1
Discussion Question Rubric
210 Points Total (30 Points for each of the 7 Discussion Questions)
Over the course of the quarter, you will be presented with various prompts via Canvas to write
a discussions on. Your responses will need to be at least two paragraphs in length and you will
need to respond to 2 other students’ posts.
General Information:
1. Due Date and Time:
a. Responses to discussion questions and other students’ posts should be posted to Canvas by
11:59pm Sunday evenings. The sooner you post, the sooner others can respond to your post.
b. Responses posted after the due date and time will only be eligible for 79% of the total
grade.
When Answering a Discussion Question:
1. Length (Minimum of TWO Paragraphs) for Each Response to a Discussion Question(s): 17
Points Total:
a. Wrote a minimum of TWO paragraphs. (12pts)
b. Include some personal reflection THAT RELATES to the question you are answering. Be
thoughtful. Include either personal experiences that support your answer or if you aren’t
comfortable sharing something about yourself, share about someone you know or
someone/something you read about. (5pts.)
2. Proper Spelling, Grammar, & Punctuation: 3 Points Total:
a. Used proper spelling, grammar and punctuation in both your answer AND replies. It is
strongly recommended that you write your answers and responses in a Word document, proof
it and then copy and paste it back into CANVAS to avoid any errors. (3pts.)
When Responding to Other Students’ Posts:
1. Responses to Other Students’ Posts: 10 Points Total:
a. Replied to TWO other students’ posts. Please be thoughtful and thorough in your responses
to classmates. Five sentences is the suggested minimum for each reply, although your efforts
should be spent on quality of reply, rather than quantity of words, and will be graded
accordingly. Instead of just saying that you agree or disagree with someone else’s post, be
detailed and intentional in your replies. Remember this is the way to connect with other
students in the class. The more replies there are in the thread, the more fruitful the discussion
and the richer the experience for everyone. (10pts.)
**If you have difficulty writing, you may orally record your answer to the discussion question
and your responses to other students’ posts and upload them to CANVAS.
2
Questions to Ask Yourself to Help You Reply to Your Peers’ Discussion Posts
1: Read another student’s post to the discussion question.
2: Ask yourself the following questions in regards to the post you just read.
1: What is the post about (summary)?
2a: Do I agree or disagree with what was written?
2b: Why do you agree or disagree?
3a: Do I find the post interesting?
3b: Why do I find the post interesting?
4: What does the post make you think about?
5: Is there anything in the post you connect with or identify with?
Spring 2019 Assessment Prompt
.
1) Communication is essential in online courses as it promotes interaction between students and instructors. This interaction enhances learning through the sharing of diverse perspectives.
2) Instructors should provide clear expectations for discussion participation and give feedback to students. Popular methods of interaction include discussion boards, emails, and video chats.
3) Relating course content to personal experiences and applying it to daily life helps students make the knowledge their own. Feedback from instructors is also important to guide student learning.
For this assignment, you need to assume the role of a classroom educ.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this assignment, you need to assume the role of a classroom educator. This can be based on a class that you are currently teaching, one that you have previously taught, or one that you hope to teach in the future. Suppose you are participating in a department team meeting with the other teachers in your grade level discussing an upcoming unit.. One of the teachers indicates that she plans to distribute the same packets she used last year and schedule five days of independent seat work for her students to complete the packets by locating answers in the course textbook. This would be followed by a written exam covering the material in the packets.
You have been aware for some time that the students in this teacher’s class are frustrated, bored, and worst of all, not really learning anything important about the content as shown through the student data. This could be your opportunity to get her to try something new and more valuable to students. You explain to this teacher that you plan to implement a week-long problem-based learning experience for your students, involving group projects, computer time, and class presentations; you would like to share this plan with her and to partner together on the project.
In this assignment, you will apply principles of project and problem based learning (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xcGOe_JsXUY) to the design of a specific learning experience within a culturally relevant and collaborative learning experience that facilitates the 21st century skills of creativity and innovation. Review the Week Five Instructor Guidance for detailed assistance on preparing for and completing this assignment, including access to resources that will help you identify the characteristics of problem-based learning environments. Next, create your assignment to meet the content and written communication expectations below.
View the video,
problem-based and project-based learning (PBL2) (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
, Create a general plan that includes the following six components:
Overview of the general problem you will establish related to the topic, including the following:
A brief description of the grade, subject, and demographics of the class.
An overview of how student groups will be assigned and monitored.
A description of the project that will need to be developed by the group and presented to the class.
Common characteristics of problem-based learning, addressing an open-ended problem posed to each learning group (see guidance).
An explanation of how the creativity and innovation with 21st century skills are learned and/or specifically applied within the project.
An explanation of how culturally relevant strategies are included/applied within the project.
(9 points)
**
Feel free to use this opportunity to design/revise a plan that you will be teaching in the future.**
If you are enrolled in the MAED Program, it is imperative that you keep copies of all assignment.
The document discusses best practices for online discussions, focusing on the three C's of community, construction, and coaching. It provides guidance on building community through establishing a welcoming online presence and netiquette. For construction, it offers tips on structuring discussions, such as using small groups, various question formats, and rubrics for assessment. Regarding coaching, it suggests techniques for facilitating higher-order thinking, providing timely feedback, and addressing weak discussions or incorrect information. The overall goal is to foster student engagement, intellectual development, and connections through strategic use of online discussion tools and facilitation techniques.
This document provides guidance on writing effective multiple choice questions (MCQs) for assessment. It discusses the benefits of MCQs, such as wide topic coverage and fast feedback, as well as disadvantages like guessing and lower-order thinking. Tips are provided for writing high-quality question stems and plausible distractors that avoid clues. The document emphasizes shifting focus from recall to application and using novel contexts to make questions less "googleable." Strategies are presented for engaging students with formative assessment through varied feedback, social learning, and emphasis on intrinsic motivation.
Week 6 - Discussion 1Learning Reflection In this discussio.docxdannies7qbuggie
Week 6 - Discussion 1
Learning Reflection
In this discussion, you have an opportunity to consider your learning from this course and engage in final conversation about the course with the instructor and other class peers. In the 1960’s, Bruce Tuckman related a model for group dynamics that suggested groups transition similarly along a continuum of activity for optimal functioning. These transitions were labeled
Storming, Norming, Performing, and Adjourning
. When we first entered our class together six weeks ago, we began Storming and Norming as a class. Throughout the course we have been Performing, and now we are in our moment of Adjourning. Though some of you may have opportunities for classes with peers in the future, this week marks the end of our unique opportunity as a group. Therefore, it is an effective time to reflect and debrief from our learning as we prepare for the next steps in our educational journeys.
Initial Post –
Post a response that addresses each of the following areas:
Construct a list of the top three concepts, skills, resources, and so forth that you have gained in this course and that are most relevant to your life. These could be knowledge, skills, or attitudes related to the course topic, related to your abilities as a graduate student, or other relevant learning for you professionally that has come from this course experience. Include a brief description of each item in your list.
List three concepts, skills, resources, and so forth that you are still curious about now that the course is nearly completed. Describe how you plan to acquire learning with items on your list.
Reflect in no more than one paragraph about the most memorable challenge you experienced during his course and most memorable success. The challenges and successes may be related to your coursework, study experiences, or interactions with peers and the instructor. They might also be something more personal, such as an application of new concepts/knowledge or skills in your work environment or life generally.
State which class you are taking next and explain in no more than a paragraph how you envision this course relates to that next course in the scheme of your total program learning experience. ( my next class is
EDU 695 MAED Capstone
)
Week 6 Discussion Guidance
Discussion 1
This discussion, “Learning Reflection”, focuses on the “forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning” model design for teamwork by Bruce Tuckeman in his article
Developmental Sequence in Small Groups
. (as cited in Team Formation, 2014). In the “Forming” stage, each person in the team is establishing a role determined by strengths, personality traits, and group dynamics. In the next stage, members begin “storming” against what was established in the forming stage, creating conflict situations as the ‘honeymoon’ behavior wears off and working style differences infer with collaborative efforts. If teams are able to work through their “storming” .
Assignment 2: Fink Step 3
Due Week 7 and worth 200 points
For this assignment, you will look at the technology you have integrated into your unit/training and develop ways to assess student performance when they use those technologies.
Often, educators find a great new technology or app to use with their students but then have no idea how to evaluate if it is actually helping students learn. Or, educators find that grading student performance using the new technology is cumbersome and doesn’t actually save any time or provide any value.
For example, if students have an assignment to create a PowerPoint presentation, how will they submit it to you? How will you check to make sure they didn’t just copy it from someplace on the Internet? If students are working on a group project, how can you assess student contributions? These are some issues you will need to think about when you apply technology to your lessons.
First, provide a brief (1-2 pages) description of the specific education technology you intend to incorporate into your unit/training. Include links to the product or app and describe how the students will use it. You do not need to provide specific lesson plans, but need to demonstrate that you have a clear idea of what you want the students to use and how they will use it.
For example, if you were to start using MS Office in the classroom, you could describe how you would allow students to type their papers using MS Word and create presentations using MS PowerPoint instead of hand-writing papers and doing traditional poster projects.
Next, complete the questions for Step 3 of page 15 of Fink’s guide. Include the following information when you answer each question in the worksheet. You will have to copy each question to a new Word document in order to answer it.
1. Forward-looking Assessment: The key is that you have students work on real-world problems. Think about how they will apply the knowledge you are teaching as well as how they will use the technology in the future. How can you create assessments such as a class project, portfolio assignment, a case-study, or other activity where they apply their knowledge?
2. Criteria & Standards: Think about what qualifies as poor work that does not meet your standards, satisfactory work that does meet your standards, and excellent work that exceeds your standards. Be specific. Look at your assignment rubrics for examples of this.
3. Self-Assessment: Students should have some idea of how they are doing without having to ask the teacher or instructor. How will you help them evaluate their own work and learning as they work on their assignments?
4. “FIDeLity” Feedback: This will be the formal feedback that you will give to students as well as informal feedback you will give them as they work on their assignments and assessments.
It would be a good idea to use the information that you provided for the discussion questions in the following weeks. (Note: you are not expected to use all of it if ...
1) Communication is essential in online courses as it promotes interaction between students and instructors. This interaction enhances learning through the sharing of diverse perspectives.
2) Instructors should provide clear expectations for discussion participation and give feedback to students. Popular methods of interaction include discussion boards, emails, and video chats.
3) Relating course content to personal experiences and applying it to daily life helps students make the knowledge their own. Feedback from instructors is also important to guide student learning.
For this assignment, you need to assume the role of a classroom educ.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this assignment, you need to assume the role of a classroom educator. This can be based on a class that you are currently teaching, one that you have previously taught, or one that you hope to teach in the future. Suppose you are participating in a department team meeting with the other teachers in your grade level discussing an upcoming unit.. One of the teachers indicates that she plans to distribute the same packets she used last year and schedule five days of independent seat work for her students to complete the packets by locating answers in the course textbook. This would be followed by a written exam covering the material in the packets.
You have been aware for some time that the students in this teacher’s class are frustrated, bored, and worst of all, not really learning anything important about the content as shown through the student data. This could be your opportunity to get her to try something new and more valuable to students. You explain to this teacher that you plan to implement a week-long problem-based learning experience for your students, involving group projects, computer time, and class presentations; you would like to share this plan with her and to partner together on the project.
In this assignment, you will apply principles of project and problem based learning (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xcGOe_JsXUY) to the design of a specific learning experience within a culturally relevant and collaborative learning experience that facilitates the 21st century skills of creativity and innovation. Review the Week Five Instructor Guidance for detailed assistance on preparing for and completing this assignment, including access to resources that will help you identify the characteristics of problem-based learning environments. Next, create your assignment to meet the content and written communication expectations below.
View the video,
problem-based and project-based learning (PBL2) (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
, Create a general plan that includes the following six components:
Overview of the general problem you will establish related to the topic, including the following:
A brief description of the grade, subject, and demographics of the class.
An overview of how student groups will be assigned and monitored.
A description of the project that will need to be developed by the group and presented to the class.
Common characteristics of problem-based learning, addressing an open-ended problem posed to each learning group (see guidance).
An explanation of how the creativity and innovation with 21st century skills are learned and/or specifically applied within the project.
An explanation of how culturally relevant strategies are included/applied within the project.
(9 points)
**
Feel free to use this opportunity to design/revise a plan that you will be teaching in the future.**
If you are enrolled in the MAED Program, it is imperative that you keep copies of all assignment.
The document discusses best practices for online discussions, focusing on the three C's of community, construction, and coaching. It provides guidance on building community through establishing a welcoming online presence and netiquette. For construction, it offers tips on structuring discussions, such as using small groups, various question formats, and rubrics for assessment. Regarding coaching, it suggests techniques for facilitating higher-order thinking, providing timely feedback, and addressing weak discussions or incorrect information. The overall goal is to foster student engagement, intellectual development, and connections through strategic use of online discussion tools and facilitation techniques.
This document provides guidance on writing effective multiple choice questions (MCQs) for assessment. It discusses the benefits of MCQs, such as wide topic coverage and fast feedback, as well as disadvantages like guessing and lower-order thinking. Tips are provided for writing high-quality question stems and plausible distractors that avoid clues. The document emphasizes shifting focus from recall to application and using novel contexts to make questions less "googleable." Strategies are presented for engaging students with formative assessment through varied feedback, social learning, and emphasis on intrinsic motivation.
Week 6 - Discussion 1Learning Reflection In this discussio.docxdannies7qbuggie
Week 6 - Discussion 1
Learning Reflection
In this discussion, you have an opportunity to consider your learning from this course and engage in final conversation about the course with the instructor and other class peers. In the 1960’s, Bruce Tuckman related a model for group dynamics that suggested groups transition similarly along a continuum of activity for optimal functioning. These transitions were labeled
Storming, Norming, Performing, and Adjourning
. When we first entered our class together six weeks ago, we began Storming and Norming as a class. Throughout the course we have been Performing, and now we are in our moment of Adjourning. Though some of you may have opportunities for classes with peers in the future, this week marks the end of our unique opportunity as a group. Therefore, it is an effective time to reflect and debrief from our learning as we prepare for the next steps in our educational journeys.
Initial Post –
Post a response that addresses each of the following areas:
Construct a list of the top three concepts, skills, resources, and so forth that you have gained in this course and that are most relevant to your life. These could be knowledge, skills, or attitudes related to the course topic, related to your abilities as a graduate student, or other relevant learning for you professionally that has come from this course experience. Include a brief description of each item in your list.
List three concepts, skills, resources, and so forth that you are still curious about now that the course is nearly completed. Describe how you plan to acquire learning with items on your list.
Reflect in no more than one paragraph about the most memorable challenge you experienced during his course and most memorable success. The challenges and successes may be related to your coursework, study experiences, or interactions with peers and the instructor. They might also be something more personal, such as an application of new concepts/knowledge or skills in your work environment or life generally.
State which class you are taking next and explain in no more than a paragraph how you envision this course relates to that next course in the scheme of your total program learning experience. ( my next class is
EDU 695 MAED Capstone
)
Week 6 Discussion Guidance
Discussion 1
This discussion, “Learning Reflection”, focuses on the “forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning” model design for teamwork by Bruce Tuckeman in his article
Developmental Sequence in Small Groups
. (as cited in Team Formation, 2014). In the “Forming” stage, each person in the team is establishing a role determined by strengths, personality traits, and group dynamics. In the next stage, members begin “storming” against what was established in the forming stage, creating conflict situations as the ‘honeymoon’ behavior wears off and working style differences infer with collaborative efforts. If teams are able to work through their “storming” .
Assignment 2: Fink Step 3
Due Week 7 and worth 200 points
For this assignment, you will look at the technology you have integrated into your unit/training and develop ways to assess student performance when they use those technologies.
Often, educators find a great new technology or app to use with their students but then have no idea how to evaluate if it is actually helping students learn. Or, educators find that grading student performance using the new technology is cumbersome and doesn’t actually save any time or provide any value.
For example, if students have an assignment to create a PowerPoint presentation, how will they submit it to you? How will you check to make sure they didn’t just copy it from someplace on the Internet? If students are working on a group project, how can you assess student contributions? These are some issues you will need to think about when you apply technology to your lessons.
First, provide a brief (1-2 pages) description of the specific education technology you intend to incorporate into your unit/training. Include links to the product or app and describe how the students will use it. You do not need to provide specific lesson plans, but need to demonstrate that you have a clear idea of what you want the students to use and how they will use it.
For example, if you were to start using MS Office in the classroom, you could describe how you would allow students to type their papers using MS Word and create presentations using MS PowerPoint instead of hand-writing papers and doing traditional poster projects.
Next, complete the questions for Step 3 of page 15 of Fink’s guide. Include the following information when you answer each question in the worksheet. You will have to copy each question to a new Word document in order to answer it.
1. Forward-looking Assessment: The key is that you have students work on real-world problems. Think about how they will apply the knowledge you are teaching as well as how they will use the technology in the future. How can you create assessments such as a class project, portfolio assignment, a case-study, or other activity where they apply their knowledge?
2. Criteria & Standards: Think about what qualifies as poor work that does not meet your standards, satisfactory work that does meet your standards, and excellent work that exceeds your standards. Be specific. Look at your assignment rubrics for examples of this.
3. Self-Assessment: Students should have some idea of how they are doing without having to ask the teacher or instructor. How will you help them evaluate their own work and learning as they work on their assignments?
4. “FIDeLity” Feedback: This will be the formal feedback that you will give to students as well as informal feedback you will give them as they work on their assignments and assessments.
It would be a good idea to use the information that you provided for the discussion questions in the following weeks. (Note: you are not expected to use all of it if ...
Testing teacher's hand testing & examiner guide 2018Mr Bounab Samir
This document provides guidance for exam designers and teachers on developing effective assessments. It discusses the purposes of testing, such as evaluating student learning and motivating students. It also provides recommendations for exam designers, such as ensuring exams align with curriculum objectives and competencies. The document then describes different types of test questions and provides tips for planning exams, such as writing questions throughout the term, including a variety of question types, and testing the timing. Overall, the document aims to help exam designers and teachers create assessments that effectively measure student learning.
The document summarizes two studies on the use of technology in education. The first study examined the impact of interactive whiteboards on student achievement in math and language arts, finding small increases in math scores. Teachers whose students scored above average used the whiteboards more frequently. The second study explored teachers' experiences using technology with at-risk students. It found that technology increased success rates but some students found online learning overwhelming, and identified strategies like choice, structure and customization that helped at-risk learners.
The document summarizes two research studies on the use of technology in education. The first study examined the impact of interactive whiteboards on student achievement in math and language arts, finding a small positive effect, especially in upper elementary grades. Teachers whose students scored above average were found to use the whiteboards more frequently. The second study explored teachers' experiences using technology with at-risk students, finding that teachers encountered difficulties but technology also provided opportunities for success when certain strategies were employed. Qualitative data analysis was used to identify themes in teachers' responses.
This document provides an overview of the COMM 1010-11 Intro to Communication course for Spring 2016 at Southern Utah University. The course will be taught by Quinn Thurman and meet on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 8-9:50am in room ED 103. Students will learn about communication theories and concepts through readings, activities, and assignments including speeches, quizzes, and papers. The course aims to help students improve their communication skills, particularly public speaking. Major assignments include an informative speech, persuasive speech, Myers-Briggs personality paper, and Ted Talk analysis paper.
