1. Best Practices in Corporate Training and the Role of
Aesthetics: Interviews with Eight Experts
Morgan Jennings, Ph.D.
Metropolitan State College of Denver
Campus Box 45 PO Box 173362
Denver, CO 80217-3362
1 303 556 8491
jenninmo @mscd.edu
ABSTRACT The interviews are the data from rigorous qualitative research l
'Stop playing around and get to work' is a common refrain. While employing empirical phenomenological methodology [ l l ] and
the two do not seem to mix, research indicates that play has much theory development for analysis and coding [8, 15]. The findings
to offer corporate training when it comes to learning. This paper provide a framework, based upon the categories derived from the
presents in narrative form, a summary of the interviews with eight interviews and from aesthetic literature (specifically the
master designers of engaging and immersive learning products characteristics of aesthetic experience) that could be used to create
and the subsequent aesthetic framework for development of such meaningful and engaging corporate training material.
environments. Categories were created when at least five participants spoke of a
similar concept and data was triangulated to increase internal
Keywords validity. Upon completion of data analysis the characteristics of
Aesthetic characteristics, aesthetic experience, simulations, aesthetic experience (unity, attention, active discovery, attention,
corporate training, engaging learning environments affect) 2 were used as major headings because of the fit with the
native categories developed from the interviews.
1. INTRODUCTION
While engaging and immersive computer games, edutainment and 2.1.2 Participants
television specials are common, corporate training sessions Eight master designers of award-winning products were
featuring these components are not. Recent research [11, 13, 14, interviewed. Nancy Maresh is the owner of Creative Learning
15] and business trade journals [7] however, have begun to International and is the co-creator of The Accounting Game, an
espouse play or game-like simulations as environments for adult accelerated learning program/workshop. David Stone is the
learning, such as corporate training. director of Telecourse Development/Production at Jones Digital
What are the elements for engaging and immersive environments? Century. Stone produces distance education material and PBS
To answer this question the author went to award winning programs and has experience with computer game design. Susan
designers. This paper presents the experiential story of interviews Schilling, designer of Oregon Trail III, has been involved with
with master designers of engaging and immersive learning computer-based learning since its inception. Schilling is now the
environments and the resulting aesthetic framework. director of Lucas Learning, which is owned by George Lucas of
Star Wars fame. Will Wright (master designer) is co-founder of
2. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY Maxis and the original mayor of SimCity. Bremer (writer) has
worked on many Sim titles. Mark Schroder is the president of
2.1.1 Purpose and Method
Digital Creations, a multimedia, lnternet and graphic-design
The study was based on the hypothesis that some popular learning
company. Peter Grundy is an artist at Digital Creations. Joe
products take into account a holistic and multi-modal approach to
Lamos heads the design team for The Cooperative Program for
the design and development of immersive and engaging
Operational Meteorology, Education and Training (COMET),
environments, similar to aesthetic experience. The purpose was to
which supports the science education and forecast training of
determine the design commonalties between these diverse
operational forecasters in the National Weather Service, the Air
products and to develop a framework or model based upon the
Weather Service and the Naval Meteorological and Oceanography
findings that could be used to create such learning environments.
Command. COMET is a highly interactive CD training series.
The following sections of the synopsis are divided by primary
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for
personal or classroom use is granted without lee provided that copies categories 3 and sub-categories4 and identify the conceptual
are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that
copies bear this notice and the thll citation on the first page. To copy
otherwise, to republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists. See Jennings (1998) for a thorough description of the study.
requires prior specific permission and/or a tee.
SIGCPR 2001 San Diego CA USA 2 See Beardsley, 1969, 1970, 1982 & Jennings (1998) for a
Copyright ACM 2001 1-58113-363-1/01/04...$5.00 description of aesthetic experience/characteristics and the
relationship to learning.
3 Aesthetic characteristics
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2. similarities that were found within the products and between the system information. In a psychology series, Stone began one
participants' design processes. segment on brain-mind development with a story about a young
boy who had part of this brain removed. The story was used as an
3. INTERVIEWS entr6e to talk about the nature of the brain and its interchangeable
parts.
