Decker
This document presents a study on language contact in the Ubolo speech community in Enugu State, Nigeria. The researchers examined seven linguistic groups present in the area - Ubolo, Awka, Onitsha, Owerri, Hausa, Idoma, and Yoruba. Through interviews and observations, they analyzed the data using Higa's directionality model. Five factors that influenced language contact were identified: trade, roads, border areas, and migrations. The effects included lexical borrowing, code-switching, and hyperadoption. Borrowing was found to be influenced by domain, age, prestige, and interaction. Specifically, the study revealed borrowing between the groups in different domains, and used directionality
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The Input Learner Learners Forward Throughout...Tiffany Sandoval
This document provides an analysis of Robert Frost's poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" through a linguistic and stylistic lens. It introduces stylistics as the study of appropriate language use and style in writing. The analysis will examine Frost's style and how it shapes the interpretation of the poem. It describes Frost as an American poet known for his philosophical poetry dealing with existential questions about life, death, and humanity's place in the universe. The analysis will observe Frost's style in this particular poem.
This document provides information about a research paper analyzing feminine language features in WhatsApp conversations. The study examines a WhatsApp conversation corpus between female speakers discussing empowered women in Malaysia. The objectives are to identify feminine language features, analyze differences between speakers, and determine the impact of WhatsApp. The significance is that it contributes new insights to limited research on gender and language in text messaging. The methodology describes the WhatsApp conversation corpus containing 1744 words between 7 participants, with 5 females discussing a topic about women's rights in Malaysia.
This document discusses several potential follow-up studies to an analysis of English language learners' use of English in online social contexts. It suggests that the results may not generalize to how learners use English in natural online social settings. Follow-up studies could compare language use on Western versus Korean social platforms, or examine whether online social communication helps improve English test scores. The document also notes that defining the social context of language and the cultural neutrality of platforms is problematic.
This document discusses several potential follow-up studies to an analysis of English language learners' use of English in online social contexts. It suggests that the results may not generalize to how learners use English in natural online social settings. Follow-up studies could compare language use on Western versus Korean social platforms, and examine whether online social communication helps improve English test scores. The document also lists several references for additional research on online language learning and computer-mediated discourse analysis.
A study on internet language diffusion patterns in uzbekistanguest08567c
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1. 9706
ISSN 2286-4822
www.euacademic.org
EUROPEAN ACADEMIC RESEARCH
Vol. II, Issue 7/ October 2014
Impact Factor: 3.1 (UIF)
DRJI Value: 5.9 (B+)
Analysis of Cyber Language: Identifying Gender Boundaries
AMNA NAVEED
Assistant Professor
Department of Humanities & Social Sciences
COMSATS, Lahore, Pakistan
SHAZIA AZIZ
Assistant Professor
Department of Humanities & Social Sciences
COMSATS, Lahore, Pakistan
Dr. MUSFERAH MEHFOOZ
Assistant Professor
Department of Humanities & Social Sciences
COMSATS, Lahore, Pakistan
Abstract:
Cyber language and internet linguistics have been subjects of linguistics debates among researchers in recent years with the proliferation of the use of technology for communication. Along with its various other aspects, its analysis in determining the gender boundaries is a useful area of research. The present study was conducted to analyze cyber language to identify the gender boundaries among one hundred Facebook users of various age groups (13-30 years). In the Pakistani context the study examined the hypothesis that gender based linguistic differences exist in cyber space. For this purpose, the corpus was collected in natural form from the Facebook walls of its users. Gender boundaries were examined on the basis of new word formation and reduction at lexical level. These parameters were further divided into blending, conversion, compounding, derivation and coinage for new word formation, acronyms, phonetic spellings, non-standard spellings, letter/number homophones, clippings and contractions for reduction. Having suggested new parameters for gender identification, the study draws on gender
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differences on the basis of lexical features used on Facebook. The results indicate that a new buteasily understandable language has evolved through Facebook which is responsible for significant differences between males’ and females’ linguistic properties. The results show that a specific age group from a gender is the dominant user of a specific feature but that very feature is absent on the wall posts of the same age group of the other gender. Levine’s test for equality of variances revealed that there is a significant difference between genders on the basis of compounding, coinage, abbreviation, acronyms, non-standard spelling, letter insertion and clipping; whereas, no significant difference was found between genders on the basis of blending, derivation, conversion, abbreviation, phonetic spelling and letter number homophone. On the other hand, genders significantly differ from each other on the basis of their use of non- standard spelling and phonetic spelling.