Week 4 (Nov 15 - Nov 21)Apply It! ActivityDue DateFo.docxcockekeshia
Week 4 (Nov 15 - Nov 21)
Apply It!
Activity
Due Date
Format
Grading Percent
How to Learn from Mistakes
Day 3
Discussion
5
21st Century Learning Activity
Day 7
Assignment
7
Note: The online classroom is designed to time students out after 90 minutes of inactivity. Because of this, we strongly suggest that you compose your work in a word processing program and copy and paste it into the discussion post when you are ready to submit it.
Learning Outcomes
This week students will:
1. Construct a 21st century inquiry-based learning activity that includes differentiated instructional strategies and learning styles as part of the instructional methods.
2. Design a content-based activity that includes self-reflection and shared feedback opportunities for students.
Introduction
In Week Four, you build upon your learning from the first three weeks by considering elements of capacity building for educators. You look through a variety of lenses, supporting Course Learning Outcome 2: Use a variety of content-based instructional materials and strategies supporting inquiry-based learning, student reflection, and technology. You get an inspiring glimpse into the world of an engaging classroom teacher and learn of the powerful impact your practice as an educator can have on student learning. This week, you apply the principles from Framework for 21st Century Learning to create an engaging, inquiry-based student activity to implement with students and share with other educators. You have the opportunity to get creative and apply what you’ve learned in a way that follows best practices and potentially transfers to your own practice in the future.
Required Resources
1. Ash, P. B., & D’Auria, J. (2013). School systems that learn: Improving professional practice, overcoming limitations, and diffusing innovation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
· Chapter 5: Capacity Building for All Educators.
2. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (n.d.). Framework for 21st century learning. Retrieved from http://www.p21.org/about-us/p21-framework
· This website is the home page for the Partnership for 21st Century Skills organization, an organization promoting learning in what it calls the “The 3Rs and the 4Cs” for the 21st century. The website has numerous links to resources and information about the organization at work, news about the Partnership for 21st Century Skills organization, as well as a link page devoted to “Exemplar Schools.”
3. TED.com. (2010, November 10). Diana Laufenberg: How to learn? From mistakes [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/diana_laufenberg_3_ways_to_teach
· Diane Laufenberg, an 11th grade history teacher in Philadelphia’s Science Leadership Academy, offers 3 ideas about learning in this 10 minute TED video. One surprising idea is that failure can lead to learning and eventual success. One way that others have expressed this idea is to “fail forward,” taking lessons from failure to lay the foundation for future success.
.
INTRODUCTIONModule 3 Week 6 The Purpose StatementIn thiTatianaMajor22
INTRODUCTION
Module 3 Week 6: The Purpose Statement
In this course, you have learned that a final problem statement normally takes many months to develop. Yet this week, you are asked to begin to develop the purpose statement. This is not because your problem statement is finalized but because it is time for you to evaluate and practice creating the rest of the common components of the doctoral capstone. This is part of the iterative process of preparing the capstone.
Remember, though, that the assignments in this course are unlikely to be final versions of your study. The intention is to help you to understand and prepare for what you will need to write in your capstone.
The purpose statement serves as the connection between the problem being addressed and the focus of the study. Depending on the methodology, in:
· Quantitative studies, state what needs to be studied by describing two or more factors (variables) and a conjectured relationship between (among) them related to the identified gap in practice or problem;
· Qualitative studies, describe the need for increased understanding about the issue to be studied (based on the identified gap or problem); and
· Mixed-methods studies (with both quantitative and qualitative aspects), clarify how the two approaches will be used together to inform the study.
Notes on Readings
This week’s readings continue to provide information on how to review the research literature. Apply this guidance to your ongoing efforts to read and take notes interactively in the research relevant to your problem. The media and other resources, this week, will help you to develop your understanding of the purpose statement.
The reading in the Single text, this week, can help you to fine tune your system for scholarly reading and note taking via the use of your citation management software.
This week, Thomas provides detailed instructions about how to interact with, and review, the research literature. These skills are critical in your work on your doctorate.
Learning Objectives
Students will:
· Apply technological tools to find, analyze, and evaluate existing research
· Analyze purpose statements
· Apply knowledge of APA references
· Apply knowledge of doctoral study
Assignment: The Purpose and Problem Statements
Stephen King, who has written more than 50 novels—and other books that have sold hundreds of millions of copies—also wrote about how he writes. In his book, On Writing: A Memoir of the Craft, King explains that his iterative approach to writing involves writing, putting it aside, writing something else, and then returning to the first draft.
While it is unlikely you will adopt Stephen King’s ritual for draft versions, recognize that “writing drafts” are an essential part of the process. This week’s writing assignment allows you to present an improved and refined problem statement and an aligned purpose statement.
To Prepare
For this revision of your purpose and problem statements, apply what you have learn ...
This lesson plan provides guidance for teaching students how to write effective college essays and resumes. The essay portion introduces sample college essays and advice for what makes a great essay. Students evaluate essays in small groups and discuss what is effective. They then create timelines of significant life events to help choose essay topics. For resumes, students explore sample formats and brainstorm achievements to include. Activities help students translate experiences into skills and create a draft resume. The plan aims to reveal students' personalities and prepare application materials for college.
Testing & examiner guide 2018 teacher's hand out oued semar a lgiersMr Bounab Samir
The document provides guidance for developing effective exams and assessments. It discusses the purposes of testing, such as evaluating student learning and motivating students. It also outlines recommendations for exam designers, such as ensuring exams align with curriculum objectives and competencies. The document then describes different types of test questions and provides tips for constructing exams, including writing clear instructions, balancing easy and difficult questions, and testing timing. Overall, the summary emphasizes the importance of exams reflecting curriculum goals and being designed to effectively measure student learning.
The document provides an overview of effective teaching and learning principles from research. It discusses seven principles of good practice in undergraduate education: encouraging student-instructor contact, cooperation among students, active learning, prompt feedback, emphasizing time on task, communicating high expectations, and respecting diverse talents. Specific strategies are suggested for applying each principle, such as encouraging group work, frequent assessment and feedback, and minimizing lecturing.
The document discusses planning and evaluation for teaching and learning in higher education. It covers key topics like constructive alignment, assessment and feedback, and evaluation of teaching. The learning outcomes are to identify successful planning themes, consider different assessment modes, and discuss using real student feedback. Constructive alignment and writing learning outcomes are explained. Different types of assessment and feedback are also defined, including the importance of feedback in learning. Principles of good feedback practice and evaluating teaching quality are presented.
Ash edu 650 week 3 assignment different school models newvindaniel123
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A7: Major Assessment #3: Collaborative Adult Learning Project,eckchela
This is a Walden University course: A7 Major Assessment #3: Collaborative Adult Learning Project. It is written in APA format, has been graded by an instructor (A), and includes references. Most higher-education assignments are submitted to turnitin, so remember to paraphrase. Let us begin.
Week 6 - Discussion 1 Your initial discussion thread is .docxco4spmeley
Week 6 - Discussion 1
Your initial discussion thread is due on Day 3 (Thursday) and you have until Day 7 (Monday) to respond to your classmates. Your grade will reflect both the quality of your initial post and the depth of your responses. Reference the
Discussion Forum Grading Rubric
for guidance on how your discussion will be evaluated.
Action Planning for Education Change
In Chapter 7, Mills (2014) discusses a variety of challenges action researchers face with implementing positive change.
What potential challenges or obstacles do you predict facing in your current or future role as an educator when implementing positive change (lack of resources, resistance to change, reluctance to interfere with others’ professional practices, reluctance to admit difficult truths, difficulty finding a forum to share what you have learned, lack of time for action research endeavors, unsupportive administration, other)?
Describe how you would apply what you have learned regarding the challenges of implementing educational change to overcome potential obstacles that you may encounter in taking action.
Guided Response:
Respond to a minimum of two classmates. Provide suggestions for overcoming their potential obstacles. What is something they shared that you hadn’t considered in your own future endeavors? *It is expected you follow-up by the last day of the week to provide a secondary response to any comments or questions your instructor may have provided. This is part of the grading criteria as a demonstration of critical thinking.
-
Week 6 - Discussion 2
Your initial discussion thread is due on Day 3 (Thursday) and you have until Day 7 (Monday) to respond to your classmates. Your grade will reflect both the quality of your initial post and the depth of your responses. Reference the
Discussion Forum Grading Rubric
for guidance on how your discussion will be evaluated.
Final Self-Reflection
Describe some of your take-aways from this course. Consider all of the topics including use of digital tools when responding. Do not respond in list form. These are merely prompts to get you thinking:
What concepts or principles have you learned from this course that you might use in your work setting?
How do you feel about conducting action research now, compared to before you started this course?
Describe how you perceive the value of qualitative and quantitative data when considering improvements.
How do you plan to use the knowledge you gained in this course to be a positive change agent in your own work setting? In other words, what are your next steps?
Include a new, different quote than you did in you r week one introduction. Why does this quote inspire you?
Guided Response:
Respond to a minimum of two classmates. *It is expected you follow-up by the last day of the week to provide a secondary response to any comments or questions your instructor may have provided. This is part of the grading criteria as a demonstrati.
EDU 650 Exceptional Education / snaptutorial.com donaldzs112
For more classes visit
www.snaptutorial.com
EDU 650 Week 1 Journal No Excuses University Culture of Universal Achievement
EDU 650 Week 1 Assignment Education Philosophy
Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques: Promising ...Fran Maciel
Authors: John Dunlosky1
, Katherine A. Rawson1
, Elizabeth J. Marsh2
, Mitchell J. Nathan3
, and Daniel T. Willingham4
1Department of Psychology, Kent State University; 2
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University;
3
Department of Educational Psychology, Department of Curriculum & Instruction, and Department of Psychology,
University of Wisconsin–Madison; and 4
Department of Psychology, University of Virginia
This document provides a procedure and framework for observing classroom environments to determine how to support students who use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). The framework examines learning contexts, teacher communication behaviors, classmates' communication behaviors, and the student's own communication behaviors. Observers use this framework to identify supports and changes that could help students who use AAC participate more fully in the classroom.
Get help for Ashford University EDU 671 complete course. We provide assignment, homework, discussions, quiz and case studies help for all subject Ashford University for Session 2015-2016.
This document contains notes from a TED 453 session on October 30th, 2013 about a Mini-PACT assignment. It includes tips for crafting objectives, instruction, assessment, and reflection. Students are provided feedback on their initial Mini-PACT submissions and instructed to bring their instruction, assessment, and reflection for the next session. The document outlines requirements and due dates for completing the Mini-PACT assignment and other coursework.
This document contains notes from a TED 453 session on October 30th, 2013 about a Mini-PACT assignment. It includes tips for crafting objectives, instruction, assessment, and reflection. Students are provided feedback on their initial Mini-PACT submissions and instructed to bring their instruction, assessment, and reflection for the next session. The document outlines requirements and due dates for completing the Mini-PACT assignment and other coursework.
BBA 3551, Information Systems Management 1 Course Lea.docxtarifarmarie
BBA 3551, Information Systems Management 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
4. Explain how information systems can be used to gain and sustain competitive advantage.
4.1 Discuss how collaboration IS can provide competitive advantages for a specific organization.
4.2 Explain why collaboration IS are important from the organization’s perspective.
7. Summarize the requirements for successful collaboration in information systems management.
7.1 Discuss how collaboration tools can improve team communication.
7.2 Identify the tools that will help create a successful collaboration IS.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
4.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
4.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
7.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 2
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
7.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 2
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
Reading Assignment
Chapter 2: Collaboration Information Systems
Chapter 3: Strategy and Information Systems, Q3-1 – Q3-8
Unit Lesson
Chapter 2 investigates ways that information systems (IS) can support collaboration. It defines collaboration
and discusses collaborative activities and criteria for successful collaboration. It also discusses the kind of
work that collaborative teams do, requirements for collaborative IS, and important collaborative tools for
improving communicating content. The chapter ends with a discussion of collaboration in 2024.
Collaboration and Cooperation
Cooperation occurs when people work together toward a common goal. For example, in teamwork, each
team member is given a task to complete such as a project component. Collaboration occurs when people,
together or remotely, work together toward a common goal (Kroenke & Boyle, 2017). For example, a team
member in California and a team member in Texas might meet using Skype to discuss ideas for a project.
Figure 1 below illustrates collaboration in a team environment. In this illustration, the project manager is
responsible for collaborating with team members who are in different departments. For example, the project
manager may assign a project administrator who will document the various stages of project development,
UNIT II STUDY GUIDE
Collaboration Information Systems and
Strategy and Information Systems
BBA 3551, Information Systems Management 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
assign a person from software development to develop the software application, and assign a person from
operations to set up a testing environment. Each of these team members would work with the project
manager and with each other throughout the project; however, the project manager would be the main point
of contact.
Feedback and iteration are involved so that the
results of the collaborative effort are greater
than could be produced by any of the
individuals .
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This document provides guidance for exam designers and teachers on developing effective assessments. It discusses the purposes of testing, such as evaluating student learning and motivating students. It also provides recommendations for exam designers, such as ensuring exams align with curriculum objectives and competencies. The document then describes different types of test questions and provides tips for planning exams, such as writing questions throughout the term, including a variety of question types, and testing the timing. Overall, the document aims to help exam designers and teachers create assessments that effectively measure student learning.
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This document provides an overview of the COMM 1010-11 Intro to Communication course for Spring 2016 at Southern Utah University. The course will be taught by Quinn Thurman and meet on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 8-9:50am in room ED 103. Students will learn about communication theories and concepts through readings, activities, and assignments including speeches, quizzes, and papers. The course aims to help students improve their communication skills, particularly public speaking. Major assignments include an informative speech, persuasive speech, Myers-Briggs personality paper, and Ted Talk analysis paper.
Week 4 (Nov 15 - Nov 21)Apply It! ActivityDue DateFo.docxcockekeshia
Week 4 (Nov 15 - Nov 21)
Apply It!
Activity
Due Date
Format
Grading Percent
How to Learn from Mistakes
Day 3
Discussion
5
21st Century Learning Activity
Day 7
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Note: The online classroom is designed to time students out after 90 minutes of inactivity. Because of this, we strongly suggest that you compose your work in a word processing program and copy and paste it into the discussion post when you are ready to submit it.
Learning Outcomes
This week students will:
1. Construct a 21st century inquiry-based learning activity that includes differentiated instructional strategies and learning styles as part of the instructional methods.
2. Design a content-based activity that includes self-reflection and shared feedback opportunities for students.
Introduction
In Week Four, you build upon your learning from the first three weeks by considering elements of capacity building for educators. You look through a variety of lenses, supporting Course Learning Outcome 2: Use a variety of content-based instructional materials and strategies supporting inquiry-based learning, student reflection, and technology. You get an inspiring glimpse into the world of an engaging classroom teacher and learn of the powerful impact your practice as an educator can have on student learning. This week, you apply the principles from Framework for 21st Century Learning to create an engaging, inquiry-based student activity to implement with students and share with other educators. You have the opportunity to get creative and apply what you’ve learned in a way that follows best practices and potentially transfers to your own practice in the future.
Required Resources
1. Ash, P. B., & D’Auria, J. (2013). School systems that learn: Improving professional practice, overcoming limitations, and diffusing innovation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
· Chapter 5: Capacity Building for All Educators.
2. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (n.d.). Framework for 21st century learning. Retrieved from http://www.p21.org/about-us/p21-framework
· This website is the home page for the Partnership for 21st Century Skills organization, an organization promoting learning in what it calls the “The 3Rs and the 4Cs” for the 21st century. The website has numerous links to resources and information about the organization at work, news about the Partnership for 21st Century Skills organization, as well as a link page devoted to “Exemplar Schools.”
3. TED.com. (2010, November 10). Diana Laufenberg: How to learn? From mistakes [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.ted.com/talks/diana_laufenberg_3_ways_to_teach
· Diane Laufenberg, an 11th grade history teacher in Philadelphia’s Science Leadership Academy, offers 3 ideas about learning in this 10 minute TED video. One surprising idea is that failure can lead to learning and eventual success. One way that others have expressed this idea is to “fail forward,” taking lessons from failure to lay the foundation for future success.
.
INTRODUCTIONModule 3 Week 6 The Purpose StatementIn thiTatianaMajor22
INTRODUCTION
Module 3 Week 6: The Purpose Statement
In this course, you have learned that a final problem statement normally takes many months to develop. Yet this week, you are asked to begin to develop the purpose statement. This is not because your problem statement is finalized but because it is time for you to evaluate and practice creating the rest of the common components of the doctoral capstone. This is part of the iterative process of preparing the capstone.
Remember, though, that the assignments in this course are unlikely to be final versions of your study. The intention is to help you to understand and prepare for what you will need to write in your capstone.
The purpose statement serves as the connection between the problem being addressed and the focus of the study. Depending on the methodology, in:
· Quantitative studies, state what needs to be studied by describing two or more factors (variables) and a conjectured relationship between (among) them related to the identified gap in practice or problem;
· Qualitative studies, describe the need for increased understanding about the issue to be studied (based on the identified gap or problem); and
· Mixed-methods studies (with both quantitative and qualitative aspects), clarify how the two approaches will be used together to inform the study.
Notes on Readings
This week’s readings continue to provide information on how to review the research literature. Apply this guidance to your ongoing efforts to read and take notes interactively in the research relevant to your problem. The media and other resources, this week, will help you to develop your understanding of the purpose statement.
The reading in the Single text, this week, can help you to fine tune your system for scholarly reading and note taking via the use of your citation management software.
This week, Thomas provides detailed instructions about how to interact with, and review, the research literature. These skills are critical in your work on your doctorate.
Learning Objectives
Students will:
· Apply technological tools to find, analyze, and evaluate existing research
· Analyze purpose statements
· Apply knowledge of APA references
· Apply knowledge of doctoral study
Assignment: The Purpose and Problem Statements
Stephen King, who has written more than 50 novels—and other books that have sold hundreds of millions of copies—also wrote about how he writes. In his book, On Writing: A Memoir of the Craft, King explains that his iterative approach to writing involves writing, putting it aside, writing something else, and then returning to the first draft.
While it is unlikely you will adopt Stephen King’s ritual for draft versions, recognize that “writing drafts” are an essential part of the process. This week’s writing assignment allows you to present an improved and refined problem statement and an aligned purpose statement.
To Prepare
For this revision of your purpose and problem statements, apply what you have learn ...
This lesson plan provides guidance for teaching students how to write effective college essays and resumes. The essay portion introduces sample college essays and advice for what makes a great essay. Students evaluate essays in small groups and discuss what is effective. They then create timelines of significant life events to help choose essay topics. For resumes, students explore sample formats and brainstorm achievements to include. Activities help students translate experiences into skills and create a draft resume. The plan aims to reveal students' personalities and prepare application materials for college.
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Week 6 - Discussion 1 Your initial discussion thread is .docxco4spmeley
Week 6 - Discussion 1
Your initial discussion thread is due on Day 3 (Thursday) and you have until Day 7 (Monday) to respond to your classmates. Your grade will reflect both the quality of your initial post and the depth of your responses. Reference the
Discussion Forum Grading Rubric
for guidance on how your discussion will be evaluated.
Action Planning for Education Change
In Chapter 7, Mills (2014) discusses a variety of challenges action researchers face with implementing positive change.