3.1 Unity
The importance of unity lies in providing a holistic environment "Our minds inherently want to construct a story--a linear story--
for the user in which to experience emotion, focused attention, to understand the causal relationships within events" [Wright].
active discovery and intrinsic gratification. Creating unity Wright says users build a "whole story around causal effects that
provides a feeling of continuity and of closure and completeness do not exist in the game." Each user's story is unique to them, and
for the user. A unified environment helps users understand it provides a feeling of completeness and closure.
content and relationships. The participants described the sub-
category concepts of context, stories, metaphor and mini Gestalt. 3.1.3 Metaphor
The purpose of metaphor is to weave parts into a whole. Like a
3.1.1 Context story, metaphor provides a means to create coherence for the user.
Context is often mentioned in aesthetic literature, particularly in Maresh uses engaging metaphors in the workshops she presents
regard to surroundings and anticipation. For example, some because "where's all the hooks to hang the information on if you
people who attend movies may do so with the anticipation of have no context?" Her well-known workshop on basic accounting
being captivated and carried away. It helps give depth, richness principles is based on the metaphor of a lemonade stand. Mares h
and a link to empathy, which helps establish a unified sets an elaborate stage with colored paper, laminated maps,
environment. colorful pretend money, appropriate music and any other props
she thinks will help engage and immerse a workshop participant.
All of the participants discussed the importance of providing a
The workshop participants operate a lemonade stand from the
unified or holistic environment, which was frequently described
perspective of a child, with childhood nicknames written on their
as context. Maresh believes that "context is more important than
name badges. The participants play and have fun while learning
anything." In her train-the-trainer workshops for industry, she
often-intimidating mathematical formulas and terms for
folds content and context together. She says that often her
accounting procedures.
workshop is the first time that company trainers learn about the
relationship of content and context. "They're learning for the first Stone always finds a means to bring information together. There is
time to think about -- how does the content that I ' m teaching a "set of knowledge that needs to be treated in some way or
relate to life?" She says that very often the trainers become another." In a program about different musical styles, he used the
enthusiastic about producing training material when they metaphor of how music affected cultures as a means to provide
understand this because it is much more enjoyable to produce a context. All the different types of music could be brought under
holistic, engaging environment than creating drill and practice the umbrella of cultural influence. The program would have
material. seemed fragmented without some kind of a bridge from one type
of music to another to create a sense of wholeness or unity.
As Stone said, "It must be about something" in order to provide a
focus for the user. COMET modules are contextually based 3.1.4 Mini Gestalt
because Lamos says that we "learn in context." Context provides, Whatever the means of providing unity, determining the actual
for the user, a focus for mental modeling, problem-solving and, content is obviously very important. However, it is not about
says Schilling, "an emotional investment." "bringing all of the content. It's selecting some very important
part of it, and that's really critical" [Stone]. Lamps received
3.1.2 Story
feedback from the users of the COMET program suggesting
Stories were the most frequently described method for creating
shorter modules for the sake of time and concentration. He
unity. Stories have a beginning, middle and end which provides a
suggested considering an analogy he had learned: "How long is a
feeling of closure and completeness for the user. In speaking of
string? In other words, you have this concept called string, but it
stories, Shilling said her team wondered, "How could we bring
could be this long or it could be that long." In designing any
that in [an emotional hook]? ... and that's where the whole
program, he says that part of the "design challenge" is to "create
integration of stories started to come in... Because how do you get
closure." Therefore, a module, lesson or program of any length
emotion into an experience unless you've got something for them
must be cohesive and have closure for the user.
to basically pin it on?"
This is the idea of a mini Gestalt, or microworld. Most of the
Bremer described how novels set the scene and introduce the
participants talked about the amount of content that is covered in
characters so that a reader can understand the plot and become
an application. Both Oregon Trail and SimCity designers found
emotionally involved with a story. Setting the scene for a game is
that too many decisions in the beginning, although realistic,
equally important. "The player still keeps playing to see what
frustrated and bored the users. For example, determining
happens next. Maybe [the game is] presenting enough information
everything that must be included for a wagon train was
in the right way to keep the player curious".