Key words: Cyber Language, Gender, Facebook, New word formation, Reduction, discourse
1. Introduction
Studying gender differences in terms of language use has always been the area of interest for many sociolinguists such asLakoff (1975), Tannen (1990) Trudgill (1974), and Zimmerman and West (1975). However, with the increasing dependency and popularity of internet, communication has induced the researchers to revisit the already existing parameters for gender identification. Cyber language, unlike all other languages, has no speakers but writers and is produced in a less edited manner than published writing. Frrera, Brunner, and Whittemore (1991) have termed cyber language as “interactive written discourse” because Cyber language has the features of spoken language but no one speaks as they write.
Cho and Murray (2007) describeCMC (Computer Mediated Communication) as a language which promotes abbreviation, contraction, and structural reduction. Moreover,
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cyber language reveals significant typographic (the art of writing and arranging words), orthographic (standardized way of using a particular writing system to write a language), morphological (study of the formation of words), and syntactic (rules of arranging words in a phrase or a sentence) variability. Typographic features constitute non-alphabetical symbols (including use of letters and numbers for alphabets e.g. b4, for “before”, 2day for “today” etc.). Nonstandard orthography is another defining feature of cyber language. It includes reduction which is categorized as: abbreviation, (brb for “be right back”) acronym (OMG for “oh my God”), clipping (add for “advertisement”), vowel omission or substitution (cmng for “coming”), nonstandard spellings (wanna “want to”), and new word formation: blending (netlingo for “internet language”), backformation (edit from “editor”), and conversion (nouns used as verbs texting from text), compounding (netiquette for “net etiquette”) on lexical level.
In the past, many studies (such as those by Lakoff 1975; Tennen, 1990 and Coates 1988) were dedicated to identifying gender differences in face-to-face interaction. These studies were later questioned for the type of data which was collected during face-to-face conversation where females were disadvantaged, given less turns to speak, and were dominated by the presence of men. The data collected for such studies was not in its natural form; whereas, the data collected through/from Facebook is in its natural form where the language used is not affected by the presence of interlocutors.
Facebook as a Medium of Communication
Facebook is a social networking service where people especially teenagers, stay in contact with one another and communicate through a new medium of communication (Baruah, 2012).Though other networking media have cropped in recently, in the Pakistani context Facebook is still being used as a means
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of connecting people. Moreover, it provides equal opportunities to genders for sharing knowledge and ideas. Facebook has provided a platform to traditional housewives, who were either not allowed to speak up and share their feelings with others or did not have time or opportunity to do so, to express their feelings unhindered. Some females have got the opportunity to share their feelings even without revealing their identity. Hence, social media provides them with the opportunity to express their views.
Aim/objective of the Study
Despite many studies on the relationship between Cyber Language and gender, the language choices of genders on Facebook walls are still open to investigation. The current study scrutinizes the linguistic choices made by male and female Facebook users. More specifically, it explores the gender boundaries with reference to lexical features of Cyber Language (Facebook) such as new word formation and reduction.
Significance of the Study
Studying language differences in terms of gender has always been the area of interest for many sociolinguists. However, with the popularity of internet communication researchers are revisiting the already existing parameters for gender identification. Consequently cyber language has opened new dimensions for sociolinguists to study and explore the relationship between cyber language and gender. The significance of the study has grown with the use of internet in not only in education but offices as well. With the increased use of cyber language it has been assumed that internet language reduces the gender inequalities that are present in face –to- face interaction by diminishing the salience of physical and social cues that reveal the gender of participants (Wojahn,
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1994). On the other hand, a few studies (Rodino, 1997; Turkle,1995; Mei Rong & Ching-Yu-Hsieh, 2007) have claimed that gender boundaries have started merging and a gender can disguise itself in any way.
The significance of the study has been increased due to the findings, of the current paper, which disagrees with the previous studies which claim that genders behave alike while communicating through cyber language. Moreover, the current study provides certain parameters which can be used to identify the gender of any anonymous person.