What potential challenges or obstacles do you predict facing in your current or future role as an educator when implementing positive change (lack of resources, resistance to change, reluctance to interfere with others’ professional practices, reluctance to admit difficult truths, difficulty finding a forum to share what you have learned, lack of time for action research endeavors, unsupportive administration, other)?
Describe how you would apply what you have learned regarding the challenges of implementing educational change to overcome potential obstacles that you may encounter in taking action.
Guided Response:
Respond to a minimum of two classmates. Provide suggestions for overcoming their potential obstacles. What is something they shared that you hadn’t considered in your own future endeavors? *It is expected you follow-up by the last day of the week to provide a secondary response to any comments or questions your instructor may have provided. This is part of the grading criteria as a demonstration of critical thinking.
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Week 6 - Discussion 2
Your initial discussion thread is due on Day 3 (Thursday) and you have until Day 7 (Monday) to respond to your classmates. Your grade will reflect both the quality of your initial post and the depth of your responses. Reference the
Discussion Forum Grading Rubric
for guidance on how your discussion will be evaluated.
Final Self-Reflection
Describe some of your take-aways from this course. Consider all of the topics including use of digital tools when responding. Do not respond in list form. These are merely prompts to get you thinking:
What concepts or principles have you learned from this course that you might use in your work setting?
How do you feel about conducting action research now, compared to before you started this course?
Describe how you perceive the value of qualitative and quantitative data when considering improvements.
How do you plan to use the knowledge you gained in this course to be a positive change agent in your own work setting? In other words, what are your next steps?
Include a new, different quote than you did in you r week one introduction. Why does this quote inspire you?
Guided Response:
Respond to a minimum of two classmates. *It is expected you follow-up by the last day of the week to provide a secondary response to any comments or questions your instructor may have provided. This is part of the grading criteria as a demonstrati.
EDU 650 Exceptional Education / snaptutorial.com donaldzs112
For more classes visit
www.snaptutorial.com
EDU 650 Week 1 Journal No Excuses University Culture of Universal Achievement
EDU 650 Week 1 Assignment Education Philosophy
Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques: Promising ...Fran Maciel
Authors: John Dunlosky1
, Katherine A. Rawson1
, Elizabeth J. Marsh2
, Mitchell J. Nathan3
, and Daniel T. Willingham4
1Department of Psychology, Kent State University; 2
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University;
3
Department of Educational Psychology, Department of Curriculum & Instruction, and Department of Psychology,
University of Wisconsin–Madison; and 4
Department of Psychology, University of Virginia
This document provides a procedure and framework for observing classroom environments to determine how to support students who use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). The framework examines learning contexts, teacher communication behaviors, classmates' communication behaviors, and the student's own communication behaviors. Observers use this framework to identify supports and changes that could help students who use AAC participate more fully in the classroom.
Get help for Ashford University EDU 671 complete course. We provide assignment, homework, discussions, quiz and case studies help for all subject Ashford University for Session 2015-2016.
This document contains notes from a TED 453 session on October 30th, 2013 about a Mini-PACT assignment. It includes tips for crafting objectives, instruction, assessment, and reflection. Students are provided feedback on their initial Mini-PACT submissions and instructed to bring their instruction, assessment, and reflection for the next session. The document outlines requirements and due dates for completing the Mini-PACT assignment and other coursework.
This document contains notes from a TED 453 session on October 30th, 2013 about a Mini-PACT assignment. It includes tips for crafting objectives, instruction, assessment, and reflection. Students are provided feedback on their initial Mini-PACT submissions and instructed to bring their instruction, assessment, and reflection for the next session. The document outlines requirements and due dates for completing the Mini-PACT assignment and other coursework.
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BBA 3551, Information Systems Management 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
4. Explain how information systems can be used to gain and sustain competitive advantage.
4.1 Discuss how collaboration IS can provide competitive advantages for a specific organization.
4.2 Explain why collaboration IS are important from the organization’s perspective.
7. Summarize the requirements for successful collaboration in information systems management.
7.1 Discuss how collaboration tools can improve team communication.
7.2 Identify the tools that will help create a successful collaboration IS.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
4.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
4.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
7.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 2
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
7.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 2
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
Reading Assignment
Chapter 2: Collaboration Information Systems
Chapter 3: Strategy and Information Systems, Q3-1 – Q3-8
Unit Lesson
Chapter 2 investigates ways that information systems (IS) can support collaboration. It defines collaboration
and discusses collaborative activities and criteria for successful collaboration. It also discusses the kind of
work that collaborative teams do, requirements for collaborative IS, and important collaborative tools for
improving communicating content. The chapter ends with a discussion of collaboration in 2024.
Collaboration and Cooperation
Cooperation occurs when people work together toward a common goal. For example, in teamwork, each
team member is given a task to complete such as a project component. Collaboration occurs when people,
together or remotely, work together toward a common goal (Kroenke & Boyle, 2017). For example, a team
member in California and a team member in Texas might meet using Skype to discuss ideas for a project.
Figure 1 below illustrates collaboration in a team environment. In this illustration, the project manager is
responsible for collaborating with team members who are in different departments. For example, the project
manager may assign a project administrator who will document the various stages of project development,
UNIT II STUDY GUIDE
Collaboration Information Systems and
Strategy and Information Systems
BBA 3551, Information Systems Management 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
assign a person from software development to develop the software application, and assign a person from
operations to set up a testing environment. Each of these team members would work with the project
manager and with each other throughout the project; however, the project manager would be the main point
of contact.
Feedback and iteration are involved so that the
results of the collaborative effort are greater
than could be produced by any of the
individuals .
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August 4, 2011 TAX FLIGHT IS A MYTH Higher State .docxtarifarmarie
August 4, 2011
TAX FLIGHT IS A MYTH
Higher State Taxes Bring More Revenue, Not More Migration
By Robert Tannenwald, Jon Shure, and Nicholas Johnson1
Executive Summary
Attacks on sorely-needed increases in state tax revenues often include the unproven claim that tax
hikes will drive large numbers of households — particularly the most affluent — to other states.
The same claim also is used to justify new tax cuts. Compelling evidence shows that this claim is
false. The effects of tax increases on migration are, at most, small — so small that states that raise
income taxes on the most affluent households can be assured of a substantial net gain in revenue.
The basic facts, as this report explains, are as follows:
Migration is not common. Most people have strong ties to their current state, such as job,
home, family, friends, and community. On average, just 1.7 percent of U.S. residents moved
from one state to another per year between 2001 and 2010, and only about 30 percent of those
born in the United States change their state of residence over the course of their entire lifetime.
And when people do relocate, a large body of scholarly evidence shows that they do so
primarily for new jobs, cheaper housing, or a better climate. A person’s age, education, marital
status, and a host of other factors also affect decisions about moving.
The migration that’s occurring is much more likely to be driven by cheaper housing
than by lower taxes. A family might be able to cut its taxes by a few percentage points by
moving from one state to another, but housing costs are far more variable. The difference
between housing costs in two different states is often many times greater than the difference in
taxes. So what might look like migration in search of lower taxes is really often migration for
cheaper housing.
Consider Florida, often claimed as a state that attracts households because of its low taxes
(Florida has no income tax). In the latter half of the 2000s, the previously rapid influx of U.S.
migrants into Florida slowed and then reversed — Florida actually started losing population.
The state enacted no tax policy change that can explain this reversal. What did change was
1 Dylan Grundman, Anna Kawar, Eleni Orphinades, and Ashali Singham contributed to this report.
820 First Street NE, Suite 510
Washington, DC 20002
Tel: 202-408-1080
Fax: 202-408-1056
[email protected]
www.cbpp.org
2
housing prices. Previously, the state’s lower housing prices had enabled Northeastern
homeowners to increase their personal wealth by selling their pricey houses and purchasing a
comparable or better home in Florida at a lower price. But housing prices in Florida rose
sharply during the mid-2000s, narrowing opportunities for Northeasterners to “trade up” on
their expensive homes. And consider California: its loss of househ.
BHA 3202, Standards for Health Care Staff 1 Course Le.docxtarifarmarie
BHA 3202, Standards for Health Care Staff 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
4. Discuss the impact personal skills have on the workplace.
4.1 Describe the various types of personal goals that can affect professional development.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
4
Unit Lesson
Chapter 11
Unit II Essay
4.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 3
Unit II Essay
Reading Assignment
Chapter 3: Setting Goals and Time Management
Chapter 11: Professionalism in Action
Unit Lesson
José has decided to apply for the position of healthcare administrator at his clinic. Jane suggested that he
should think about where he wants his career to go from the short-term to the long-term before he interviews
for the position she will be vacating next month. She has stressed to him that professionalism, and all that the
term implies, is the key characteristic that the healthcare administration position requires. José will need to
reflect on his goals and the manner in which he presents himself to his colleagues at the clinic.
In Chapter 3 of your textbook, we look at how to set goals and utilize time management skills to enhance our
skills, knowledge, and abilities in the healthcare administration field. Let us look first at the different types of
goals we can set, starting with the types of goals to consider:
personal,
educational,
career, and
community.
Personal goals are the things that make life interesting. We may want to learn to ski or try skydiving one day.
Having personal goals enhances one's self-concepts and self-esteem. They can be as simple as going to a
new movie or planning for retirement.
Education and lifelong learning should be something all professionals keep in mind, and setting educational
goals is an important part of being a professional. Being in this program is clearly a part of an educational
goal that you have set for yourself. Being successful at meeting educational goals also tells others that you
are someone who can meet goals too.
UNIT II STUDY GUIDE
Goals and Professionalism
BHA 3202, Standards for Health Care Staff 2
Another type of goal the healthcare professional must address is the career goal. You have already
demonstrated that you have set a career goal by enrolling in this program and course. While these are clearly
educational goals, they actually are also career goals. As José is learning, advancing in his career at his
healthcare clinic is now a career goal of his and one that he needs to plan for carefully to ensure success.
José is wondering what exactly community goals are and if he has any and just does not know it. As Chapter
3 explains, we are all a part of a community, and we all contribute in some way to our communities. José is a
part of the healthcare clinic community because he and associates go out for dinner once a mo.
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Assignment – 8600-341 (Leading and motivating a team effectively) - Part A
This document is for guidance only – to be used in the classroom workshop. Your actual assignment must be completed on the electronic template you will find on Online Services.
Part A (AC 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2,2.3) (800 to 1,500 words)
The assessment requirements for this unit are as follows:
Learning Outcome One - Know how to communicate the organisations vision and strategy to the team
AC1.1 Explain the importance of the team having a common sense of purpose that supports the overall
vision and strategy of the organisation
AC1.2 Explain the role that communication plays in establishing a common sense of purpose
AC1.3 Assess the effectiveness of own communication skills on the basis of the above
Learning Outcome Two - Know how to motivate and develop the team
AC2.1 Describe the main motivational factors in a work context and how these may apply to different
situations, teams and individuals
AC2.2 Explain the importance of a leader being able to motivate teams and individuals and gain their
commitment to objectives
AC2.3 Explain the role that the leader plays in supporting and developing the team and its members and
give practical examples of when this will be necessary
NAME:
Khalid aljohari
COHORT:
COMPANY:
WORD COUNT
LEARNING OUTCOME 1 – Know how to communicate the organisations vision and strategy to the team
AC1.1 Explain the importance of the team having a common sense of purpose that supports the overall vision and strategy of the organisation (approx. 200 words)
Type here:
· Talk about motivation
· Think team charter
· About DIB vision
AC1.2 Explain the role that communication plays in establishing a common sense of purpose
(pprox.. 200 words)
Type here:
· Task understanding
· Leader creditability
· Help positive environment
· Working together
· Better performance
· accuracy
· Less waste
· Less mistake
AC1.3 Assess the effectiveness of own communication skills on the basis of the above (approx. 200 words)
Type here:
· Active listening
· How to get feedback
· Communicate creatively
· Write side effect
LEARNING OUTCOME 2 - Know how to motivate and develop the team
AC2.1 Describe the main motivational factors in a work context and how these may apply to different situations, teams and individuals (approx. 200 words)
Type here:
· Range about main factors
· MOZ Lose and Mayo
· Mayo achievements
· Talk about bonus and achievement
AC2.2 Explain the importance of a leader being able to motivate teams and individuals and gain their commitment to objectives (approx. 200 words)
Type here:
· Details explanation
· Why is import for leader and motivate team
· Individual commitment and objective
AC2.3 Explain the role that the leader plays in supporting and developing the team and its members and give practical examples of when this will be necessary (pprox.. 200 words)
Type here:
·.
BIOEN 4250 BIOMECHANICS I Laboratory 4 – Principle Stres.docxtarifarmarie
This document provides instructions for Laboratory 4 on measuring principal strains and stresses in a cantilever beam. Students will use a strain gage rosette mounted on a pre-gaged cantilever beam to measure strains under different applied loads. They will then calculate the principal strains and stresses from the strain measurements and compare the longitudinal stress to values calculated from beam flexure equations. The goal is to determine the principal strains and stresses in the beam and understand how strain gages can be used to characterize mechanical loading.
BHR 4680, Training and Development 1 Course Learning .docxtarifarmarie
BHR 4680, Training and Development 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit I
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Discuss the training implications of behavioral and cognitive learning in the training environment.
1.1 Discuss the influences and learning in the workplace that contribute to training and
development.
2. Compare the relationship between human resources and human resource development functions in a
large global organization to the functions of a small global organization.
2.1 Explain the use of training and development as a contributing factor to business success.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
1.1
Unit I Lesson
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Unit I Assessment
2.1
Unit I Lesson
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Unit I Assessment
Reading Assignment
Chapter 1: Introduction to Employee Training and Development, pp. 7-50
Chapter 2: Strategic Training, pp. 65-89, 104-105
Unit Lesson
Human Resource Management and Human Resource Development
Human resource management (HRM) consists of seven functions: strategy and planning, equal employment
opportunities (EEO), talent management, risk management and worker protection, recruitment and staffing,
rewards, and employee and labor relations (Mathis, Jackson, Valentine, & Meglich, 2017). HRM plays a vital
role in human resource development (HRD). In HRM, you have the human resource manager who is
responsible for all functions of human resources (HR), compared to an HRD manager who is solely
responsible for training and development and project management for HR. HRD is the use of training and
development, organizational development, and career development to improve overall effectiveness within
the organization (Noe, 2017). In creating the needed training and development plan for an organization, HRM
and HRD work collaboratively, or it can be an individual effort by each entity. According to Noe (2017),
organizations can allow training to be a part of HRM, but that can lead to less attention being provided and
less focus being applied than when allowing the training aspect to be handled by HRD. Regardless of the
choice, training and development requires a team effort from upper management, middle management,
frontline managers and workers, and others.
UNIT I STUDY GUIDE
Introduction to Training and Development
BHR 4680, Training and Development 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
What Is Learning?
Learning is when employees acquire “knowledge, skills, competencies, attitudes, or behaviors” (Noe, 2017,
p. 5). During the learning and training processes, you must consider your audience type(s) and the learning
style(s) of your audience members. Your audience types can consist of high-tech, low-tech, or lay audience
members or a combination of these types. With learning styles ranging from tactile learners to auditory
learners to visual learners, you, as the manager, must be able to deliver training .
Business Plan 2016 Owners Mick & Sheryl Dun.docxtarifarmarie
Business Plan 2016
Owners Mick & Sheryl Dundee
6 Gumnut Road, DANDENONG, VIC, 3025
(03) 9600 7000 [email protected]
Confidentiality Agreement
The undersigned reader acknowledges that the information provided by National Camper Trailers in this
business plan is confidential; therefore, reader agrees not to disclose it without the express written
permission of National Camper Trailers.
It is acknowledged by reader that information to be furnished in this business plan is in all respects
confidential in nature, other than information which is in the public domain through other means and that
any disclosure or use of same by reader may cause serious harm or damage to National Camper Trailers.
Upon request, this document is to be immediately returned to National Camper Trailers.
___________________
Signature
___________________
Name (typed or printed)
___________________
Date
This is a business plan. It does not imply an offering of securities.
Table of Contents
Page 1
Contents
1.0 Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Mission .................................................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Keys to Success..................................................................................................................... 2
2.0 Company Summary .................................................................................................................. 2
2.1 Company Ownership ............................................................................................................ 3
2.2 Company History .................................................................................................................. 3
2.3 Performance over the past 10 years ...................................................................................... 4
3.0 Company Structure ................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Factory and Manufacturing ................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Assembly and Fitout ............................................................................................................. 6
3.3 Finance and administration. .................................................................................................. 6
3.3 Human Resources and WHS ................................................................................................. 7
3.4 Sales and Marketing .............................................................................................................. 7
4.0 SWOR Analysis ....................................................................................................................
Assignment Guidelines NR224 Fundamentals - Skills
NR224 Safety Goals RUA.docx Revised 06/14/2016 BME 1
Required Uniform Assignment: National Patient Safety Goals
PURPOSE
This exercise is designed to increase the students' awareness of the National Patient Safety Goals developed
by The Joint Commission. Specifically, this assignment will introduce the Speak Up Initiatives, an award-
winning patient safety program designed to help patients promote their own safety by proactively taking
charge of their healthcare.
COURSE OUTCOMES
This assignment enables the student to meet the following course outcomes.
CO #2: Apply the concepts of health promotion and illness prevention in the laboratory setting. (PO #2)
CO #8: Explain the rationale for selected nursing interventions based upon current nursing literature. (PO
#8)
DUE DATE
Week 6
Campus: As directed by your faculty member
Online: As directed by your faculty member
POINTS
50 points
REQUIREMENTS
1. Select a Speak Up brochure developed by The Joint Commission. Follow this link to the proper
website: http://www.jointcommission.org/topics/speakup_brochures.aspx.
2. Write a short paper reviewing the brochure. Use the Grading Criteria (below) to structure your
critique, and include current nursing or healthcare research to support your critique.
a. The length of the paper is to be no greater than three pages, double spaced, excluding title
page and reference page. Extra pages will not be read and will not count toward your grade.
3. This assignment will be graded on quality of information presented, use of citations, and use of
Standard English grammar, sentence structure, and organization based on the required components.
4. Create the review using Microsoft Word 2007 (a part of Microsoft Office 2007), the required format for
all Chamberlain documents. You can tell that the document is saved as a MS Word 2007 document
because it will end in “.docx.”
5. Any questions about this paper may be discussed in the weekly Q & A Forum in your online course or
directly with your faculty member if you are taking NR224 on campus.
6. APA format is required with both a title page and reference page. Use the required components of the
review as Level 1 headers (upper- and lowercase, bold, centered).
a. Introduction
b. Summary of Brochure
c. Evaluation of Brochure
d. Conclusion
PREPARING THE PAPER
The following are the best practices in preparing this paper.
1) Read the brochure carefully and take notes. Highlighting important points has been helpful to many
students.
http://www.jointcommission.org/topics/speakup_brochures.aspx
Assignment Guidelines NR224 Fundamentals - Skills
NR224 Safety Goals RUA.docx Revised 06/14/2016 BME 2
2) Title page: Include title of your paper, your name, Chamberlain College of Nursing, NR224
Fundamentals—Skills, faculty name, and the date. Center all items between the .
Brand Extension Marketing Plan 8GB530 Brand Extension Marketi.docxtarifarmarie
Brand Extension Marketing Plan 8
GB530 Brand Extension Marketing Plan: Guide
Introduction
Use this document as your guide to success. All Brand Extension Marketing Plan documents should use 1” margins, 12 pt. font, and include a cover page and a reference page.