overwhelming, so the designer gave the users the option to use a
Authentic experiences of weather-related stories are currently pre-packaged trip. If a user had to go through all of the red tape
under development by Lamps and his team for future COMET that an actual city planner experiences, the game would never
modules. These stories, as told by pilots, will personalize weather progress. Therefore, based on the complexity of a concept, not all
of reality may be initially presented at a novice level. However, as
4 Native terms used by the participants a user becomes more proficient, more detail is available to them.
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3. "So you're actually able to learn the system very incrementally" meanings. All of the designers include the opportunity for active
[Wright]. discovery in their products. Schroder says, "If you can't keep the
user engaged and keep him thinking about what's next, or this is
3.2 Attention or Object Directedness fun, or I wonder what that does. then you're wasting your time."
Elements that bring about focus or a desire to proceed with an
Additionally, the participants were well aware of the importance
activity represent the aesthetic characteristic of attention [4].
of providing users a means to improve their skill and knowledge
"Grabbing the viewers' attention immediately ... communicating
for progressing from novice to expert. For example, users of
with that audience rapidly" are important criteria for "hooking"
Oregon Trail and SimCity can start out very simply and create
users [Stone]. Lamos says that there is too much vying for
more complicated adventures as they become more proficient.
people's attention and therefore the material must be "meaningful
COMET users are able to freely access information and move to
to them."
appropriate modules for their knowledge level.
The sub-categories under attention are familiarity, props,
The sub-categories, problem-solving, play, replay, fill-in-the-
overview and media components for attention. These tactics,
blanks, are means for the users to be active in the environment
discussed by the participants, are a means to draw and sustain the
where they have opportunities to explore, discover and make
attention of the user.
mistakes.
3.2.1 Familiarity 3.3.1 Problem-solving
In the programs that Stone produces, the viewers are often shown
A frequently mentioned means of creating a means for active
something that is familiar to them. For example, a difficult
discovery was through various problem-solving activities. "A lot
mathematical concept may be introduced with a roulette wheel or
of what we do, even for recreation, involves problem-solving"
a pair of dice. Familiar examples in the beginning help establish a
[Wright]. Lamos said he looked "at learning as a problem-solving
comfort level and engage the mind. Likewise, Maresh says to
activity" because learning is a "purposeful activity." Schilling
"always create connection and common ground," including when
described problem-solving learning environments as ones with
"segueing from one piece of information to another."
constraints and goals that involved critical thinking on the part of
Schilling suggests that "reasons why the licensed properties these the users. Schilling explained that the users have to see the
days have the most success in the consumer market place ... is that consequences of their decisions so they are able to make informed
the kids have an emotional relationship to the Disney characters, follow-up decisions.
to the film .... They know that character, and then when they see
that character in the Disney CD, as long as that character acts in a 3.3.2 Play
way with integrity -- with how they think that character should act Play is a process of active discovery. The SimCity creators,
-- they bring along with them that whole experience into that Wright and Bremer, talked about the difference in mind set that
CD." may be created between the concept of a toy and a game. A game
is often a win/lose situation where as "toys are a bit more open
3.2.2 Props ended. A toy you just play with. You can make up your own
Maresh adds elements of surprise to sustain attention and rituals games with a toy. You can decide what your own goals are. A toy
such as stretching and deep breathing because changing states by is something that you spend time with. So SimCity is like a little
changing the activity also helps maintain attention. Digital play city. Like a little toy planet." A toy should "let you try things.
Creators adds interactive elements to many of their products. In I should let you fail, preferably without killing you, and making
some .cases it is for hands-on educational purposes and in other you start over again and again" [Wright].
cases it is to help gain and maintain attention.
Maresh provides toys for the participants of her workshops. In
3.2.3 Overview one workshop, they receive an alligator after they learn about the
Early within a program, Stone establishes the theme of the reptilian part of the brain. She believes that learning is easier
program. "They [the viewers/students] get a sense of 'What is it?' when people are physically active and relaxed. In a workshop
and 'What am I watching?'" This helps focus viewers and gain dealing with the internet, Maresh had participants spin a spinner
their interest and attention. Additionally, Stone believes that and receive a mission card for a treasure hunt. They explore the
greater enticement than in the past is needed to gain attention. internet and in the process learn function buttons, etc., while they
"There was a standard model in doing a television program, which are playing the game. "The whole learning process is handed over
was to hit them [the viewer] with a cute graphic or something up to them, and the instructor is just troubleshooting" [Maresh].