Research Hypotheses
1. There is a significant difference between linguistic choices made by male and female Facebook users at lexical level on the basis of new word formation.
2. There is a significant difference between linguistic choices made by male and female Facebook users at lexical level on the basis of word reduction.
Cyber Language and Gender
The language of males and females can be and has been researched, examined and analysed in various fields, genres and mediums for semantic, pragmatic or syntactic differences. The present study aimed at exploring the relationship between various linguistic aspects of cyber language and gender. Cyber language is characterized by various unusual features (e.g. initialism, clipping, blending, conversion, acronym, abbreviation, contraction, substitution, non- standard spelling, letter/ number homophone, phonetic spelling, capitalization, multiple phoneme, emoticon and non-standard use of punctuation). Linguists and sociolinguists (Herring 1993, 2003; Savicki 1996; Herring & Zelenkauskaite 2008; Thomson, Murachver& Green 2001; Guiller & Durndell 2006; Kapidzic &
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Herring 2010) have used these linguistic features to identify gender differences in cyber language at micro level.
In one of her studies conducted in Italy, Herring and Zelenkauskaite, A (2008) reveal that females post more and longer messages than males do. Moreover, females use non- standard forms more often than men do. Their findings are contradictory to the findings of previous gender related research in sociolinguistics and CMC literature. For example, Labov (1990) and Zelenkauskaite and Herring (2006) ,who compared Lithuanian and Croatian Internet Relay Chat language and gender, suggest throughout their findings that females use more standard language than males do in their writings. Herring and Zelenkauskaite, A (2008) are of the view that women post more messages than men. Moreover they find that women use more reduced forms of language than men do. However, the level of reduction i.e. lexical / sentential has not been discovered. Herring compares the sentence lengths of messages and the measures indicate that females use contracted forms more than males do. On the other hand, males post messages which contain spelled out numbers. Her findings on shortening types by males and females suggest that females use more shortening strategies: homophones, phonetic spellings and clippings than their male counterparts. It has also been noticed that females omit letters (clippings) more often than men do. In contrast, males omit punctuation more often than females do. Similarly, Baron (2004), while carrying her research in an American college, reports females use fewer contracted lexical forms than males do. Her analysis of Instant Messaging (IM) shows that females follow the norms of standard language and employ more standard punctuation marks and capitalization than their male counterparts do.
Although cyber language provides a favorable environment to its users to disguise themselves, the mystery of anonymity can be resolved by analyzing the length of sentences and the style that is used to construct these sentences. Guiller
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and Durnell (2006), observing students’ use of cyber language, find that even though during communication, they don’t reveal their identity through the linguistic features they use, the stylistic differences are evident and reveal their gender identity. Herring and Paolillo (2006), while analyzing the frequency of the grammatical features identified by Argomon (2003) find that in adult blogs, the gender differences disappear. They further argue that the differences at linguistic level remain least evident when participants are engaged in discourse about the same topic. Moreover, when males and females participate in discussion on the same topic they don’t speak like males or females rather like scholars. Kapidzic and Herring’s ( 2010) study of chat rooms also confirms that traditional gender differences are less vivid when males and females are engaged in discourse of the same genre on the same topic. Contrary to this, Koch (2005) finds a few gender differences in an experimental study of gender construction in chat groups. He is of the view that gender differences do exist even if the males and females are engaged in discussing the same topic. However, on the basis of an online survey in Spain, Valor and Seiber (2003) state that there is no significant gender difference in the use of cyber language especially on mobile phones. Similarly, in a study of the use of internet by teenagers, Gross (2004) finds that teenagers don’t differ in their online behavior and habits. On the other hand, Rafi (2010) is of the view that though gender differences exist in Short Messaging Service (SMS) texting .However, he does not find any gender difference in their use of abbreviations. Similarly, Huffaker (2005) asserts that as the internet users are becoming more androgynous, online blogs created by young males and females are “more alike than different” but Lee (2003) emphasizes that despite the fact that in IM(Instant Messages), male-female traditional linguistic trends are changing; hence , it would be too early to say that internet is a “great equalizer”.