For the Brand Extension Marketing Plan Assignments in this class you will not use the usual APA rules which require in-text citations as 1) no marketing plan ever uses direct quoting within its contents, 2) we are making an exception due to the nature of a Marketing Plan Assignment and 3) you will not use double-spacing but instead you will use this document’s formatting.
It is important that you write your Brand Extension Marketing Plan in third person (there is no “I” in a marketing plan), using your own words, and/or paraphrasing instead of direct quoting. Once deposited into the Dropbox for grading, Brand Extension Marketing Plan Assignments are submitted to Turnitin® for a potential plagiarism review, so it continues to be important for you never to use anyone else’s words verbatim.
For each of the Brand Extension Marketing Plan Assignments, you should list, on the reference page, all of the references you used when preparing your plan. Again, you do not need to include the in-text parentheses noting references and timeframes as normally required in our APA Assignments, but you do need to use APA to format your references list. If you have any questions on this exception to using APA, let me know.
All the components of the Marketing Plan are assessed using the following:
Subject Mastery Rubric: Knowledge (Can define major ideas) or Comprehension (Can discuss major ideas) or Application (Can apply major concepts to new situations).
A MARKETING PLAN IS THE FOUNDATION FOR ALL MARKETING EFFORTSBeginning your Brand Extension Marketing Plan: The Product Proposal
The major project in this course is to complete a Brand Extension Marketing Plan for one new product on the behalf of an existing for-profit organization.
As you begin your project, you need to first assume you have the role of a marketing manager for one,new, currently not available from your selected Brand Company, product on the behalf of a real, for-profit organization. Consider this a “brand extension”: you are adding a product to an existing company’s product line.
Think about your selection – the proposal is for a New Product for a New Market of consumers! Extend the Brand Name into new product markets by offering a “new to the company” product.
Companies may do this by buying an existing product, or importing a new product and putting their brand name on it – or they develop their own product to compete in the new market.
Module 1 BEMP Proposal - What will your project be about?
Submit your response to the following questions as a Product Proposal:
1. What is the brand name of your for-profit business/organization?
1. What is the new product, not currently in existence, that will generate revenue for .
Building a Dynamic Organization The Stanley Lynch Investme.docxtarifarmarie
" Building a Dynamic Organization
The Stanley Lynch Investment Group is a large investment firm headquartered in New York. The firm has 12 major investment funds, each with analysts operating in a separate department. Along with knowledge of the financial markets and the businesses it analyzes, Stanley Lynch’s competitive advantage comes from its advanced and reliable computer systems. Thus an effective information technology (IT) divi-sion is a strategic necessity, and the company’s chief infor-mation officer (CIO) holds a key role at the firm.
When the company hired J. T. Kundra as a manager of technology, he learned that the IT division at Stanley Lynch consisted of 68 employees, most of whom specialized in serving the needs of a particular fund. The IT employees serving a fund operated as a distinct group, each of them led by a manager who supervised several employees. (Five employees reported to J. T.)
He also learned that each group set up its own computer system to store information about its projects. The problems with that arrangement quickly became evident. As J. T. tried to direct his group’s work, he would ask for documentation of one program or another. Sometimes, no one was sure where to find the documentation; often he would get three different responses from three different people with three versions of the documentation. And if he was interested in another group’s project or a software program used in another department, getting information was next to impos-sible. He lacked the authority to ask employees in another group to drop what they were doing to hunt down informa-tion he needed.
J. T. concluded that the entire IT division could serve the firm much better if all authorized people had easy access to the work that had already been done and the software that was available. The logical place to store that informa-tion was online. He wanted to get all IT projects set up in a cloud so that file sharing, and therefore knowledge sharing, would be more efficient and reliable. A challenge would be to get the other IT groups to buy in to the new system given that he had authority over so few of the IT workers.
J. T. started by working with his group to blueprint how the system would work. Then he met with two higher-level managers who report to the CIO. He showed them the plan and explained that fast access to information would improve the IT group’s quality and efficiency, thus increasing the pro-ductivity of the entire firm. He suggested that the managers require all IT employees to use the cloud system. He even persuaded them that their use of the system should be mea-sured for performance appraisals, which directly impacts annual bonuses.
The various IT groups quickly came to appreciate that the system would enhance performance. Adoption was swift, and before long, the IT employees came to think of it as one of their most important software systems.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Give an example of differentiation in Stan.
BBA 4351, International Economics 1 Course Learning O.docxtarifarmarie
BBA 4351, International Economics 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit I
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Appraise how globalization contributes to greater economic interdependence.
1.1 Explain the importance of globalization in terms of the law of comparative advantage.
2. Discuss how comparative advantages lead to gains from international trade.
2.1 Explain the principle of absolute and comparative advantage.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
1.1
Unit I Lesson
Chapter 1
Unit I Essay
2.1
Unit I Lesson
Chapter 2
Unit I Essay
Reading Assignment
Chapter 1: The International Economy and Globalization
Chapter 2: Foundations of Modern Trade Theory: Comparative Advantage
Unit Lesson
Globalization
Today, every part of the world is connected, and no country can be completely secluded and stand by itself.
In other words, countries in a global economy must be interdependent. Throughout this course, you will learn
how a nation interacts with other countries in the global economy. More specifically, you will understand how
principles of economics can be applied to the global economy where countries are interdependent.
There are a number of advantages and disadvantages to globalization as listed in the chart below from the
textbook.
The Unit l Lesson provides some new perspectives on various stages of globalization. Baldwin (2016) briefly
summarizes four important phases of globalization that occurred during the past 200,000 years. The textbook
stresses the fact that the third phase of globalization began with the steam engine and other significant
improvements in transportation, increasing trade in goods and services among different parts of the world
(Carbaugh, 2017). The fourth phase of globalization, which is not mentioned in our textbook, involves the
transfer of rich-country technologies to workers in poor countries. This, in turn, has increased productivity and
expedited industrialization in those poor countries. Baldwin (2016) argues that a reorientation of strategy and
policy in both rich and poor countries is necessary. Rich countries need to develop better rules for governing
foreign investment and intellectual property rights as well as concentrate on the training and welfare of
workers rather than the preservation of particular jobs.
UNIT I STUDY GUIDE
International Economy and
Comparative Advantage
BBA 4351, International Economics 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Think about what the next stage of globalization will be. It is not going to be industrialization for sure. What
might it be? Some experts believe the next phase of globalization will be Big Data—a large volume of
complex datasets that can be used in decision-making in various fields.
The United States as an Open Economy
The U.S. economy is a part of the global economy and, therefore, has been integrated into global markets in
past decades. Duri.
BSL 4060, Team Building and Leadership 1 Course Learn.docxtarifarmarie
BSL 4060, Team Building and Leadership 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit I
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Summarize the determinants of high-performance teams.
1.1 Discuss the four Cs of team performance.
1.2 Explain how each of the four Cs contributes to improved performance.
4. Explain the importance of teamwork in an organization.
4.1 Explain the two types of self-directed work teams and the three generic team types.
4.2 Discuss how an organization's context of culture, structure, and systems supports teamwork.
Reading Assignment
Chapter 1: The Search for the High-Performing Team
Chapter 2: Context: Laying the Foundation for Team Success
Please use the Business Source Complete database in the CSU Online Library to read the following article:
Warrick, D. D. (2014). What leaders can learn about teamwork and developing high performance teams
from organization development practitioners. OD Practitioner, 46(3), 68-75.
Unit Lesson
This unit begins with a brief history of team building. The first efforts to improve organizations came from T-
groups (training groups) and from the National Training Laboratories in Silver Spring, Maryland. Participants
in T-groups learned to communicate in a more open and honest manner, accept responsibility for their
behavior, and engage in relationships based on equality rather than on hierarchy or status. In 1968, Campbell
and Dunnette conducted a study of the impact of T-groups on organizational performance. They concluded
that while T-groups did help individuals become more comfortable with their ability to manage interpersonal
relationships, T-groups had virtually no impact on organization or team performance. The team-building
paradigm was created to shift from an unstructured T-group to a more focused and defined process for
training a group in collaborative work and problem solving.
UNIT I STUDY GUIDE
The Foundation for Team Success
BSL 4060, Team Building and Leadership 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
The four Cs of high-performing teams were developed as a platform to build effective teams. The first C is
context, or the organizational environment. According to Dyer, Dyer, and Dyer (2013), questions to consider
in relation to the first C include the following.
How important is effective teamwork to accomplishing this particular task?
What type of team (e.g., task team, decision team, self-directed team) do I need?
Do my organization's culture, structure, and processes support teamwork?
The second C is composition, or the skills, attitudes, and experience of the team members. According to
Dyer, et al. (2013), one should consider the following questions.
To what extent do individual members have the technical skills required to complete the task?
To what extent do they have the interpersonal and communication skills required to coordinate their
work with others?
To what .
BHA 3002, Health Care Management 1 Course Learning Ou.docxtarifarmarie
BHA 3002, Health Care Management 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
6. Analyze the finance system in a healthcare organization.
6.1 Examine key differences between for-profit, not-for-profit, and public healthcare facilities.
6.2 Explain the process of creating and balancing a healthcare facility budget.
8. Evaluate ways to improve the quality and economy of patient care.
8.1 Describe the process of quality review and privileging for physicians.
8.2 Discuss the importance of quality initiatives, quality equipment and supplies, and quality
regulations.
8.3 Identify a management problem in a healthcare organization.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
6.1
Chapter 3 Reading
Unit Assessment
6.2
Chapter 3 Reading
Unit Assessment
8.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 4 Reading
Unit Assessment
8.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 4 Reading
Unit Assessment
8.3
Unit Lesson
Chapter 4 Reading
Unit II Project Topic
Reading Assignment
Chapter 3: Financing the Provision of Care
Chapter 4: Quality of Care
Unit Lesson
Evidence-Based Performance Measures
One of the hottest topics in healthcare administration today is evidence-based performance, and you certainly
need a solid understanding of this process in order to function effectively as a healthcare leader moving into
the future. American health care needs to improve. There is no doubt about that. Americans deserve more
bang for the buck that they spend on medical services. One of the most important initiatives to make that
happen is a move to more evidence-based practice.
What evidence-based performance is truly all about, first and foremost, is the patient (UT Health, 2015). In
particular, it is all about making sure that the patient receives care based upon the best and latest research
that is available for the patient’s own particular health problem or set of health problems. It is about giving the
right care, every time, for every patient. Other benefits of a solid evidence-based medicine program include
the ability to assure your own community that your hospital provides high quality care and that you are doing
your own quality review studies to make sure of this. Finally, evidence-based medicine makes sense because
UNIT II STUDY GUIDE
Financing and Quality for
Health Care
BHA 3002, Health Care Management 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
the Centers for Medicare Services (CMS) demands it of us. They will actually pay us more for our services if
we meet evidence-based performance criteria and goals, and they will financially penalize us if we do not
meet evidence-based goals. In short, there are many good reasons to implement evidence-based medicine in
your own medical facility.
Currently, there are several national focus areas for evidence-based medicine programs. These are heart
failure (HF), acute myocardial infarction (AMI), pneumonia (PN), and th.
BBA 3551, Information Systems Management Course Learn.docxtarifarmarie
BBA 3551, Information Systems Management
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit III
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
8. Evaluate major types of hardware and software used by organizations.
8.1 Describe the features of a chosen NoSQL database.
8.2 Discuss how the use of a NoSQL database will affect competitive strategies in this era of IoT
(Internet of Things).
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
8.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 5
Unit III PowerPoint Presentation
8.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Unit III PowerPoint Presentation
Reading Assignment
Chapter 4: Hardware, Software, and Mobile Systems, Q4-1 – Q4-7
Chapter 5: Database Processing, Q5-1 – Q5-7
Unit Lesson
In Unit II, we investigated ways that information systems (IS) can support collaboration, and we reviewed
Porter’s five forces model. In this unit, we will discuss the basic concepts of hardware and software. We will
also discuss open source software development and database management systems and compare the
differences between native and thin-client applications. Lastly, we will explore mobile systems and the
characteristics of quality mobile user experiences.
It is important that business professionals understand hardware components, types of hardware, and
computer data. We will start with bits and bytes. Computers use bits to represent basic units of data such as
ones and zeros. You should know the difference between bits, bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes,
terabytes, petabytes, and exabytes (see Figure 1).
Term Definition Abbreviation
Byte A group of binary bits
Kilobyte 1,024 bytes K
Megabyte 1,024 K or 1, 048, 576 bytes MB
Gigabyte 1,024 MB or 1,073,741,824 bytes GB
Terabyte 1,024 GB or 1,099,511,627,776 bytes TB
Petabyte 1024 TB or 1, 125,899,906,842,624 bytes PB
Exabyte 1,024 PB or 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes EB
Figure 1: Storage capacity terminology
(Kroenke & Boyle, 2017)
UNIT III STUDY GUIDE
Hardware, Software, and Mobile
Systems and Database Processing
BBA 3551, Information Systems Management 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
A byte generally contains eight bits. A switch can be open or closed. An open switch represents 0 or off, and
a closed switch represents 1 or on. Bits are basic units of data, such as ones and zeros, while data can be
represented by variables such as numbers, images, graphics, and characters to name a few (Kroenke &
Boyle, 2017).
The categories of computer software are clients and servers. Personal computers (PCs) use non-mobile
operating systems (OSs) such as Microsoft (MS) Windows and Apple Macintosh (Mac) OS X. Remember that
OSs are developed for specific hardware and are often referred to as native applications. In other words, MS
Windows was created specifically for hardware-based PC systems, so you cannot install MS Windows on an
Apple Mac as a base OS, nor can you install the Apple OS on a PC-based.
Afro-Asian Inquiry and the Problematics of Comparative Cr.docxtarifarmarie
Afro-Asian Inquiry and the Problematics of Comparative Critique
Author(s): Antonio T. Tiongson Jr.
Source: Critical Ethnic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Fall 2015), pp. 33-58
Published by: University of Minnesota Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/jcritethnstud.1.2.0033
Accessed: 07-08-2017 18:56 UTC
REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/jcritethnstud.1.2.0033?seq=1&cid=pdf-
reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.
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All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
P 3 3 O
Afro-Asian Inquiry and the
Problematics of Comparative Critique
A N T O N I O T. T I O N G S O N J R .
This article represents a critical engagement with the “comparative turn” in ethnic studies; that is, an interrogation of the broader implications of
the ascendancy and valorization of comparative critique as a central cate-
gory of analysis and an index of contemporary ethnic studies scholarship
through a critical consideration of a select body of writing predicated on a
comparative approach. Spurred by the perceived inadequacies of a biracial
framing and theorizing of race and racialization (i.e., the so-called black/
white paradigm), thinking comparatively has become an imperative to the
project of ethnic studies, heralding a paradigmatic and analytic shift and
inaugurating what one cultural analyst describes as a new stage in the evo-
lution of ethnic studies, “one long postponed by a standoff between a mul-
tiracial model limited by a national horizon and a diasporic model that
lacked historical ground for conducting cross-racial analysis.”1
As a number of race and ethnic studies scholars posit, comparative anal-
ysis is increasingly viewed as indispensable to the project of ethnic studies.
In an edited volume titled Black and Brown in Los Angeles: Beyond Con-
flict and Coalition, for example, Josh Kun and Laura Pulido make the point
that comparative ethnic studies has emerged “as a substantive field within
the discipline of ethnic studies itself,” generating a fairly robust and rapidly
expanding archive of comparative scholarship.2 Echoing these remarks,
Marta E. Sanchez speaks of “the renaissance of comparative studies of race
and.
BBA 2201, Principles of Accounting I 1 Course Learnin.docxtarifarmarie
BBA 2201, Principles of Accounting I 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VIII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Examine the accounting cycle.
2. Identify business transactions.
3. Generate inventory systems and costing methods.
4. Appraise the classes and transactions of liabilities.
4.1 Describe the three main characteristics of liabilities.
4.2 Explain why it is important to classify liabilities into short and long term.
6. Analyze financial statements to inform decision makers.
8. Compare International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) to Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles (GAAP).
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
1 Final Exam
2 Final Exam
3 Final Exam
4
Unit Lesson
Chapter 11
Chapter 14
4.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 11
Chapter 14
Unit VIII Essay
4.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 11
Chapter 14
Unit VIII Essay
6 Final Exam
7 Final Exam
8 Final Exam
Reading Assignment
Chapter 11: Current Liabilities and Payroll
Chapter 14: Long-Term Liabilities
UNIT VIII STUDY GUIDE
Liabilities
BBA 2201, Principles of Accounting I 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Unit Lesson
Liabilities
In the accounting equation, assets = liabilities + equity, we can see that there are two claims to the assets of a
business—creditors and owners. The accounting equation can also be written as: assets – liabilities = equity.
In this equation, we can see that the liabilities of a business require the use of assets to satisfy the amount
owed.
A liability is an amount owed to lenders, suppliers, or government agencies and requires the use of assets or
future revenues to satisfy the debt. There are two categories of liabilities—current and long term. A current
liability is the amount owed that must be paid within one year or within the company’s operating cycle,
whichever is longer (Miller-Nobles, Mattison, & Matsumura, 2018).
The most common current liability is accounts payable. An account payable is an amount due a vendor or
supplies for products, supplies or services (Miller-Nobles et al., 2018). Retail businesses will also have sales
tax payable. Sales tax payable is the amount of sales tax collected by the retailer that must be remitted to the
tax agencies (Miller-Nobles et al., 2018). Because the accounts payable and sales tax payable are due within
one year (generally due within 30 days) they are a current liability.
Some businesses will receive cash payments in advance of providing a service, which is referred to as
unearned revenue (or deferred revenue). Many gyms and fitness centers will have deferred revenue. If you
have ever paid for a year’s membership at the beginning of the year to receive a discount, then you were
involved in a transaction with unearned revenue. The gym does not earn the revenue until they have provided
you with the monthly membership.
For example: If you were to purchase a one year.
ARH2000 Art & Culture USF College of the Arts 1 .docxtarifarmarie
ARH2000 Art & Culture
USF College of the Arts
1
Art & Identity Research Project
15 points / 15% of final grade
Submit via the link provided in Canvas.
OVERVIEW
For this final project you will research two (2) contemporary artists who deal with the theme of
identity. In addition, you will reflect upon and propose an imagined artwork that relates to your own
concept of identity. (Do not worry if you are not artistically inclined, you are NOT expected to create an
actual finished art piece; it is merely a proposal for something you imagine.). The final project will be
presented as a well-researched PowerPoint presentation. Scholarly research and a Works Cited
page/slide are important components of this project.
HOW TO PREPARE
1. Engage with the presentation: “Art & Identity”
2. Read/review the following from the textbook: Chapter 4.9 (The Body in Art) and 4.10 (Identity, Race, &
Gender in Art); pp. 189 (grey box); 357-359
ARTIST RESEARCH
1. Choose two (2) artists from the list on page three of these instructions. Research your
chosen artists in relation to their interest in a theme of “Identity”.
2. You must use at least three different types of sources in your research project: The artwork
itself will be one source – the most important primary source. Therefore, you must research and
find at least two (2) other types of sources (interview with the artists, scholarly articles, books,
museum website etc.) to use in your study. Most will need to exceed this minimum for a robust
presentation. See page 189 of your textbook for a list of possible primary and secondary sources.