front. The television programmers/marketers discovered that if
3.3.3 Replay
they waited for the cartoon to begin, it was too late. Because of
Related to the open-ended notion of play, the participants
commercials, there was too much of a risk of people moving on.
discussed the value of replay. Replay opportunities allow the user
So, they moved a tease into the credits of the preceding program
to actively explore different options and discover the
in order to have some sort of entry because there needs to be some
consequences of different decisions. Replayabilty of games is
kind of a hook right up front."
based on the number of different circumstances or settings the
3.3 Active Discovery user may choose. "You know that there are certain games" where
"it's never going to be the same twice if that space is big enough."
Active discovery is another five characteristic of aesthetic
[Wright]. More space equals more opportunity for replay because
experience. It is the "the excitement of meeting a cognitive
of the variety of problems and resolutions. COMET users have the
challenge" [4:292). It is the process of actively seeking answers or
opportunity to test their own hypothesis and, in one case, compare
resolutions, and it is the challenge of seeing connections and
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4. their ideas with an expert's and, in another case, see the results in 3.4.1 Shared Experiences
animated form. In all cases the participants talked about shared experiences. This
User success often depends on some guidance from the program could be through actual interaction with other people, or a
helping them learn from the choices they make. In COMET, character pal or sidekick. Lamos believes that we are a "small-
Oregon Trail and SimCity, users receive feedback on their actions. group animal," and we need a meaningful connection with others.
If a traveler in Oregon Trail or a city planner in SimCity makes Stone talked about the importance of us feeling as if we are a part
particular choices without making other important ones, the of the "larger universe."
program will prompt the user. These game designers create A network version of Oregon Trail, where users become different
authentic problems for the user to solve. In Oregon Trail, if a members of the wagon train, is very successful. The members
traveler shoots a buffalo but doesn't have enough room to carry involved in the journey make decisions together such as, "Should
the meat, the user would be advised of the situation. If a COMET we go on or wait for Sara to recover from cholera?" [Schilling].
user chooses to go to a module that may be beyond their Wright says he has seen children play electronic games together
knowledge level, the program asks the user if they want to that are not purposely designed for more than one player.
proceed and explains why the prompt was made. In all cases, the
user can still choose to continue on the path they selected or Another option in creating shared-experiences is the illusion of
replay their choices. interaction by providing characters with which the user interacts.
In Oregon Trail, users interact and communicate with characters
3.3.4 Fill-in-the-blanks in the towns and on the wagon train. Lamos and Stone use expert
Stone has found that viewers enjoy making the connection commentary. COMET users can listen to an expert as well as
between narration and pictures rather than being explicitly told hypothesize about a topic and then compare their comments with
what is occurring. He said, "People like the experience of being the expert's recorded monologue. In a psychology series, he
smart," and filling in the blanks is an opportunity for users to feel showed Skinner talking about behavioral psychology, about
smart. He suggests that it's "a little bit like a good joke. You get which Stone comments, "What a treat for the students to hear it
the satisfaction of... piecing the story together in your mind" and from the originator of the field." Providing a means to connect
understanding the meaning, without having it made explicit. You with others helps establish an emotional investment on the part of
avoid directly "telling them the right answer. You have to let them the user.
fill-in-the-blanks, figure it out themselves, do the gap-bridging all
by themselves. Otherwise you've committed the egregious sin in
3.4.2 First-Person Perspective
telev;.sion of being boring" and it doesn't allow the viewer the First-person perspective was frequently mentioned as another
satisfaction of piecing the story together [Stone]. Stone explained important technique for emotional investment. It is a personal and
that "you don't have to show exactly what you are saying" for a intimate way for the user to experience an environment. Schilling
viewer to understand the information because, in fact, showing said that initially the team thought about including a character in
and telling the same information is not interesting or stimulating Oregon Trail as a means for an emotional connection. However,
to the viewer. they realized that the user became the character and that this
taking on of an identity was an emotional investment.