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Participants and Methodology
In order to analyze the research hypothesis, 50 males and 50 females from various cities of Pakistan were selected. Participants were the bilinguals in Pakistan speaking Urdu as their first language, on Facebook, and English as second language and frequent users of Facebook. The participants who belonged to diverse areas and various age groups were selected to generalize the results and it was also confirmed that the participants were from Pakistan and native speakers of Urdu.
These 13-30 year old participants were selected on the basis of non-probability sampling because it was difficult for the researcher to access the Facebook wall posts of a greater population. Before collecting the data, it was important to know which type of data would be possible to gather and how to handle it. Moreover, considering the ethical restrictions, Mann and Stewart’s (2000) ethical framework (given below) for qualitative research on internet communication was followed.
I. Personal data must be collected for a specific and legitimate purpose.
II. Personal data should be reasonably guarded against risks such as loss, unauthorized access, modification or disclosure.
III. Data should be collected in a context of free speech.
IV. Personal data are not to be communicated externally without the consent of the subject who supplied the data.
Considering the above mentioned ethical guidelines, suggested by Mann and Steward (2000) the data were collected and analyzed. First of all the researcher added all one hundred participants, as friends, in her Facebook. In order to ensure the participants’ anonymity, the participants were given the pseudonyms i.e. a name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which differs from the original name. The
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participants’ personal information regarding places or any other information that might have revealed their identity was also not exposed in any instance. The participants were given the identity on the basis of gender and their age group.
While data collection only those messages were collected which were posted and commented by the participants. The data, in the form of Facebook wall messages, were collected from the Facebook postings of 13-30 year old participants. Each message was coded for 13 linguistic features: compounding, coinage, abbreviation, acronyms, non-standard spelling, letter insertion and clipping, blending, derivation, conversion, abbreviation, phonetic spelling and letter number homophone.
Mean, standard deviation (SD), standard error mean(SEM) and independent sample t-test were calculated through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
Results
The results of the qualitative data uncover and bring forward various linguistic choices at lexical level that the users prefer while posting on their and others’ Facebook walls. The results show a greater tendency of females towards the use of blending(such as“gareebness” for being poor; blend of Urdu and English language “Gareeb” meaning poor in Urdu and “ness” being a prefix used to make it a noun in English , hence “gareebness” coined to mean “poverty”), conversion ( e.g. “googling” from google), compounding (such as, “hoing” for doing), coinage( e.g. “fairytalish” for kind of fairy tale), acronyms (such as “LOL” for laugh out loud), abbreviation (e.g. “BTW” for by the way", “DP” for display picture), phonetic spellings( e.g. dat for that, “lemme”for let me) and non- standard spellings( e.g. “gonna” for going to). On the other hand,males dominate in letter insertion(e.g. “waitttttttttt” for wait, “awsomeeeeeeee” for awesome), letter number
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homophone(“gr8” for great) and clipping(e.g. “bro” for brother, “info” for information).
Table 1 Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Blending Male 50 .56 1.593 .225 Female 50 1.06 2.721 .385 Conversion Male 50 .20 .404 .057 Female 50 .18 .596 .084 Compounding Male 50 .02 .141 .020 Female 50 .38 1.048 .148 Derivation Male 50 .74 1.382 .195 Female 50 1.68 2.171 .307 Coinage Male 50 .90 1.764 .249 Female 50 1.74 3.212 .454
Quantitative data show that there is a mean difference between male and female Facebook users on the basis of blending, conversion, compounding, derivation and coinage. On blending mean score of males is 0.56 with 1.593 Standard Deviation (SD); whereas mean score of females is 1.06 with 2.72 SD as shown in table 1. Small Error Mean (SEM) 0.225 and 0.385 on blending between males and females respectively shows approximation of sample mean to population mean.
The Mean score of males on conversion is 0.20 with 0.40 SD and the mean score of females is 0.18 with 0.596 Standard Deviation; whereas SEM is 0.057 and 0.084 between males and females respectively. There is a/the mean score difference on the use of compounding by males and females. The Mean score of males on compounding is 0.02 with 0.14 SD and 0.02 SEM; whereas mean score of females is 0.38 with 1.04 SD and 0.14 SEM. There is greater mean score difference on the basis of derivation and coinage by males and females. Mean score of males on derivation is 0.74 with 1.38 SD and 0.19 SEM; whereas mean score difference of females is 1.68 with 2.17 SD and 0.30 SEM. The mean difference of males on the basis of
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coinage is 0.90 with 1.76 SD and 0.24 SEM. On the other hand the mean difference of females on coinage is 1.74 with 3.21 SD and 0.45 SEM.