Further resources on how to get started are found in the subheading “Resources” below. You can
find many sources in the library or in one of the library’s databases.
3. Your selection of artists should be intentional and surround a specific sub-topic of identity.
Your research should not focus on identity in only a broad and general way. Clearly identify the sub-
topic that relates to your artists. For example, you may find artists that are similarly interested in
any of the following sub-topics below:
the fluidity of identity
deconstructing cultural, social, or political difference
feminist critique
diversity or artists who create work that explores related cultures, groups, or societies
You may consider choosing artists that work in the same medium (for example, performance
art, painting, or installation) and how that material choice imparts meaning to their work.
4. After selecting your sub-topic and artists, you must decide on a title for your project.
ARH2000 Art & Culture
USF College of the Arts
2
5. Your research into the artists should include biographical information and an examination of the
artists’ approaches. In a PowerPoint presentation of your research, include the following:
a. Biographies of each artist:
i. Image of the artist (photo, sketch, etc.)
ii. Brief biography:.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
1 Discussion Question Rubric 210 Points Total (30 Poin.docx
1. 1
Discussion Question Rubric
210 Points Total (30 Points for each of the 7 Discussion
Questions)
Over the course of the quarter, you will be presented with
various prompts via Canvas to write
a discussions on. Your responses will need to be at least two
paragraphs in length and you will
need to respond to 2 other students’ posts.
General Information:
1. Due Date and Time:
a. Responses to discussion questions and other students’ posts
should be posted to Canvas by
11:59pm Sunday evenings. The sooner you post, the sooner
others can respond to your post.
b. Responses posted after the due date and time will only be
eligible for 79% of the total
grade.
When Answering a Discussion Question:
1. Length (Minimum of TWO Paragraphs) for Each Response to
a Discussion Question(s): 17
Points Total:
a. Wrote a minimum of TWO paragraphs. (12pts)
b. Include some personal reflection THAT RELATES to the
question you are answering. Be
thoughtful. Include either personal experiences that support
2. your answer or if you aren’t
comfortable sharing something about yourself, share about
someone you know or
someone/something you read about. (5pts.)
2. Proper Spelling, Grammar, & Punctuation: 3 Points Total:
a. Used proper spelling, grammar and punctuation in both your
answer AND replies. It is
strongly recommended that you write your answers and
responses in a Word document, proof
it and then copy and paste it back into CANVAS to avoid any
errors. (3pts.)
When Responding to Other Students’ Posts:
1. Responses to Other Students’ Posts: 10 Points Total:
a. Replied to TWO other students’ posts. Please be thoughtful
and thorough in your responses
to classmates. Five sentences is the suggested minimum for each
reply, although your efforts
should be spent on quality of reply, rather than quantity of
words, and will be graded
accordingly. Instead of just saying that you agree or disagree
with someone else’s post, be
detailed and intentional in your replies. Remember this is the
way to connect with other
students in the class. The more replies there are in the thread,
the more fruitful the discussion
and the richer the experience for everyone. (10pts.)
**If you have difficulty writing, you may orally record your
answer to the discussion question
and your responses to other students’ posts and upload them to
CANVAS.
3. 2
Questions to Ask Yourself to Help You Reply to Your Peers’
Discussion Posts
1: Read another student’s post to the discussion question.
2: Ask yourself the following questions in regards to the post
you just read.
1: What is the post about (summary)?
2a: Do I agree or disagree with what was written?
2b: Why do you agree or disagree?
3a: Do I find the post interesting?
3b: Why do I find the post interesting?
4: What does the post make you think about?
5: Is there anything in the post you connect with or identify
with?
Spring 2019 Assessment Prompt
Robert Putnam, in his book Bowling Alone: The Collapse and
Revival of American Community, uses the example of the
decline of bowling leagues across the country to suggest the
passing of community and associations in the United States.
Traditionally these associations provided the “social capital”*
5. Effective Learning Techniques: Promising
Directions From Cognitive and
Educational Psychology
John Dunlosky1, Katherine A. Rawson1, Elizabeth J. Marsh2,
Mitchell J. Nathan3, and Daniel T. Willingham4
1Department of Psychology, Kent State University;
2Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University;
3Department of Educational Psychology, Department of
Curriculum & Instruction, and Department of Psychology,
University of Wisconsin–Madison; and 4Department of
Psychology, University of Virginia
Summary
Many students are being left behind by an educational system
that some people believe is in crisis. Improving educational
outcomes will require efforts on many fronts, but a central
premise of this monograph is that one part of a solution
involves
helping students to better regulate their learning through the use
of effective learning techniques. Fortunately, cognitive and
educational psychologists have been developing and evaluating
easy-to-use learning techniques that could help students achieve
their learning goals. In this monograph, we discuss 10 learning
techniques in detail and offer recommendations about their
relative utility. We selected techniques that were expected to be
relatively easy to use and hence could be adopted by many
students. Also, some techniques (e.g., highlighting and
rereading) were selected because students report relying heavily
on
them, which makes it especially important to examine how well
they work. The techniques include elaborative interrogation,
self-explanation, summarization, highlighting (or underlining),
the keyword mnemonic, imagery use for text learning,
rereading,
6. practice testing, distributed practice, and interleaved practice.
To offer recommendations about the relative utility of these
techniques, we evaluated whether their benefits generalize
across four categories of variables: learning conditions, student
characteristics, materials, and criterion tasks. Learning
conditions
include aspects of the learning environment in which the
technique is implemented, such as whether a student studies
alone
or with a group. Student characteristics include variables such
as age, ability, and level of prior knowledge. Materials vary
from
simple concepts to mathematical problems to complicated
science texts. Criterion tasks include different outcome
measures
that are relevant to student achievement, such as those tapping
memory, problem solving, and comprehension.
We attempted to provide thorough reviews for each technique,
so this monograph is rather lengthy. However, we also wrote
the monograph in a modular fashion, so it is easy to use. In
particular, each review is divided into the following sections:
1. General description of the technique and why it should work
2. How general are the effects of this technique?
2a. Learning conditions
2b. Student characteristics
2c. Materials
2d. Criterion tasks
3. Effects in representative educational contexts
4. Issues for implementation
5. Overall assessment
Improving Student Achievement 5
7. Introduction
If simple techniques were available that teachers and students
could use to improve student learning and achievement, would
you be surprised if teachers were not being told about these
techniques and if many students were not using them? What if
students were instead adopting ineffective learning techniques
that undermined their achievement, or at least did not improve
it? Shouldn’t they stop using these techniques and begin using
ones that are effective? Psychologists have been developing
and evaluating the efficacy of techniques for study and instruc-
tion for more than 100 years. Nevertheless, some effective
techniques are underutilized—many teachers do not learn
about them, and hence many students do not use them, despite
evidence suggesting that the techniques could benefit student
achievement with little added effort. Also, some learning tech-
niques that are popular and often used by students are rela-
tively ineffective. One potential reason for the disconnect
between research on the efficacy of learning techniques and
their use in educational practice is that because so many tech-
niques are available, it would be challenging for educators to
sift through the relevant research to decide which ones show
promise of efficacy and could feasibly be implemented by stu-
dents (Pressley, Goodchild, Fleet, Zajchowski, & Evans,
1989).
Toward meeting this challenge, we explored the efficacy of
10 learning techniques (listed in Table 1) that students could
use to improve their success across a wide variety of content
domains.1 The learning techniques we consider here were cho-
sen on the basis of the following criteria. We chose some
techniques (e.g., self-testing, distributed practice) because an
initial survey of the literature indicated that they could improve
student success across a wide range of conditions. Other tech-
niques (e.g., rereading and highlighting) were included
8. because students report using them frequently. Moreover, stu-
dents are responsible for regulating an increasing amount of
their learning as they progress from elementary grades through
middle school and high school to college. Lifelong learners
also need to continue regulating their own learning, whether
it takes place in the context of postgraduate education, the
workplace, the development of new hobbies, or recreational
activities.
Thus, we limited our choices to techniques that could be
implemented by students without assistance (e.g., without
requiring advanced technologies or extensive materials that
would have to be prepared by a teacher). Some training may
be required for students to learn how to use a technique with
fidelity, but in principle, students should be able to use the
techniques without supervision. We also chose techniques for
which a sufficient amount of empirical evidence was available
to support at least a preliminary assessment of potential effi-
cacy. Of course, we could not review all the techniques that
meet these criteria, given the in-depth nature of our reviews,
and these criteria excluded some techniques that show much
promise, such as techniques that are driven by advanced
technologies.
Because teachers are most likely to learn about these tech-
niques in educational psychology classes, we examined
how some educational-psychology textbooks covered them
(Ormrod, 2008; Santrock, 2008; Slavin, 2009; Snowman,
The review for each technique can be read independently of the
others, and particular variables of interest can be easily
compared across techniques.
To foreshadow our final recommendations, the techniques vary
widely with respect to their generalizability and promise
for improving student learning. Practice testing and distributed
practice received high utility assessments because they benefit
9. learners of different ages and abilities and have been shown to
boost students’ performance across many criterion tasks and
even in educational contexts. Elaborative interrogation, self-
explanation, and interleaved practice received moderate utility
assessments. The benefits of these techniques do generalize
across some variables, yet despite their promise, they fell short
of a high utility assessment because the evidence for their
efficacy is limited. For instance, elaborative interrogation and
self-
explanation have not been adequately evaluated in educational
contexts, and the benefits of interleaving have just begun to be
systematically explored, so the ultimate effectiveness of these
techniques is currently unknown. Nevertheless, the techniques
that received moderate-utility ratings show enough promise for
us to recommend their use in appropriate situations, which we
describe in detail within the review of each technique.
Five techniques received a low utility assessment:
summarization, highlighting, the keyword mnemonic, imagery
use for text
learning, and rereading. These techniques were rated as low
utility for numerous reasons. Summarization and imagery use
for
text learning have been shown to help some students on some
criterion tasks, yet the conditions under which these techniques
produce benefits are limited, and much research is still needed
to fully explore their overall effectiveness. The keyword
mnemonic
is difficult to implement in some contexts, and it appears to
benefit students for a limited number of materials and for short
retention intervals. Most students report rereading and
highlighting, yet these techniques do not consistently boost
students’
performance, so other techniques should be used in their place
(e.g., practice testing instead of rereading).
Our hope is that this monograph will foster improvements in
student learning, not only by showcasing which learning
10. techniques are likely to have the most generalizable effects but
also by encouraging researchers to continue investigating the
most promising techniques. Accordingly, in our closing
remarks, we discuss some issues for how these techniques could
be
implemented by teachers and students, and we highlight
directions for future research.
6 Dunlosky et al.
McCown, & Biehler, 2009; Sternberg & Williams, 2010;
Woolfolk, 2007). Despite the promise of some of the tech-
niques, many of these textbooks did not provide sufficient
coverage, which would include up-to-date reviews of their
efficacy and analyses of their generalizability and potential
limitations. Accordingly, for all of the learning techniques
listed in Table 1, we reviewed the literature to identify the gen-
eralizability of their benefits across four categories of vari-
ables—materials, learning conditions, student characteristics,
and criterion tasks. The choice of these categories was inspired
by Jenkins’ (1979) model (for an example of its use in educa-
tional contexts, see Marsh & Butler, in press), and examples of
each category are presented in Table 2. Materials pertain to the
specific content that students are expected to learn, remember,
or comprehend. Learning conditions pertain to aspects of
the context in which students are interacting with the to-be-
learned materials. These conditions include aspects of the
learning environment itself (e.g., noisiness vs. quietness in a
classroom), but they largely pertain to the way in which a
learning technique is implemented. For instance, a technique
could be used only once or many times (a variable referred to
as dosage) when students are studying, or a technique could be
used when students are either reading or listening to the to-be-
11. learned materials.
Any number of student characteristics could also influence
the effectiveness of a given learning technique. For example,
in comparison to more advanced students, younger students in
early grades may not benefit from a technique. Students’ basic
cognitive abilities, such as working memory capacity or gen-
eral fluid intelligence, may also influence the efficacy of a
given technique. In an educational context, domain knowledge
refers to the valid, relevant knowledge a student brings to a
lesson. Domain knowledge may be required for students to use
some of the learning techniques listed in Table 1. For instance,
Table 1. Learning Techniques
Technique Description
1. Elaborative interrogation Generating an explanation for why
an explicitly stated fact or concept is true
2. Self-explanation Explaining how new information is related
to known information, or explaining steps taken
during problem solving
3. Summarization Writing summaries (of various lengths) of to-
be-learned texts
4. Highlighting/underlining Marking potentially important
portions of to-be-learned materials while reading
5. Keyword mnemonic Using keywords and mental imagery to
associate verbal materials
6. Imagery for text Attempting to form mental images of text
materials while reading or listening
7. Rereading Restudying text material again after an initial
reading
8. Practice testing Self-testing or taking practice tests over to-
be-learned material
9. Distributed practice Implementing a schedule of practice that
12. spreads out study activities over time
10. Interleaved practice Implementing a schedule of practice
that mixes different kinds of problems, or a schedule of
study that mixes different kinds of material, within a single
study session
Note. See text for a detailed description of each learning
technique and relevant examples of their use.
Table 2. Examples of the Four Categories of Variables for
Generalizability
Materials Learning conditions Student characteristicsa
Criterion tasks
Vocabulary Amount of practice (dosage) Age Cued recall
Translation equivalents Open- vs. closed-book practice Prior
domain knowledge Free recall
Lecture content Reading vs. listening Working memory capacity
Recognition
Science definitions Incidental vs. intentional learning Verbal
ability Problem solving
Narrative texts Direct instruction Interests Argument
development
Expository texts Discovery learning Fluid intelligence Essay
writing
Mathematical concepts Rereading lagsb Motivation Creation of
portfolios
Maps Kind of practice testsc Prior achievement Achievement
tests
Diagrams Group vs. individual learning Self-efficacy Classroom
quizzes
aSome of these characteristics are more state based (e.g.,
motivation) and some are more trait based (e.g., fluid
13. intelligence); this distinction is
relevant to the malleability of each characteristic, but a
discussion of this dimension is beyond the scope of this article.
bLearning condition is specific to rereading.
cLearning condition is specific to practice testing.
Improving Student Achievement 7
the use of imagery while reading texts requires that students
know the objects and ideas that the words refer to so that they
can produce internal images of them. Students with some
domain knowledge about a topic may also find it easier to use
self-explanation and elaborative interrogation, which are two
techniques that involve answering “why” questions about a
particular concept (e.g., “Why would particles of ice rise up
within a cloud?”). Domain knowledge may enhance the bene-
fits of summarization and highlighting as well. Nevertheless,
although some domain knowledge will benefit students as
they begin learning new content within a given domain, it is
not a prerequisite for using most of the learning techniques.
The degree to which the efficacy of each learning technique
obtains across long retention intervals and generalizes across
different criterion tasks is of critical importance. Our reviews
and recommendations are based on evidence, which typically
pertains to students’ objective performance on any number of
criterion tasks. Criterion tasks (Table 2, rightmost column)
vary with respect to the specific kinds of knowledge that they
tap. Some tasks are meant to tap students’ memory for infor-
mation (e.g., “What is operant conditioning?”), others are
largely meant to tap students’ comprehension (e.g., “Explain
the difference between classical conditioning and operant con-
ditioning”), and still others are meant to tap students’ applica-
tion of knowledge (e.g., “How would you apply operant
14. conditioning to train a dog to sit down?”). Indeed, Bloom and
colleagues divided learning objectives into six categories,
from memory (or knowledge) and comprehension of facts to
their application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (B. S.
Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956; for an
updated taxonomy, see L. W. Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
In discussing how the techniques influence criterion perfor-
mance, we emphasize investigations that have gone beyond
demonstrating improved memory for target material by mea-
suring students’ comprehension, application, and transfer of
knowledge. Note, however, that although gaining factual
knowledge is not considered the only or ultimate objective of
schooling, we unabashedly consider efforts to improve student
retention of knowledge as essential for reaching other instruc-
tional objectives; if one does not remember core ideas, facts,
or concepts, applying them may prove difficult, if not impos-
sible. Students who have forgotten principles of algebra will
be unable to apply them to solve problems or use them as a
foundation for learning calculus (or physics, economics, or
other related domains), and students who do not remember
what operant conditioning is will likely have difficulties
applying it to solve behavioral problems. We are not advocat-
ing that students spend their time robotically memorizing
facts; instead, we are acknowledging the important interplay
between memory for a concept on one hand and the ability to
comprehend and apply it on the other.
An aim of this monograph is to encourage students to use
the appropriate learning technique (or techniques) to accom-
plish a given instructional objective. Some learning techniques
are largely focused on bolstering students’ memory for facts
(e.g., the keyword mnemonic), others are focused more on
improving comprehension (e.g., self-explanation), and yet
others may enhance both memory and comprehension (e.g.,
15. practice testing). Thus, our review of each learning technique
describes how it can be used, its effectiveness for producing
long-term retention and comprehension, and its breadth of
efficacy across the categories of variables listed in Table 2.
Reviewing the Learning Techniques
In the following series of reviews, we consider the available
evidence for the efficacy of each of the learning techniques.
Each review begins with a brief description of the technique
and a discussion about why it is expected to improve student
learning. We then consider generalizability (with respect to
learning conditions, materials, student characteristics, and cri-
terion tasks), highlight any research on the technique that has
been conducted in representative educational contexts, and
address any identified issues for implementing the technique.
Accordingly, the reviews are largely modular: Each of the 10
reviews is organized around these themes (with corresponding
headers) so readers can easily identify the most relevant infor-
mation without necessarily having to read the monograph in
its entirety.
At the end of each review, we provide an overall assess-
ment for each technique in terms of its relatively utility—low,
moderate, or high. Students and teachers who are not already
doing so should consider using techniques designated as high
utility, because the effects of these techniques are robust and
generalize widely. Techniques could have been designated as
low utility or moderate utility for any number of reasons. For
instance, a technique could have been designated as low utility
because its effects are limited to a small subset of materials
that students need to learn; the technique may be useful in
some cases and adopted in appropriate contexts, but, relative
to the other techniques, it would be considered low in utility
because of its limited generalizability. A technique could also
receive a low- or moderate-utility rating if it showed promise,
yet insufficient evidence was available to support confidence
16. in assigning a higher utility assessment. In such cases, we
encourage researchers to further explore these techniques
within educational settings, but students and teachers may
want to use caution before adopting them widely. Most impor-
tant, given that each utility assessment could have been
assigned for a variety of reasons, we discuss the rationale for a
given assessment at the end of each review.
Finally, our intent was to conduct exhaustive reviews of
the literature on each learning technique. For techniques that
have been reviewed extensively (e.g., distributed practice),
however, we relied on previous reviews and supplemented
them with any research that appeared after they had been pub-
lished. For many of the learning techniques, too many articles
have been published to cite them all; therefore, in our discus-
sion of most of the techniques, we cite a subset of relevant
articles.