Wright and Bremer talked about the intrigue of comics. In a
comic, much is left for the reader to fill in from panel to panel. This is similar to SimCity, where the user "will find a unique
"So in some sense, the art of comics is leaving enough room in image to identify as themselves in SimCity, whether it's as mayor
the gutters for each user to co-write the story" [Bremer]. Too or God or the city itself" [Wright]. When a user becomes a
many specifics do not give the user the opportunity to incorporate traveler or a city planner, they have more invested in the outcome.
their own "variations" or imagination [Bremer]. They have a sense of control over the action and consequences.
Schilling talked about the popularity and marketability of the If the perspective is not first person, then identifying with a
Disney CD-ROMs. Because kids have seen the characters on character is important. Authors spend a great deal of time
television and at the movies, they have a mental model. "It's a introducing and building characters so that the reader becomes
much richer experience for the kid then what's even in the CD emotionally invested in the character's outcome. Bremer and
because they fill-in-the-blanks around the story. They fill-in-the- Stone think that a connection is made because readers or viewers
may be seeing themselves in the situation.
blanks around the character's motivation" because the children
know the characters. 3.4.3 Intrigue
There is often an element of intrigue that sustains emotional
3.4 Affect
involvement. In Oregon Trail it might be completing the quest.
Affect is the emotional component of an experience. Emotional
Schilling thought that one of the reasons Oregon Trail was so
involvement from an aesthetic experience perspective is "an
successful was because of the emotional connection with the Old
engagement of the whole self' [3:17). It "carries the experience
forward, binding parts and moments together" [9:72). For
West. "One of the reasons that 1 think Oregon Trail succeeds is
that culturally, Americans have a mythology that we all believe
example, this might be the concept of willingly suspending belief,
about westward expansion. [Schilling]. She believes that "when
such as becoming a character in an environment or accepting the
their [kids] emotions are engaged, they are learning at a higher
parameters of another world. In short, affect is the emotional
rate than if they were just being asked to do rote, drill-type
investment a user makes in order to be immersed in an
things." There is a vicarious sense of exploring the Old West.
environment. The subheadings, shared experiences, first person
and intrigue help users make an emotional investment in order to Grundy talks about providing reasons for the user to explore a
sustain their involvement in the environment. program. This can be done through techniques such as a feeling of
218

5. movement (accomplished through graphic techniques) or a feeling market is "What are the kids interested in? "What do they value?"
of mystery and intrigue that entices a user to proceed. He used Then, based on market feedback, products are produced.
Myst (a highly successful interactive puzzle-type game) as an
example of mystery and intrigue. In speaking about this aspect, 3.5.2 Ownership and Investment
Grundy said, "Every screen had a path, every screen had a draw to According to Bremer, a program-induced motivation technique is
it. There was something or some kind of space or coloring that provided by establishing a feeling of "ownership and
drew you to it and made you want to explore that area." identification". In SimCity, ownership and identification occurs
Additionally, Myst provided enticement with "paths leading off when the user has "invested the time and built every little road
into the distance, and you got a faint hint of something there" and building and you know why that building is there and why
[Grundy]. that road is there. The user has made a personal investment that
creates a sense of ownership.
3.5 Intrinsic Gratification: Schilling also believes that ownership and investment are
Intrinsic gratification is the fifth characteristic of an aesthetic important. She described a successful program at an elementary
experience. It is a feeling of pleasure from an activity where the school where students supplied information to other students over
reward is the activity itself. It is the "continuing enjoyment and a the internet about an environmental project. One young student
final satisfaction or fulfillment that may linger after the experience was on a walk with his father and saw the migrating butterflies the
has ended" [3:10). children were studying. He wanted to rush home and tell his
Schilling discussed the need to provide environments that were internet cohorts that the butterflies had been spotted. The students
intrinsically gratifying to users. She speculated, "How do we involved with this real life project felt that they were contributing
educate our youth so that they know they're part of the future? members of a worthwhile project. This kind of project helps create
They don't have, right now, anything that tells them they are a sense of ownership and investment in the outcome. Schilling
valuable, contributing members of society, and that we expect said children need "a goal that they think is worthy" of their time.
them to do great things for us." She thinks we should consider "So, it's not just an electronic experience, but there is some
"building those things into their experiences in middle school and tangible end product that they value."
high school, and teach them that they are going to be the ones
who set the direction and solve the next set of messes." By 3.5.3 Satisfaction
"putting the power into the hands of the kids in a way that's "There has to be that feeling that you're moving ahead and that
guided - that gives them, in small, little, highly carefully you're not going to reach an impasse with learning and discovery.