Table 2 Group Statistics
Table 2 indicates the two tailed independent sample t-test and significant values, with 98 degrees of freedom. The “t” value on blending is -1.12 with sig.(2-tailed) 0.26. The “p” value shows that there is no significant difference between males and females on the basis of blending. Similarly, the “t” value on conversion is 0.19 with sig. (2-tailed) 0.84. The “p” value indicates that there is no significant difference between the choices made by males and females on the basis of conversion. However, the “t” value on compounding is -2.48 with sig. (2- tailed) 0.01. The “p” value shows that there is a significant difference in the linguistic choices made by males and females on the basis of conversion. Similarly, the “t” value on derivation is -2.58 with sig. (2-tailed) 0.01. The “p” value indicated the significant difference between males and females on the basis of
Factors
Leven’s Test for
Equally of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
T
df
Sig.(2- tailed)
Blending
Equal variances assumed
2.15
0.14
-1.12
98
0.26
Conversion
Equal variances assumed
0.003
0.95
0.19
98
0.84
Compounding
Equal variances assumed
25.64
0.00
-2.40
98
0.01
Derivation
Equal variances assumed
5.48
0.21
-2.58
98
0.01
Coinage
Equal variances assumed
25.57
0.00
-1.62
98
0.10
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derivation. However, the “t” value on the basis of coinage is - 1.62 with sig. (2-tailed) 0.10. The “p” value shows no significant differences in linguistic choices made by males and females on the basis of coinage.
Independent Sample t test
Table 3 Group Statistics gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Acronym Male 50 1.34 1.722 .243 female 50 2.52 4.450 .629 Abbreviation Male 50 2.54 4.854 .686 female 50 3.22 2.757 .390 Phonetic spellings Male 50 10.92 10.832 1.532 female 50 16.06 10.691 1.512 Non-standard spellings Male 50 2.20 1.498 .212 female 50 7.78 6.460 .914 Letter insertion Male 50 12.44 7.271 1.028 female 50 5.28 6.627 .937 Letter number homophone Male 50 1.88 2.256 .319 female 50 1.74 2.586 .366 Clipping Male 50 2.08 2.069 .293 female 50 2.58 2.704 .382
Table 3 indicates that the mean score of males on acronym is 1.34 with 1.72 Standard Derivation ( SD) whereas the mean score of females is 2.52 with 4.45SD; whereas, Standard Error Mean (SEM) is 0.24 and 0.62 between/?males and females respectively. There is mean score difference on the use of abbreviation by males and females. Mean score of males on abbreviation is 2.54 with 4.8 SD and 0.68 SEM; whereas mean score of females is 3.22 with 2.75 SD and 0.39 SEM. Males and females display a greater mean score difference on the basis of the use of phonetic spellings, non-standard spellings and letter
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insertion in males and females. The Mean score of males on phonetic spellings is10.92 with 10.83 and 1.53 SEM; whereas mean score difference of females is 16.06 with 10.69 SD and 1.51 SEM. The mean difference of males on the basis of non- standard spelling is 2.20 with 1.49 SD and 0.21 SEM. On the other hand the mean difference of males and females on the basis of non-standard spelling is 7.78 with 6.46 SD and 0.91 SEM. The mean score difference on the basis of letter insertion in males and females is 12.4 and 5.2 with 7.27 and 6.62 SD and 1.02 and 0.93 SEM respectively.
Similarly, the mean difference of males and females on the basis of letter number homophone is 1.88 and 1.74 with 2.25 and 2.58 SD and 0.31 and 0.366 SEM respectively. On the other hand, there is less difference in the mean scores of males and females on the basis of clipping. Table 3 indicates that the mean score of males is 2.08 with 2.06 SD and 0.29 SEM on the basis of clipping whereas, females’ mean score on the basis of clipping is 2.58 with 2.70 SD and 0.38 SEM.