8 Dunlosky et al.
1 Elaborative interrogation
Anyone who has spent time around young children knows that
one of their most frequent utterances is “Why?” (perhaps com-
ing in a close second behind “No!”). Humans are inquisitive
creatures by nature, attuned to seeking explanations for states,
actions, and events in the world around us. Fortunately, a siz-
able body of evidence suggests that the power of explanatory
questioning can be harnessed to promote learning. Specifi-
cally, research on both elaborative interrogation and self-
explanation has shown that prompting students to answer
“Why?” questions can facilitate learning. These two literatures
are highly related but have mostly developed independently of
one another. Additionally, they have overlapping but noniden-
tical strengths and weaknesses. For these reasons, we consider
17. the two literatures separately.
1.1 General description of elaborative interrogation and
why it should work. In one of the earliest systematic studies
of elaborative interrogation, Pressley, McDaniel, Turnure,
Wood, and Ahmad (1987) presented undergraduate students
with a list of sentences, each describing the action of a particu-
lar man (e.g., “The hungry man got into the car”). In the elab-
orative-interrogation group, for each sentence, participants
were prompted to explain “Why did that particular man do
that?” Another group of participants was instead provided
with an explanation for each sentence (e.g., “The hungry man
got into the car to go to the restaurant”), and a third group
simply read each sentence. On a final test in which participants
were cued to recall which man performed each action (e.g.,
“Who got in the car?”), the elaborative-interrogation group
substantially outperformed the other two groups (collapsing
across experiments, accuracy in this group was approximately
72%, compared with approximately 37% in each of the other
two groups). From this and similar studies, Seifert (1993)
reported average effect sizes ranging from 0.85 to 2.57.
As illustrated above, the key to elaborative interrogation
involves prompting learners to generate an explanation for an
explicitly stated fact. The particular form of the explanatory
prompt has differed somewhat across studies—examples
include “Why does it make sense that…?”, “Why is this true?”,
and simply “Why?” However, the majority of studies have
used prompts following the general format, “Why would this
fact be true of this [X] and not some other [X]?”
The prevailing theoretical account of elaborative-interroga-
tion effects is that elaborative interrogation enhances learning
by supporting the integration of new information with existing
prior knowledge. During elaborative interrogation, learners
presumably “activate schemata . . . These schemata, in turn,
18. help to organize new information which facilitates retrieval”
(Willoughby & Wood, 1994, p. 140). Although the integration
of new facts with prior knowledge may facilitate the organiza-
tion (Hunt, 2006) of that information, organization alone is not
sufficient—students must also be able to discriminate among
related facts to be accurate when identifying or using the
learned information (Hunt, 2006). Consistent with this account,
note that most elaborative-interrogation prompts explicitly or
implicitly invite processing of both similarities and differences
between related entities (e.g., why a fact would be true of one
province versus other provinces). As we highlight below, pro-
cessing of similarities and differences among to-be-learned
facts also accounts for findings that elaborative-interrogation
effects are often larger when elaborations are precise rather
than imprecise, when prior knowledge is higher rather than
lower (consistent with research showing that preexisting
knowledge enhances memory by facilitating distinctive pro-
cessing; e.g., Rawson & Van Overschelde, 2008), and when
elaborations are self-generated rather than provided (a finding
consistent with research showing that distinctiveness effects
depend on self-generating item-specific cues; Hunt & Smith,
1996).
1.2 How general are the effects of elaborative
interrogation?
1.2a Learning conditions. The seminal work by Pressley et al.
(1987; see also B. S. Stein & Bransford, 1979) spawned a
flurry of research in the following decade that was primarily
directed at assessing the generalizability of elaborative-inter-
rogation effects. Some of this work focused on investigating
elaborative-interrogation effects under various learning condi-
tions. Elaborative-interrogation effects have been consistently
shown using either incidental or intentional learning instruc-
tions (although two studies have suggested stronger effects for
19. incidental learning: Pressley et al., 1987; Woloshyn, Wil-
loughby, Wood, & Pressley, 1990). Although most studies
have involved individual learning, elaborative-interrogation
effects have also been shown among students working in
dyads or small groups (Kahl & Woloshyn, 1994; Woloshyn &
Stockley, 1995).
1.2b Student characteristics. Elaborative-interrogation effects
also appear to be relatively robust across different kinds of
learners. Although a considerable amount of work has involved
undergraduate students, an impressive number of studies have
shown elaborative-interrogation effects with younger learners
as well. Elaborative interrogation has been shown to improve
learning for high school students, middle school students, and
upper elementary school students (fourth through sixth grad-
ers). The extent to which elaborative interrogation benefits
younger learners is less clear. Miller and Pressley (1989) did
not find effects for kindergartners or first graders, and Wood,
Miller, Symons, Canough, and Yedlicka (1993) reported
mixed results for preschoolers. Nonetheless, elaborative inter-
rogation does appear to benefit learners across a relatively
wide age range. Furthermore, several of the studies involving
younger students have also established elaborative-interroga-
tion effects for learners of varying ability levels, including
fourth through twelfth graders with learning disabilities (C.
Greene, Symons, & Richards, 1996; Scruggs, Mastropieri, &
Sullivan, 1994) and sixth through eighth graders with mild
Improving Student Achievement 9
cognitive disabilities (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Sullivan, & Hes-
ser, 1993), although Wood, Willoughby, Bolger, Younger, and
Kaspar (1993) did not find effects with a sample of low-
achieving students. On the other end of the continuum, elabo-
20. rative-interrogation effects have been shown for high-achieving
fifth and sixth graders (Wood & Hewitt, 1993; Wood, Wil-
loughby, et al., 1993).
Another key dimension along which learners differ is level
of prior knowledge, a factor that has been extensively investi-
gated within the literature on elaborative interrogation. Both
correlational and experimental evidence suggest that prior
knowledge is an important moderator of elaborative-interroga-
tion effects, such that effects generally increase as prior
knowledge increases. For example, Woloshyn, Pressley, and
Schneider (1992) presented Canadian and German students
with facts about Canadian provinces and German states. Thus,
both groups of students had more domain knowledge for one
set of facts and less domain knowledge for the other set. As
shown in Figure 1, students showed larger effects of elabora-
tive interrogation in their high-knowledge domain (a 24%
increase) than in their low-knowledge domain (a 12%
increase). Other studies manipulating the familiarity of to-be-
learned materials have reported similar patterns, with signifi-
cant effects for new facts about familiar items but weaker or
nonexistent effects for facts about unfamiliar items. Despite
some exceptions (e.g., Ozgungor & Guthrie, 2004), the overall
conclusion that emerges from the literature is that high-knowl-
edge learners will generally be best equipped to profit from the
elaborative-interrogation technique. The benefit for lower-
knowledge learners is less certain.
One intuitive explanation for why prior knowledge moder-
ates the effects of elaborative interrogation is that higher
knowledge permits the generation of more appropriate expla-
nations for why a fact is true. If so, one might expect final-test
performance to vary as a function of the quality of the explana-
tions generated during study. However, the evidence is mixed.
Whereas some studies have found that test performance is bet-
21. ter following adequate elaborative-interrogation responses
(i.e., those that include a precise, plausible, or accurate expla-
nation for a fact) than for inadequate responses, the differences
have often been small, and other studies have failed to find
differences (although the numerical trends are usually in the
anticipated direction). A somewhat more consistent finding is
that performance is better following an adequate response than
no response, although in this case, too, the results are some-
what mixed. More generally, the available evidence should be
interpreted with caution, given that outcomes are based on
conditional post hoc analyses that likely reflect item-selection
effects. Thus, the extent to which elaborative-interrogation
effects depend on the quality of the elaborations generated is
still an open question.
1.2c Materials. Although several studies have replicated
elaborative-interrogation effects using the relatively artificial
“man sentences” used by Pressley et al. (1987), the majority of
subsequent research has extended these effects using materials
that better represent what students are actually expected to
learn. The most commonly used materials involved sets of
facts about various familiar and unfamiliar animals (e.g., “The
Western Spotted Skunk’s hole is usually found on a sandy
piece of farmland near crops”), usually with an elaborative-
interrogation prompt following the presentation of each fact.
Other studies have extended elaborative-interrogation effects
to fact lists from other content domains, including facts
about U.S. states, German states, Canadian provinces, and
universities; possible reasons for dinosaur extinction; and
gender-specific facts about men and women. Other studies
have shown elaborative-interrogation effects for factual state-
ments about various topics (e.g., the solar system) that are nor-
matively consistent or inconsistent with learners’ prior beliefs
(e.g., Woloshyn, Paivio, & Pressley, 1994). Effects have also
been shown for facts contained in longer connected discourse,
including expository texts on animals (e.g., Seifert, 1994);
22. human digestion (B. L. Smith, Holliday, & Austin, 2010); the
neuropsychology of phantom pain (Ozgungor & Guthrie,
2004); retail, merchandising, and accounting (Dornisch &
Sperling, 2006); and various science concepts (McDaniel &
Donnelly, 1996). Thus, elaborative-interrogation effects are
relatively robust across factual material of different kinds and
with different contents. However, it is important to note that
elaborative interrogation has been applied (and may be appli-
cable) only to discrete units of factual information.
1.2d Criterion tasks. Whereas elaborative-interrogation
effects appear to be relatively robust across materials and
learners, the extensions of elaborative-interrogation effects
across measures that tap different kinds or levels of learning is
somewhat more limited. With only a few exceptions, the
majority of elaborative-interrogation studies have relied on the
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
High Knowledge Low Knowledge
23. Fi
na
l-T
es
t P
er
fo
rm
an
ce
(%
)
Elaborative Interrogation
Reading Control
Fig. 1. Mean percentage of correct responses on a final test for
learners
with high or low domain knowledge who engaged in elaborative
interroga-
tion or in reading only during learning (in Woloshyn, Pressley,
& Schneider,
1992). Standard errors are not available.
10 Dunlosky et al.
following associative-memory measures: cued recall (gener-
24. ally involving the presentation of a fact to prompt recall of the
entity for which the fact is true; e.g., “Which animal . . . ?”)
and matching (in which learners are presented with lists of
facts and entities and must match each fact with the correct
entity). Effects have also been shown on measures of fact rec-
ognition (B. L. Smith et al., 2010; Woloshyn et al., 1994;
Woloshyn & Stockley, 1995). Concerning more generative
measures, a few studies have also found elaborative-interroga-
tion effects on free-recall tests (e.g., Woloshyn & Stockley,
1995; Woloshyn et al., 1994), but other studies have not
(Dornisch & Sperling, 2006; McDaniel & Donnelly, 1996).
All of the aforementioned measures primarily reflect mem-
ory for explicitly stated information. Only three studies have
used measures tapping comprehension or application of the
factual information. All three studies reported elaborative-
interrogation effects on either multiple-choice or verification
tests that required inferences or higher-level integration
(Dornisch & Sperling, 2006; McDaniel & Donnelly, 1996;
Ozgungor & Guthrie, 2004). Ozgungor and Guthrie (2004)
also found that elaborative interrogation improved perfor-
mance on a concept-relatedness rating task (in brief, students
rated the pairwise relatedness of the key concepts from a pas-
sage, and rating coherence was assessed via Pathfinder analy-
ses); however, Dornisch and Sperling (2006) did not find
significant elaborative-interrogation effects on a problem-
solving test. In sum, whereas elaborative-interrogation effects
on associative memory have been firmly established, the
extent to which elaborative interrogation facilitates recall or
comprehension is less certain.
Of even greater concern than the limited array of measures
that have been used is the fact that few studies have examined
performance after meaningful delays. Almost all prior studies
have administered outcome measures either immediately or
within a few minutes of the learning phase. Results from the
25. few studies that have used longer retention intervals are prom-
ising. Elaborative-interrogation effects have been shown after
delays of 1–2 weeks (Scruggs et al., 1994; Woloshyn et al.,
1994), 1–2 months (Kahl & Woloshyn, 1994; Willoughby,
Waller, Wood, & MacKinnon, 1993; Woloshyn & Stockley,
1995), and even 75 and 180 days (Woloshyn et al., 1994). In
almost all of these studies, however, the delayed test was pre-
ceded by one or more criterion tests at shorter intervals, intro-
ducing the possibility that performance on the delayed test was
contaminated by the practice provided by the preceding tests.
Thus, further work is needed before any definitive conclusions
can be drawn about the extent to which elaborative interroga-
tion produces durable gains in learning.
1.3 Effects in representative educational contexts. Con-
cerning the evidence that elaborative interrogation will
enhance learning in representative educational contexts, few
studies have been conducted outside the laboratory. However,
outcomes from a recent study are suggestive (B. L. Smith
et al., 2010). Participants were undergraduates enrolled in an
introductory biology course, and the experiment was con-
ducted during class meetings in the accompanying lab section.
During one class meeting, students completed a measure of
verbal ability and a prior-knowledge test over material that
was related, but not identical, to the target material. In the fol-
lowing week, students were presented with a lengthy text on
human digestion that was taken from a chapter in the course
textbook. For half of the students, 21 elaborative interrogation
prompts were interspersed throughout the text (roughly one
prompt per 150 words), each consisting of a paraphrased state-
ment from the text followed by “Why is this true?” The
remaining students were simply instructed to study the text at
their own pace, without any prompts. All students then com-
pleted 105 true/false questions about the material (none of
which were the same as the elaborative-interrogation prompts).
26. Performance was better for the elaborative-interrogation group
than for the control group (76% versus 69%), even after con-
trolling for prior knowledge and verbal ability.
1.4 Issues for implementation. One possible merit of elabo-
rative interrogation is that it apparently requires minimal train-
ing. In the majority of studies reporting elaborative-
interrogation
effects, learners were given brief instructions and then prac-
ticed generating elaborations for 3 or 4 practice facts (some-
times, but not always, with feedback about the quality of the
elaborations) before beginning the main task. In some studies,
learners were not provided with any practice or illustrative
examples prior to the main task. Additionally, elaborative
interrogation appears to be relatively reasonable with respect
to time demands. Almost all studies set reasonable limits on
the amount of time allotted for reading a fact and for generat-
ing an elaboration (e.g., 15 seconds allotted for each fact).
In one of the few studies permitting self-paced learning, the
time-on-task difference between the elaborative-interrogation
and reading-only groups was relatively minimal (32 minutes
vs. 28 minutes; B. L. Smith et al., 2010). Finally, the consis-
tency of the prompts used across studies allows for relatively
straightforward recommendations to students about the nature
of the questions they should use to elaborate on facts during
study.
With that said, one limitation noted above concerns the
potentially narrow applicability of elaborative interrogation to
discrete factual statements. As Hamilton (1997) noted, “elabo-
rative interrogation is fairly prescribed when focusing on a list
of factual sentences. However, when focusing on more com-
plex outcomes, it is not as clear to what one should direct the
‘why’ questions” (p. 308). For example, when learning about a
complex causal process or system (e.g., the digestive system),
the appropriate grain size for elaborative interrogation is an
27. open question (e.g., should a prompt focus on an entire system
or just a smaller part of it?). Furthermore, whereas the facts to
be elaborated are clear when dealing with fact lists, elaborat-
ing on facts embedded in lengthier texts will require students
to identify their own target facts. Thus, students may need
some instruction about the kinds of content to which
Improving Student Achievement 11
elaborative interrogation may be fruitfully applied. Dosage is
also of concern with lengthier text, with some evidence sug-
gesting that elaborative-interrogation effects are substantially
diluted (Callender & McDaniel, 2007) or even reversed (Ram-
say, Sperling, & Dornisch, 2010) when elaborative-interroga-
tion prompts are administered infrequently (e.g., one prompt
every 1 or 2 pages).
1.5 Elaborative interrogation: Overall assessment. We rate
elaborative interrogation as having moderate utility. Elabora-
tive-interrogation effects have been shown across a relatively
broad range of factual topics, although some concerns remain
about the applicability of elaborative interrogation to material
that is lengthier or more complex than fact lists. Concerning
learner characteristics, effects of elaborative interrogation
have been consistently documented for learners at least as
young as upper elementary age, but some evidence suggests
that the benefits of elaborative interrogation may be limited
for learners with low levels of domain knowledge. Concerning
criterion tasks, elaborative-interrogation effects have been
firmly established on measures of associative memory admin-
istered after short delays, but firm conclusions about the extent
to which elaborative interrogation benefits comprehension or
the extent to which elaborative-interrogation effects persist
across longer delays await further research. Further research
28. demonstrating the efficacy of elaborative interrogation in rep-
resentative educational contexts would also be useful. In sum,
the need for further research to establish the generalizability of
elaborative-interrogation effects is primarily why this tech-
nique did not receive a high-utility rating.
2 Self-explanation
2.1 General description of self-explanation and why it
should work. In the seminal study on self-explanation, Berry
(1983) explored its effects on logical reasoning using the
Wason card-selection task. In this task, a student might see
four cards labeled “A,” “4,” “D,” and “3" and be asked to indi-
cate which cards must be turned over to test the rule “if a card
has A on one side, it has 3 on the other side” (an instantiation
of the more general “if P, then Q” rule). Students were first
asked to solve a concrete instantiation of the rule (e.g., flavor
of jam on one side of a jar and the sale price on the other);
accuracy was near zero. They then were provided with a mini-
mal explanation about how to solve the “if P, then Q” rule and
were given a set of concrete problems involving the use of this
and other logical rules (e.g., “if P, then not Q”). For this set of
concrete practice problems, one group of students was
prompted to self-explain while solving each problem by stat-
ing the reasons for choosing or not choosing each card.
Another group of students solved all problems in the set and
only then were asked to explain how they had gone about solv-
ing the problems. Students in a control group were not
prompted to self-explain at any point. Accuracy on the prac-
tice problems was 90% or better in all three groups. However,
when the logical rules were instantiated in a set of abstract
problems presented during a subsequent transfer test, the two
self-explanation groups substantially outperformed the control
group (see Fig. 2). In a second experiment, another control
group was explicitly told about the logical connection between
the concrete practice problems they had just solved and the
29. forthcoming abstract problems, but they fared no better (28%).
As illustrated above, the core component of self-explana-
tion involves having students explain some aspect of their pro-
cessing during learning. Consistent with basic theoretical
assumptions about the related technique of elaborative inter-
rogation, self-explanation may enhance learning by support-
ing the integration of new information with existing prior
knowledge. However, compared with the consistent prompts
used in the elaborative-interrogation literature, the prompts
used to elicit self-explanations have been much more variable
across studies. Depending on the variation of the prompt used,
the particular mechanisms underlying self-explanation effects
may differ somewhat. The key continuum along which self-
explanation prompts differ concerns the degree to which they
are content-free versus content-specific. For example, many
studies have used prompts that include no explicit mention of
particular content from the to-be-learned materials (e.g.,
“Explain what the sentence means to you. That is, what new
information does the sentence provide for you? And how does
it relate to what you already know?”). On the other end of the
continuum, many studies have used prompts that are much
more content-specific, such that different prompts are used for
0
10
20
30
40
50
31. )
Concurrent Self-Explanation
Retrospective Self-Explanation
No Self-Explanation
Fig. 2. Mean percentage of logical-reasoning problems
answered cor-
rectly for concrete practice problems and subsequently
administered ab-
stract transfer problems in Berry (1983). During a practice
phase, learners
self-explained while solving each problem, self-explained after
solving all
problems, or were not prompted to engage in self-explanation.
Standard
errors are not available.
12 Dunlosky et al.
different items (e.g., “Why do you calculate the total accept-
able outcomes by multiplying?” “Why is the numerator 14 and
the denominator 7 in this step?”). For present purposes, we
limit our review to studies that have used prompts that are
relatively content-free. Although many of the content-specific
prompts do elicit explanations, the relatively structured nature
of these prompts would require teachers to construct sets of
specific prompts to put into practice, rather than capturing a
more general technique that students could be taught to use on
their own. Furthermore, in some studies that have been situ-
ated in the self-explanation literature, the nature of the prompts
32. is functionally more closely aligned with that of practice
testing.