constructed environments - that sense of accomplishment." It's going to be satisfying all the way through.i'. "iqaisstatement by
Satisfaction and accomplishment are important for a feeling of Stone is similar to Csikszentmihalyi's (1975) idea that when
intrinsic gratification. challenge and skills are at an apex for a person, then a feeling of
flow, or satisfaction, is possible. The optimal level of
Three sub-categories of intrinsic gratification emerged from the complication and discovery yields what Stone calls the "ah-ha
data. The sub-categories that emerged from the data are (a) the experience." A feeling of satisfaction for the user can be
personal motivation that the users brought, (b) feelings of accomplished by providing an activity where they have an
ownership and investment, and (c) a feeling of satisfaction. opportunity to be successful.
3.5.1 Personal Motivation 4. AESTHETIC FRAMEWORK
Most of the designers believed that the users must initially be self-
The ideas and concepts expressed by the participants support the
motivated. What we "are very upfront about ... is the fact that our
characteristics of aesthetic experience [3, 4, 6]. During the first
audience here [is] professional forecasters and they have a
part of the interview, when the participants described (in their
motivation to be engaged" [Lamos]. Stone also writes for an
own words) their design process, they serendipitously included
audience he considers intrinsically motivated. He said, "in dealing
information that related to aesthetic characteristics, although they
with the external versus the internal [gratification], you have to
may not have used the same terms as the literature. When
assume that initially there is some kind of intrinsic motivation
specifically asked about aesthetic experience and its
towards your topic .... They [the users] have something going for
characteristics, the participants were comfortable with the
them already that 1 try to build upon." This notion seems to mirror
terminology and felt that the characteristics were an accurate
the concept of aesthetic attitude: an active openness and
description of many of the strategies they incorporated into their
willingness to learn and to experience. However, Stone hopes that
products. "In terms of the elements you're describing, it sounds
"the confluence of the dynamic narrative, the wonderful music,
exactly like what 1 do." This statement was made by Stone and
the compelling visuals, etc., would from that point, hook any
similarly echoed by the other participants.
viewer into the subject matter, especially with the level of material
that you [producer/designer] deal with as your introduction." Figure 1 is a depiction of the aesthetic framework garnered from
aesthetic literature and the interviews. The main headings are
Stone is referring to the home market in this last statement where
users must be personally motivated in order to view one of his aesthetic characteristics and the subheadings are native categories
PBS series. Schilling mentioned the motivation of users for the from the interviews.
home market as well. She said the question to consider for this
219

6. Aesthetic Framework
The ouhoronooand complotono~ of obJe~
Story Metaphor Context Mini Gestalt
Sets a scene to Assembles all Provides richness and Provides complete
create empatheti( parts into a depth to content by content for the
connection whole creating an experience particular context
='~ATrENTION: Elements Ihat brll
s dNire to proceed with an aclMty
Familiarity Props Overview
Go from the knownUse props and interactive Provide users with
to the unknown processes the big picture.
prooe~ of~
-or ~ to oognlUve~ ~ -
Problem-solving Play Replay Fill-in-blanks
Provide contextually Provide an Provide users with Allow the opportunity
accurate & environment that many alternatives & to make connections
meaningful guided allows exploration & options to pursue & inferences
activities experimentation.
An emotional Investment that helps create a
Shared Experience First Person Intrigue
Provide a means for Set up the environment Let the plot thicken, the
users to interact with so that users have some story unfold, the
others control over or are part picture evolve.
of the environment
GRATIFICATION: A feeling of pleasure, reWar¢
and satisfaction from an activ#y
Personal MotivaUon Ownership & Satisfaction
Include innovative Investment Provide a means
techniques to sustain Provide users with for the user to be
motivation. meaningful activities successful
and opportunities
Figure 1
We have the technology resources available to create and provide
5. C O N C L U S I O N S immersive and engaging corporate training. The question seems to
A framework for the design of aesthetic multimedia learning no longer be Should we? but rather How should we?
environments (MMLE) that engage and focus the learner seems an
appropriate model for learning. Schilling, believes that learners 6. R E F E R E N C E S
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