Table 4 Independent Sample T Test
Factors
Leven’s Test for
Equally of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
T
df
Sig.(2- tailed)
Acronym
Equal variances assumed
11.25
0.01
-1.74
98
0.08
Abbreviation
Equal variances assumed
0.27
0.60
-0.60
98
0.39
Phonetic Spellings
Equal variances assumed
0.18
0.67
-2.38
98
0.01
Non standard spellings
Equal variances assumed
37.85
0.00
-5.95
98
0.00
Letter insertion
Equal variances assumed
4.52
0.03
5.14
98
0.00
Letter number homophone
Equal variances assumed
0.12
0.72
0.28
98
0.77
Clipping
Equal variances assumed
4.84
0.03
-1.03
98
0.30
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Table 4 indicates the two tailed independent sample t-test and significant values, with 98 degree of freedom. The “t” value on acronyms is -1.74 with sig. (2-tailed) 0.08. The “p” value indicates that there is no significant difference in males’ and females’ linguistic choices on the basis of acronyms. Similarly, the “t” value on abbreviation is -0.86 with 0.39 2- tailed sig. value, that once again indicates no significant difference. On the other hand, there are significant differences in males’ and females’ linguistic choices on the basis of phonetic spellings, and letter insertion. Table 4 shows that the “t” value on the basis of phonetic spellings is -2.38 with 0.01 sig. (2-tailed). Similarly the “t” value on the basis of non standard spellings is -5.95 with 0.00 2-tailed sig. value, that indicates the significant difference in linguistic choices made by males and females on the basis of non-standard spellings. The “t” value on the basis of letter insertion is 5.14 with 2-tailed sig. value of 0.00 that shows that there is significant difference between males and females on the basis of letter insertion. The “t-test” Table 4 does not show any significant difference in males and females on the basis of the use of letter number homophone and clipping. Moreover, it also indicates the “t” value, on letter number homophone, which is 2.89 with sig. (2-tailed) 0.77 that once again indicated no significant difference. Similarly the “t” value on the basis of clipping is -1.03 with 2-tailed sig. value of 0.30. The “p” value indicates that there is no significant difference in linguistic choices made by males and females on the basis of clipping.
Discussion
The present study analyzed gender based linguistic differences found in Cyber language through Facebook wall posts of young Pakistani male and female Facebook users. The results indicate that both males and females participate equally in Facebook discourse and share their views. Although, it will be premature
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to say that internet is a gender equalizer in discourse in the Pakistani context just like it has been found by other researchers like Rodino 1997 and Graddol and Swan (1989). Though it can be said that social media is contributing towards the reduction of differences in the linguistic choices made by males and females in their online discourse. The reason behind this can be that unlike face-to-face conversation, it involves less face saving strategies hence the fear of immediate response or reaction is reduced. The differences that exist in the Pakistani discourse can be attributed to the still existing, though reducing, gender differences in the society at homes as well as the work place where females generally behave and are supposed to behave more decently in discourse and men, too, behave more decently when in the company of females with the result that females are generally better at pronunciation, hence their use of phonetic spellings. This consideration, though, is less obvious in internet/online discourse where both genders enjoy greater freedom to give vent to their thoughts and feelings.
Conclusion
The article has analyzed that there is no clear significant difference between the linguistic choices made by males and females on the basis of new word formation and reduction. However, there are a few instances where genders behave differently e.g. females are the dominant users of compounding, derivation, phonetic spellings, letter insertion, and non standard spellings.
This study has thus demystified the perception existing before that genders behave alike while using cyber language and no boundaries exist and they can hide their identities successfully while using internet for communication. This study has provided certain parameters which can be used to identify the gender of any cyber language user. Though cyber language
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is a non standard form of language allowing its users to experiment with a lot of different features of language, within these varieties, there are individual differences that help to identify a person’s gender.
Delimitations of the study
1. The data is collected from all over Pakistan. The population of the present study is delimited to 100 participants only. It is worth mentioning here that the researcher delimited data collection to Facebook only, although other modes/media of CMC are also available.
2. Ethical considerations restricted the researcher to record and study all communication of these participants. So, there is the possibility of their behaving differently in other environments.
3. In the present study the gender differences have been measured at the lexical level of language. However the gender differences can be measured at the grammatical or sentential level.
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