Even within the set of studies selected for review here, con-
siderable variability remains in the self-explanation prompts
that have been used. Furthermore, the range of tasks and mea-
sures that have been used to explore self-explanation is quite
large. Although we view this range as a strength of the litera-
ture, the variability in self-explanation prompts, tasks, and
measures does not easily support a general summative state-
ment about the mechanisms that underlie self-explanation
effects.
2.2 How general are the effects of self-explanation?
2.2a Learning conditions. Several studies have manipulated
other aspects of learning conditions in addition to self-
explanation. For example, Rittle-Johnson (2006) found that
self-explanation was effective when accompanied by either
direct instruction or discovery learning. Concerning poten-
tial moderating factors, Berry (1983) included a group who
self-explained after the completion of each problem rather
than during problem solving. Retrospective self-explanation
did enhance performance relative to no self-explanation, but
the effects were not as pronounced as with concurrent self-
explanation. Another moderating factor may concern the
extent to which provided explanations are made available to
learners. Schworm and Renkl (2006) found that self-expla-
nation effects were significantly diminished when learners
could access explanations, presumably because learners
made minimal attempts to answer the explanatory prompts
before consulting the provided information (see also Aleven
& Koedinger, 2002).
2.2b Student characteristics. Self-explanation effects have
been shown with both younger and older learners. Indeed,
33. self-explanation research has relied much less heavily on sam-
ples of college students than most other literatures have, with
at least as many studies involving younger learners as involv-
ing undergraduates. Several studies have reported self-
explanation effects with kindergartners, and other studies have
shown effects for elementary school students, middle school
students, and high school students.
In contrast to the breadth of age groups examined, the
extent to which the effects of self-explanation generalize
across different levels of prior knowledge or ability has not
been sufficiently explored. Concerning knowledge level,
several studies have used pretests to select participants with
relatively low levels of knowledge or task experience, but no
research has systematically examined self-explanation effects
as a function of knowledge level. Concerning ability level,
Chi, de Leeuw, Chiu, and LaVancher (1994) examined the
effects of self-explanation on learning from an expository text
about the circulatory system among participants in their sam-
ple who had received the highest and lowest scores on a mea-
sure of general aptitude and found gains of similar magnitude
in each group. In contrast, Didierjean and Cauzinille-Mar-
mèche (1997) examined algebra-problem solving in a sample
of ninth graders with either low or intermediate algebra skills,
and they found self-explanation effects only for lower-skill
students. Further work is needed to establish the generality of
self-explanation effects across these important idiographic
dimensions.
2.2c Materials. One of the strengths of the self-explanation
literature is that effects have been shown not only across dif-
ferent materials within a task domain but also across several
different task domains. In addition to the logical-reasoning
problems used by Berry (1983), self-explanation has been
shown to support the solving of other kinds of logic puzzles.
34. Self-explanation has also been shown to facilitate the solving
of various kinds of math problems, including simple addition
problems for kindergartners, mathematical-equivalence prob-
lems for elementary-age students, and algebraic formulas and
geometric theorems for older learners. In addition to improv-
ing problem solving, self-explanation improved student teach-
ers’ evaluation of the goodness of practice problems for use
in classroom instruction. Self-explanation has also helped
younger learners overcome various kinds of misconceptions,
improving children’s understanding of false belief (i.e., that
individuals can have a belief that is different from reality),
number conservation (i.e., that the number of objects in
an array does not change when the positions of those objects
in the array change), and principles of balance (e.g., that not
all objects balance on a fulcrum at their center point). Self-
explanation has improved children’s pattern learning and
adults’ learning of endgame strategies in chess. Although most
of the research on self-explanation has involved procedural or
problem-solving tasks, several studies have also shown self-
explanation effects for learning from text, including both short
narratives and lengthier expository texts. Thus, self-explana-
tion appears to be broadly applicable.
2.2d Criterion tasks. Given the range of tasks and domains in
which self-explanation has been investigated, it is perhaps not
surprising that self-explanation effects have been shown on a
wide range of criterion measures. Some studies have shown
self-explanation effects on standard measures of memory,
including free recall, cued recall, fill-in-the-blank tests, asso-
ciative matching, and multiple-choice tests tapping explicitly
stated information. Studies involving text learning have also
shown effects on measures of comprehension, including dia-
gram-drawing tasks, application-based questions, and tasks in
which learners must make inferences on the basis of
35. Improving Student Achievement 13
information implied but not explicitly stated in a text. Across
those studies involving some form of problem-solving task,
virtually every study has shown self-explanation effects on
near-transfer tests in which students are asked to solve prob-
lems that have the same structure as, but are nonidentical to,
the practice problems. Additionally, self-explanation effects
on far-transfer tests (in which students are asked to solve prob-
lems that differ from practice problems not only in their sur-
face features but also in one or more structural aspects) have
been shown for the solving of math problems and pattern
learning. Thus, self-explanation facilitates an impressive range
of learning outcomes.
In contrast, the durability of self-explanation effects is woe-
fully underexplored. Almost every study to date has adminis-
tered criterion tests within minutes of completion of the
learning phase. Only five studies have used longer retention
intervals. Self-explanation effects persisted across 1–2 day
delays for playing chess endgames (de Bruin, Rikers, &
Schmidt, 2007) and for retention of short narratives (Magliano,
Trabasso, & Graesser, 1999). Self-explanation effects per-
sisted across a 1-week delay for the learning of geometric
theorems (although an additional study session intervened
between initial learning and the final test; R. M. F. Wong,
Lawson, & Keeves, 2002) and for learning from a text on the
circulatory system (although the final test was an open-book
test; Chi et al., 1994). Finally, Rittle-Johnson (2006) reported
significant effects on performance in solving math problems
after a 2-week delay; however, the participants in this study
also completed an immediate test, thus introducing the possi-
bility that testing effects influenced performance on the
delayed test. Taken together, the outcomes of these few studies
are promising, but considerably more research is needed
36. before confident conclusions can be made about the longevity
of self-explanation effects.
2.3 Effects in representative educational contexts. Con-
cerning the strength of the evidence that self-explanation will
enhance learning in educational contexts, outcomes from two
studies in which participants were asked to learn course-
relevant
content are at least suggestive. In a study by Schworm and
Renkl (2006), students in a teacher-education program learned
how to develop example problems to use in their classrooms
by studying samples of well-designed and poorly designed
example problems in a computer program. On each trial, stu-
dents in a self-explanation group were prompted to explain
why one of two examples was more effective than the other,
whereas students in a control group were not prompted to self-
explain. Half of the participants in each group were also given
the option to examine experimenter-provided explanations on
each trial. On an immediate test in which participants selected
and developed example problems, the self-explanation group
outperformed the control group. However, this effect was lim-
ited to students who had not been able to view provided expla-
nations, presumably because students made minimal attempts
to self-explain before consulting the provided information.
R. M. F. Wong et al. (2002) presented ninth-grade students
in a geometry class with a theorem from the course textbook
that had not yet been studied in class. During the initial learn-
ing session, students were asked to think aloud while studying
the relevant material (including the theorem, an illustration of
its proof, and an example of an application of the theorem to a
problem). Half of the students were specifically prompted to
self-explain after every 1 or 2 lines of new information (e.g.,
“What parts of this page are new to me? What does the state-
ment mean? Is there anything I still don’t understand?”),
whereas students in a control group received nonspecific
37. instructions that simply prompted them to think aloud during
study. The following week, all students received a basic review
of the theorem and completed the final test the next day. Self-
explanation did not improve performance on near-transfer
questions but did improve performance on far-transfer
questions.
2.4 Issues for implementation. As noted above, a particular
strength of the self-explanation strategy is its broad applicabil-
ity across a range of tasks and content domains. Furthermore,
in almost all of the studies reporting significant effects of self-
explanation, participants were provided with minimal instruc-
tions and little to no practice with self-explanation prior to
completing the experimental task. Thus, most students appar-
ently can profit from self-explanation with minimal training.
However, some students may require more instruction to
successfully implement self-explanation. In a study by Didier-
jean and Cauzinille-Marmèche (1997), ninth graders with
poor algebra skills received minimal training prior to engaging
in self-explanation while solving algebra problems; analysis
of think-aloud protocols revealed that students produced many
more paraphrases than explanations. Several studies have
reported positive correlations between final-test performance
and both the quantity and quality of explanations generated by
students during learning, further suggesting that the benefit of
self-explanation might be enhanced by teaching students how
to effectively implement the self-explanation technique (for
examples of training methods, see Ainsworth & Burcham,
2007; R. M. F. Wong et al., 2002). However, in at least some
of these studies, students who produced more or better-quality
self-explanations may have had greater domain knowledge; if
so, then further training with the technique may not have ben-
efited the more poorly performing students. Investigating the
contribution of these factors (skill at self-explanation vs.
domain knowledge) to the efficacy of self-explanation will
38. have important implications for how and when to use this
technique.
An outstanding issue concerns the time demands associated
with self-explanation and the extent to which self-explanation
effects may have been due to increased time on task. Unfortu-
nately, few studies equated time on task when comparing self-
explanation conditions to control conditions involving other
strategies or activities, and most studies involving self-paced
practice did not report participants’ time on task. In the few
14 Dunlosky et al.
studies reporting time on task, self-paced administration usu-
ally yielded nontrivial increases (30–100%) in the amount of
time spent learning in the self-explanation condition relative
to other conditions, a result that is perhaps not surprising,
given the high dosage levels at which self-explanation was
implemented. For example, Chi et al. (1994) prompted learn-
ers to self-explain after reading each sentence of an expository
text, which doubled the amount of time the group spent study-
ing the text relative to a rereading control group (125 vs. 66
minutes, respectively). With that said, Schworm and Renkl
(2006) reported that time on task was not correlated with per-
formance across groups, and Ainsworth and Burcham (2007)
reported that controlling for study time did not eliminate
effects of self-explanation.
Within the small number of studies in which time on
task was equated, results were somewhat mixed. Three studies
equating time on task reported significant effects of self-
explanation (de Bruin et al., 2007; de Koning, Tabbers, Rikers,
& Paas, 2011; O’Reilly, Symons, & MacLatchy-Gaudet,
1998). In contrast, Matthews and Rittle-Johnson (2009) had
39. one group of third through fifth graders practice solving math
problems with self-explanation and a control group solve
twice as many practice problems without self-explanation; the
two groups performed similarly on a final test. Clearly, further
research is needed to establish the bang for the buck provided
by self-explanation before strong prescriptive conclusions can
be made.
2.5 Self-explanation: Overall assessment. We rate self-
explanation as having moderate utility. A major strength of
this technique is that its effects have been shown across differ-
ent content materials within task domains as well as across
several different task domains. Self-explanation effects have
also been shown across an impressive age range, although fur-
ther work is needed to explore the extent to which these effects
depend on learners’ knowledge or ability level. Self-explana-
tion effects have also been shown across an impressive range
of learning outcomes, including various measures of memory,
comprehension, and transfer. In contrast, further research is
needed to establish the durability of these effects across educa-
tionally relevant delays and to establish the efficacy of self-
explanation in representative educational contexts. Although
most research has shown effects of self-explanation with mini-
mal training, some results have suggested that effects may be
enhanced if students are taught how to effectively implement
the self-explanation strategy. One final concern has to do with
the nontrivial time demands associated with self-explanation,
at least at the dosages examined in most of the research that
has shown effects of this strategy.
3 Summarization
Students often have to learn large amounts of information,
which requires them to identify what is important and how dif-
ferent ideas connect to one another. One popular technique for
accomplishing these goals involves having students write
40. summaries of to-be-learned texts. Successful summaries iden-
tify the main points of a text and capture the gist of it while
excluding unimportant or repetitive material (A. L. Brown,
Campione, & Day, 1981). Although learning to construct
accurate summaries is often an instructional goal in its own
right (e.g., Wade-Stein & Kintsch, 2004), our interest here
concerns whether doing so will boost students’ performance
on later criterion tests that cover the target material.
3.1 General description of summarization and why it
should work. As an introduction to the issues relevant to sum-
marization, we begin with a description of a prototypical
experiment. Bretzing and Kulhavy (1979) had high school
juniors and seniors study a 2,000-word text about a fictitious
tribe of people. Students were assigned to one of five learning
conditions and given up to 30 minutes to study the text. After
reading each page, students in a summarization group were
instructed to write three lines of text that summarized the main
points from that page. Students in a note-taking group received
similar instructions, except that they were told to take up to
three lines of notes on each page of text while reading. Stu-
dents in a verbatim-copying group were instructed to locate
and copy the three most important lines on each page. Students
in a letter-search group copied all the capitalized words in the
text, also filling up three lines. Finally, students in a control
group simply read the text without recording anything. (A sub-
set of students from the four conditions involving writing were
allowed to review what they had written, but for present pur-
poses we will focus on the students who did not get a chance to
review before the final test.) Students were tested either shortly
after learning or 1 week later, answering 25 questions that
required them to connect information from across the text. On
both the immediate and delayed tests, students in the summari-
zation and note-taking groups performed best, followed by the
students in the verbatim-copying and control groups, with the
worst performance in the letter-search group (see Fig. 3).
41. Bretzing and Kulhavy’s (1979) results fit nicely with the
claim that summarization boosts learning and retention
because it involves attending to and extracting the higher-level
meaning and gist of the material. The conditions in the experi-
ment were specifically designed to manipulate how much stu-
dents processed the texts for meaning, with the letter-search
condition involving shallow processing of the text that did not
require learners to extract its meaning (Craik & Lockhart,
1972). Summarization was more beneficial than that shallow
task and yielded benefits similar to those of note-taking,
another task known to boost learning (e.g., Bretzing & Kul-
havy, 1981; Crawford, 1925a, 1925b; Di Vesta & Gray, 1972).
More than just facilitating the extraction of meaning, however,
summarization should also boost organizational processing,
given that extracting the gist of a text requires learners to
connect disparate pieces of the text, as opposed to simply
evaluating its individual components (similar to the way in
which note-taking affords organizational processing; Einstein,
Improving Student Achievement 15
Morris, & Smith, 1985). One last point should be made about
the results from Bretzing and Kulhavy (1979)—namely, that
summarization and note-taking were both more beneficial
than was verbatim copying. Students in the verbatim-copying
group still had to locate the most important information in the
text, but they did not synthesize it into a summary or rephrase
it in their notes. Thus, writing about the important points in
one’s own words produced a benefit over and above that of
selecting important information; students benefited from the
more active processing involved in summarization and note-
taking (see Wittrock, 1990, and Chi, 2009, for reviews of
active/generative learning). These explanations all suggest
42. that summarization helps students identify and organize the
main ideas within a text.
So how strong is the evidence that summarization is a ben-
eficial learning strategy? One reason this question is difficult
to answer is that the summarization strategy has been imple-
mented in many different ways across studies, making it diffi-
cult to draw general conclusions about its efficacy. Pressley
and colleagues described the situation well when they noted
that “summarization is not one strategy but a family of strate-
gies” (Pressley, Johnson, Symons, McGoldrick, & Kurita,
1989, p. 5). Depending on the particular instructions given, stu-
dents’ summaries might consist of single words, sentences, or
longer paragraphs; be limited in length or not; capture an entire
text or only a portion of it; be written or spoken aloud; or be
produced from memory or with the text present.
A lot of research has involved summarization in some form,
yet whereas some evidence demonstrates that summarization
works (e.g., L. W. Brooks, Dansereau, Holley, & Spurlin,
1983; Doctorow, Wittrock, & Marks, 1978), T. H. Anderson
and Armbruster’s (1984) conclusion that “research in support
of summarizing as a studying activity is sparse indeed”
(p. 670) is not outmoded. Instead of focusing on discovering
when (and how) summarization works, by itself and without
training, researchers have tended to explore how to train stu-
dents to write better summaries (e.g., Friend, 2001; Hare &
Borchardt, 1984) or to examine other benefits of training the
skill of summarization. Still others have simply assumed that
summarization works, including it as a component in larger
interventions (e.g., Carr, Bigler, & Morningstar, 1991; Lee,
Lim, & Grabowski, 2010; Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Spörer,
Brunstein, & Kieschke, 2009). When collapsing across find-
ings pertaining to all forms of summarization, summarization
appears to benefit students, but the evidence for any one
instantiation of the strategy is less compelling.
43. The focus on training students to summarize reflects the
belief that the quality of summaries matters. If a summary does
not emphasize the main points of a text, or if it includes incor-
rect information, why would it be expected to benefit learning
and retention? Consider a study by Bednall and Kehoe (2011,
Experiment 2), in which undergraduates studied six Web units
that explained different logical fallacies and provided examples
of each. Of interest for present purposes are two groups: a con-
trol group who simply read the units and a group in which stu-
dents were asked to summarize the material as if they were
explaining it to a friend. Both groups received the following
tests: a multiple-choice quiz that tested information directly
stated in the Web unit; a short-answer test in which, for each of
a list of presented statements, students were required to name
the specific fallacy that had been committed or write “not a fal-
lacy” if one had not occurred; and, finally, an application test
that required students to write explanations of logical fallacies
in examples that had been studied (near transfer) as well as
explanations of fallacies in novel examples (far transfer). Sum-
marization did not benefit overall performance, but the
research-
ers noticed that the summaries varied a lot in content; for one
studied fallacy, only 64% of the summaries included the correct
definition. Table 3 shows the relationships between summary
content and later performance. Higher-quality summaries that
contained more information and that were linked to prior knowl-
edge were associated with better performance.
Several other studies have supported the claim that the
quality of summaries has consequences for later performance.
Most similar to the Bednall and Kehoe (2011) result is Ross
and Di Vesta’s (1976) finding that the length (in words) of an
oral summary (a very rough indicator of quality) correlated
with later performance on multiple-choice and short-answer
questions. Similarly, Dyer, Riley, and Yekovich (1979) found
44. that final-test questions were more likely to be answered cor-
rectly if the information needed to answer them had been
included in an earlier summary. Garner (1982) used a different
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Immediate Test Delayed Test
Nu
m
be
r C
or
re
ct
(o
45. ut
o
f 2
5)
Summarization
Note-Taking
Verbatim
Letter Search
Control
Fig. 3. Mean number of correct responses on a test occurring
shortly
after study as a function of test type (immediate or delayed) and
learning
condition in Bretzing and Kulhavy (1979). Error bars represent
standard
errors.
16 Dunlosky et al.
method to show that the quality of summaries matters: Under-
graduates read a passage on Dutch elm disease and then wrote
a summary at the bottom of the page. Five days later, the stu-
dents took an old/new recognition test; critical items were new
statements that captured the gist of the passage (as in Brans-
ford & Franks, 1971). Students who wrote better summaries
(i.e., summaries that captured more important information)
were more likely to falsely recognize these gist statements, a
46. pattern suggesting that the students had extracted a higher-
level understanding of the main ideas of the text.
3.2 How general are the effects of summarization?
3.2a Learning conditions. As noted already, many different
types of summaries can influence learning and retention; sum-
marization can be simple, requiring the generation of only a
heading (e.g., L. W. Brooks et al., 1983) or a single sentence
per paragraph of a text (e.g., Doctorow et al., 1978), or it can be
as complicated as an oral presentation on an entire set of stud-
ied material (e.g., Ross & Di Vesta, 1976). Whether it is better
to summarize smaller pieces of a text (more frequent summari-
zation) or to capture more of the text in a larger summary (less
frequent summarization) has been debated (Foos, 1995; Spur-
lin, Dansereau, O’Donnell, & Brooks, 1988). The debate
remains unresolved, perhaps because what constitutes the most
effective summary for a text likely depends on many factors
(including students’ ability and the nature of the material).
One other open question involves whether studied material
should be present during summarization. Hidi and Anderson
(1986) pointed out that having the text present might help the
reader to succeed at identifying its most important points as
well as relating parts of the text to one another. However, sum-
marizing a text without having it present involves retrieval,
which is known to benefit memory (see the Practice Testing
section of this monograph), and also prevents the learner from
engaging in verbatim copying. The Dyer et al. (1979) study
described earlier involved summarizing without the text pres-
ent; in this study, no overall benefit from summarizing
occurred, even though information that had been included in
summaries was benefited (overall, this benefit was overshad-
owed by costs to the greater amount of information that had
not been included in summaries). More generally, some stud-
47. ies have shown benefits from summarizing an absent text
(e.g., Ross & Di Vesta, 1976), but some have not (e.g., M. C.
M. Anderson & Thiede, 2008, and Thiede & Anderson, 2003,
found no benefits of summarization on test performance). The
answer to whether studied text should be present during sum-
marization is most likely a complicated one, and it may depend
on people’s ability to summarize when the text is absent.
3.2b Student characteristics. Benefits of summarization have
primarily been observed with undergraduates. Most of the
research on individual differences has focused on the age of
students, because the ability to summarize develops with age.
Younger students struggle to identify main ideas and tend to
write lower-quality summaries that retain more of the original
wording and structure of a text (e.g., A. L. Brown & Day,
1983; A. L. Brown, Day, & Jones, 1983). However, younger
students (e.g., middle school students) can benefit from sum-
marization following extensive training (e.g., Armbruster,
Anderson, & Ostertag, 1987; Bean & Steenwyk, 1984). For
example, consider a successful program for sixth-grade stu-
dents (Rinehart, Stahl, & Erickson, 1986). Teachers received
90 minutes of training so that they could implement summari-
zation training in their classrooms; students then completed
five 45- to 50-minute sessions of training. The training
reflected principles of direct instruction, meaning that students
were explicitly taught about the strategy, saw it modeled, prac-
ticed it and received feedback, and eventually learned to moni-
tor and check their work. Students who had received the
training recalled more major information from a textbook
chapter (i.e., information identified by teachers as the most
important for students to know) than did students who had not,
and this benefit was linked to improvements in note-taking.
Similar training programs have succeeded with middle school
students who are learning disabled (e.g., Gajria & Salvia,
1992; Malone & Mastropieri, 1991), minority high school stu-
dents (Hare & Borchardt, 1984), and underprepared college
48. students (A. King, 1992).
Outcomes of two other studies have implications for the
generality of the summarization strategy, as they involve indi-
vidual differences in summarization skill (a prerequisite for
Table 3. Correlations between Measures of Summary Quality
and Later Test Performance (from
Bednall & Kehoe, 2011, Experiment 2)
Test
Measure of summary quality
Multiple-choice test
(factual knowledge)
Short-answer test
(identification) Application test
Number of correct definitions .42* .43* .52*
Amount of extra information .31* .21* .40*
Note. Asterisks indicate correlations significantly greater than
0. “Amount of extra information” refers to the
number of summaries in which a student included information
that had not been provided in the studied mate-
rial (e.g., an extra example).
Improving Student Achievement 17
using the strategy). First, both general writing skill and interest
in a topic have been linked to summarization ability in seventh
graders (Head, Readence, & Buss, 1989). Writing skill was
measured via performance on an unrelated essay, and interest
49. in the topic (American history) was measured via a survey that
asked students how much they would like to learn about each
of 25 topics. Of course, interest may be confounded with
knowledge about a topic, and knowledge may also contribute
to summarization skill. Recht and Leslie (1988) showed that
seventh- and eighth-grade students who knew a lot about base-
ball (as measured by a pretest) were better at summarizing a
625-word passage about a baseball game than were students
who knew less about baseball. This finding needs to be repli-
cated with different materials, but it seems plausible that stu-
dents with more domain-relevant knowledge would be better
able to identify the main points of a text and extract its gist.
The question is whether domain experts would benefit from
the summarization strategy or whether it would be redundant
with the processing in which these students would spontane-
ously engage.
3.2c Materials. The majority of studies have used prose pas-
sages on such diverse topics as a fictitious primitive tribe, des-
ert life, geology, the blue shark, an earthquake in Lisbon, the
history of Switzerland, and fictional stories. These passages
have ranged in length from a few hundred words to a few thou-
sand words. Other materials have included Web modules and
lectures. For the most part, characteristics of materials have
not been systematically manipulated, which makes it difficult
to draw strong conclusions about this factor, even though 15
years have passed since Hidi and Anderson (1986) made an
argument for its probable importance. As discussed in Yu
(2009), it makes sense that the length, readability, and organi-
zation of a text might all influence a reader’s ability to sum-
marize it, but these factors need to be investigated in studies
that manipulate them while holding all other factors constant
(as opposed to comparing texts that vary along multiple
dimensions).
3.2d Criterion tasks. The majority of summarization studies
50. have examined the effects of summarization on either reten-
tion of factual details or comprehension of a text (often requir-
ing inferences) through performance on multiple-choice
questions, cued recall questions, or free recall. Other benefits
of summarization include enhanced metacognition (with text-
absent summarization improving the extent to which readers
can accurately evaluate what they do or do not know; M. C. M.
Anderson & Thiede, 2008; Thiede & Anderson, 2003) and
improved note-taking following training (A. King, 1992;
Rinehart et al., 1986).
Whereas several studies have shown benefits of summari-
zation (sometimes following training) on measures of applica-
tion (e.g., B. Y. L. Wong, Wong, Perry, & Sawatsky, 1986),
others have failed to find such benefits. For example, consider
a study in which L. F. Annis (1985) had undergraduates read a
passage on an earthquake and then examined the consequences
of summarization for performance on questions designed to
tap different categories of learning within Bloom et al.’s
(1956) taxonomy. One week after learning, students who had
summarized performed no differently than students in a con-
trol group who had only read the passages in answering ques-
tions that tapped a basic level of knowledge (fact and
comprehension questions). Students benefited from summari-
zation when the questions required the application or analysis
of knowledge, but summarization led to worse performance on
evaluation and synthesis questions. These results need to be
replicated, but they highlight the need to assess the conse-
quences of summarization on the performance of tasks that
measure various levels of Bloom’s taxonomy.
Across studies, results have also indicated that summariza-
tion helps later performance on generative measures (e.g., free
recall, essays) more than it affects performance on multiple-
choice or other measures that do not require the student to pro-
51. duce information (e.g., Bednall & Kehoe, 2011; L. W. Brooks
et al., 1983; J. R. King, Biggs, & Lipsky, 1984). Because sum-
marizing requires production, the processing involved is likely
a better match to generative tests than to tests that depend on
recognition.
Unfortunately, the one study we found that used a high-
stakes test did not show a benefit from summarization training
(Brozo, Stahl, & Gordon, 1985). Of interest for present pur-
poses were two groups in the study, which was conducted with
college students in a remedial reading course who received
training either in summarization or in self-questioning (in the
self-questioning condition, students learned to write multiple-
choice comprehension questions). Training lasted for 4 weeks;
each week, students received approximately 4 to 5 hours of
instruction and practice that involved applying the techniques
to 1-page news articles. Of interest was the students’ perfor-
mance on the Georgia State Regents’ examination, which
involves answering multiple-choice reading-comprehension
questions about passages; passing this exam is a graduation
requirement for many college students in the University Sys-
tem of Georgia (see http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwrtp/). Students
also took a practice test before taking the actual Regents’ exam.
Unfortunately, the mean scores for both groups were at or
below passing, for both the practice and actual exams. How-
ever, the self-questioning group performed better than the sum-
marization group on both the practice test and the actual
Regents’ examination. This study did not report pretraining
scores and did not include a no-training control group, so some
caution is warranted in interpreting the results. However, it
emphasizes the need to establish that outcomes from basic lab-
oratory work generalize to actual educational contexts and sug-
gests that summarization may not have the same influence in
both contexts.
Finally, concerning test delays, several studies have indi-
52. cated that when summarization does boost performance, its
effects are relatively robust over delays of days or weeks (e.g.,
Bretzing & Kulhavy, 1979; B. L. Stein & Kirby, 1992). Simi-
larly, benefits of training programs have persisted several
weeks after the end of training (e.g., Hare & Borchardt, 1984).
18 Dunlosky et al.
3.3 Effects in representative educational contexts. Sev-
eral of the large summarization-training studies have been
conducted in regular classrooms, indicating the feasibility of
doing so. For example, the study by A. King (1992) took place
in the context of a remedial study-skills course for undergrad-
uates, and the study by Rinehart et al. (1986) took place in
sixth-grade classrooms, with the instruction led by students’
regular teachers. In these and other cases, students benefited
from the classroom training. We suspect it may actually be
more feasible to conduct these kinds of training studies in
classrooms than in the laboratory, given the nature of the time
commitment for students. Even some of the studies that did
not involve training were conducted outside the laboratory; for
example, in the Bednall and Kehoe (2011) study on learning
about logical fallacies from Web modules (see data in Table 3),
the modules were actually completed as a homework assign-
ment. Overall, benefits can be observed in classroom settings;
the real constraint is whether students have the skill to suc-
cessfully summarize, not whether summarization occurs in the
lab or the classroom.
3.4 Issues for implementation. Summarization would be
feasible for undergraduates or other learners who already
know how to summarize. For these students, summarization
would constitute an easy-to-implement technique that would
not take a lot of time to complete or understand. The only
53. concern would be whether these students might be better
served by some other strategy, but certainly summarization
would be better than the study strategies students typically
favor, such as highlighting and rereading (as we discuss in the
sections on those strategies below). A trickier issue would
concern implementing the strategy with students who are not
skilled summarizers. Relatively intensive training programs
are required for middle school students or learners with learn-
ing disabilities to benefit from summarization. Such efforts
are not misplaced; training has been shown to benefit perfor-
mance on a range of measures, although the training proce-
dures do raise practical issues (e.g., Gajria & Salvia, 1992:
6.5–11 hours of training used for sixth through ninth graders
with learning disabilities; Malone & Mastropieri, 1991: 2
days of training used for middle school students with learning
disabilities; Rinehart et al., 1986: 45–50 minutes of instruc-
tion per day for 5 days used for sixth graders). Of course,
instructors may want students to summarize material because
summarization itself is a goal, not because they plan to use
summarization as a study technique, and that goal may merit
the efforts of training.
However, if the goal is to use summarization as a study
technique, our question is whether training students would be
worth the amount of time it would take, both in terms of the
time required on the part of the instructor and in terms of the
time taken away from students’ other activities. For instance,
in terms of efficacy, summarization tends to fall in the middle
of the pack when compared to other techniques. In direct
comparisons, it was sometimes more useful than rereading
(Rewey, Dansereau, & Peel, 1991) and was as useful as note-
taking (e.g., Bretzing & Kulhavy, 1979) but was less powerful
than generating explanations (e.g., Bednall & Kehoe, 2011) or
self-questioning (A. King, 1992).
54. 3.5 Summarization: Overall assessment. On the basis of the
available evidence, we rate summarization as low utility. It can
be an effective learning strategy for learners who are already
skilled at summarizing; however, many learners (including
children, high school students, and even some undergraduates)
will require extensive training, which makes this strategy less
feasible. Our enthusiasm is further dampened by mixed find-
ings regarding which tasks summarization actually helps.
Although summarization has been examined with a wide
range of text materials, many researchers have pointed to fac-
tors of these texts that seem likely to moderate the effects of
summarization (e.g., length), and future research should be
aimed at investigating such factors. Finally, although many
studies have examined summarization training in the class-
room, what are lacking are classroom studies examining the
effectiveness of summarization as a technique that boosts stu-
dents’ learning, comprehension, and retention of course
content.
4 Highlighting and underlining
Any educator who has examined students’ course materials is
familiar with the sight of a marked-up, multicolored textbook.
More systematic evaluations of actual textbooks and other stu-
dent materials have supported the claim that highlighting and
underlining are common behaviors (e.g., Bell & Limber, 2010;
Lonka, Lindblom-Ylänne, & Maury, 1994; Nist & Kirby,
1989). When students themselves are asked about what they
do when studying, they commonly report underlining, high-
lighting, or otherwise marking material as they try to learn it
(e.g., Cioffi, 1986; Gurung, Weidert, & Jeske, 2010). We treat
these techniques as equivalent, given that, conceptually, they
should work the same way (and at least one study found no
differences between them; Fowler & Barker, 1974, Experi-
ment 2). The techniques typically appeal to students because
they are simple to use, do not entail training, and do not require
students to invest much time beyond what is already required
55. for reading the material. The question we ask here is, will a
technique that is so easy to use actually help students learn? To
understand any benefits specific to highlighting and underlin-
ing (for brevity, henceforth referred to as highlighting), we do
not consider studies in which active marking of text was paired
with other common techniques, such as note-taking (e.g.,
Arnold, 1942; L. B. Brown & Smiley, 1978; Mathews, 1938).
Although many students report combining multiple techniques
(e.g., L. Annis & Davis, 1978; Wade, Trathen, & Schraw,
1990), each technique must be evaluated independently to dis-
cover which ones are crucial for success.
Improving Student Achievement 19
4.1 General description of highlighting and underlining
and why they should work. As an introduction to the rele-
vant issues, we begin with a description of a prototypical
experiment. Fowler and Barker (1974, Exp. 1) had undergrad-
uates read articles (totaling about 8,000 words) about boredom
and city life from Scientific American and Science. Students
were assigned to one of three groups: a control group, in which
they only read the articles; an active-highlighting group, in
which they were free to highlight as much of the texts as they
wanted; or a passive-highlighting group, in which they read
marked texts that had been highlighted by yoked participants
in the active-highlighting group. Everyone received 1 hour to
study the texts (time on task was equated across groups); stu-
dents in the active-highlighting condition were told to mark
particularly important material. All subjects returned to the lab
1 week later and were allowed to review their original materi-
als for 10 minutes before taking a 54-item multiple-choice
test. Overall, the highlighting groups did not outperform the
control group on the final test, a result that has unfortunately
been echoed in much of the literature (e.g., Hoon, 1974; Idstein
56. & Jenkins, 1972; Stordahl & Christensen, 1956).
However, results from more detailed analyses of perfor-
mance in the two highlighting groups are informative about
what effects highlighting might have on cognitive processing.
First, within the active-highlighting group, performance was
better on test items for which the relevant text had been high-
lighted (see Blanchard & Mikkelson, 1987; L. L. Johnson,
1988 for similar results). Second, this benefit to highlighted
information was greater for the active highlighters (who
selected what to highlight) than for passive highlighters (who
saw the same information highlighted, but did not select it).
Third, this benefit to highlighted information was accompa-
nied by a small cost on test questions probing information that
had not been highlighted.
To explain such findings, researchers often point to a basic
cognitive phenomenon known as the isolation effect, whereby
a semantically or phonologically unique item in a list is much
better remembered than its less distinctive counterparts (see
Hunt, 1995, for a description of this work). For instance, if
students are studying a list of categorically related words (e.g.,
“desk,” “bed,” “chair,” “table”) and a word from a different
category (e.g., “cow”) is presented, the students will later be
more likely to recall it than they would if it had been studied in
a list of categorically related words (e.g., “goat,” “pig,”
“horse,” “chicken”). The analogy to highlighting is that a
highlighted, underlined, or capitalized sentence will “pop out”
of the text in the same way that the word “cow” would if it
were isolated in a list of words for types of furniture. Consis-
tent with this expectation, a number of studies have shown that
reading marked text promotes later memory for the marked
material: Students are more likely to remember things that the
experimenter highlighted or underlined in the text (e.g.,
Cashen & Leicht, 1970; Crouse & Idstein, 1972; Hartley,
Bartlett, & Branthwaite, 1980; Klare, Mabry, & Gustafson,
57. 1955; see Lorch, 1989 for a review).
Actively selecting information should benefit memory
more than simply reading marked text (given that the former
would capitalize on the benefits of generation, Slamecka &
Graf, 1978, and active processing more generally, Faw &
Waller, 1976). Marked text draws the reader’s attention, but
additional processing should be required if the reader has to
decide which material is most important. Such decisions
require the reader to think about the meaning of the text and
how its different pieces relate to one another (i.e., organiza-
tional processing; Hunt & Worthen, 2006). In the Fowler and
Barker (1974) experiment, this benefit was reflected in the
greater advantage for highlighted information among active
highlighters than among passive recipients of the same high-
lighted text. However, active highlighting is not always better
than receiving material that has already been highlighted by an
experimenter (e.g., Nist & Hogrebe, 1987), probably because
experimenters will usually be better than students at highlight-
ing the most important parts of a text.
More generally, the quality of the highlighting is likely cru-
cial to whether it helps students to learn (e.g., Wollen, Cone,
Britcher, & Mindemann, 1985), but unfortunately, many stud-
ies have not contained any measure of the amount or the
appropriateness of students’ highlighting. Those studies that
have examined the amount of marked text have found great
variability in what students actually mark, with some students
marking almost nothing and others marking almost everything
(e.g., Idstein & Jenkins, 1972). Some intriguing data came
from the active-highlighting group in Fowler and Barker
(1974). Test performance was negatively correlated (r = –.29)
with the amount of text that had been highlighted in the active-
highlighting group, although this result was not significant
given the small sample size (n = 19).
58. Marking too much text is likely to have multiple conse-
quences. First, overmarking reduces the degree to which
marked text is distinguished from other text, and people are
less likely to remember marked text if it is not distinctive
(Lorch, Lorch, & Klusewitz, 1995). Second, it likely takes less
processing to mark a lot of text than to single out the most
important details. Consistent with this latter idea, benefits of
marking text may be more likely to be observed when experi-
menters impose explicit limits on the amount of text students
are allowed to mark. For example, Rickards and August (1975)
found that students limited to underlining a single sentence per
paragraph later recalled more of a science text than did a no-
underlining control group. Similarly, L. L. Johnson (1988)
found that marking one sentence per paragraph helped college
students in a reading class to remember the underlined infor-
mation, although it did not translate into an overall benefit.
4.2 How general are the effects of highlighting and under-
lining? We have outlined hypothetical mechanisms by which
highlighting might aid memory, and particular features of
highlighting that would be necessary for these mechanisms to
be effective (e.g., highlighting only important material). How-
ever, most studies have shown no benefit of highlighting (as it
20 Dunlosky et al.
is typically used) over and above the benefit of simply reading,
and thus the question concerning the generality of the benefits
of highlighting is largely moot. Because the research on high-
lighting has not been particularly encouraging, few investiga-
tions have systematically evaluated the factors that might
moderate the effectiveness of the technique—for instance, we
could not include a Learning Conditions (4.2a) subsection
below, given the lack of relevant evidence. To the extent the