The document provides an overview of forensic odontology and methods for gender determination. It discusses how forensic odontology assists in legal and criminal investigations through dental identification. It outlines various clinical, histological, and radiological methods for determining gender, such as through measurements of teeth and bones, analysis of the amelogenin gene and Barr bodies in dental pulp, and use of the SRY gene. Recent methods discussed include the mandibular canine index, discriminant canine index, maxillary molar arch width, and observing preservation of Barr bodies in pulp up to temperatures of 400°C.

1. Presentation by
DR.B.SIRISHA
1

2. CONTENTS:
 INTRODUCTION
 FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
 IMPORTANCE OF GENDER DETERMINATION
 VARIOUS METHODS FOR GENDER DETERMINATION
 RECENT METHODS
 CONCLUSION
2

3.  Forensic odontology or forensic dentistry is one of the most unexplored and intriguing
branches of forensic sciences.
 It primarily deals with the identification, based on the recognition of unique features
present in an individual’s dental structures.
 Forensic dentistry plays a significant role in the identification in manmade or natural
disasters and many other events that result in multiple fatalities that may not be able
identifiable through conventional methods such as fingerprints.
Rajendran R, Sivapathasundharam B, editors. Shafer’s Textbook of Oral Pathology. 7th ed. New
Delhi: Elsevier; 2012.
3

4.  The theory behind forensic dentistry is “no two mouths are alike.” Forensic dentistry or
forensic odontology involves dentists’ participation in assisting legal and criminal issues
and in the identification of human.
 It refers to the proper handling, examination and evaluation of dental evidence, which will
be then presented in the interest of justice.
4

5.  Forensic identification by its nature is a multidisciplinary team effort relying on
positive identification methodologies as well as the presumption or exclusionary
methodologies.
 In general, this effort involves the cooperation and coordination of law enforcement
officials, forensic pathologists, forensic odontologists, forensic anthropologists,
serologists, criminalistics, and other specialists as deemed necessary.
 The scope of forensic dentistry is broad and ever-challenging. Each case is different
and even the seemingly routine case may test the dentist’s ingenuity in applying his
dental knowledge.
Pretty IA, Sweet D. A look at forensic dentistry — Part 1: The role of teeth in the determination of
human identity. Br Dent J 2001;190:359-66.
5

6. IMPORTANCE OF SEX DETERMINATION:
 The main attributes of biological identity are sex, age, stature and ethnic
background of the individual which are also called the ‘Big four’ in forensic
context.
 Sexing is the first step in the completion of the biological profile. Determination of
sex of human remains is frequently immediate even in severely decomposed
cadavers.
 Numerous studies already exist on gender determination from primary anatomical
parts such as the pelvis, skull bone, mandible, clavicle, femur and many other parts
of the human skeleton which show gender difference.
Nayar A, Singh HP, Leekha S. Pulp tissue in sex determination: A fluorescent microscopic study.
Journal of Forensic Dental Sciences. 2014;6:77-80.
6

7.  The pelvic bone is the best skeletal part to accomplish a reliable sexual
diagnosis because it has long been recognized as the most dimorphic bone,
particularly in adult individuals.
 The tooth is the most valuable source to extract DNA since it is a sealed box
preserving DNA from extreme environmental conditions, except its apical
entrance.
7

8.  Soft tissue within coronal and radicular pulp chamber consists of odontoblasts,
fibroblasts, endothelial cells, peripheral nerve, undifferentiated mesenchymal cells and
nucleated components of blood which are rich sources of DNA.
 Pulp tissue is the most widely used option, since it is normally abundant and is less
vulnerable to contamination by non-human DNA.
Girish KL, Rahman FS, Tippu SR. Dental DNA fingerprinting in identification of human remains. J
Forensic Dent Sci. 2010;2:63–68.
8

9. VARIOUS METHODS OF SEX DETERMINATION
1.TOOTH
• Mandibular canine index
• Maxillary molar arch width
• Tooth morphology
2. PULP
• Amelogenin gene
• Barr bodies
• SRY Gene
3.CRANIOFACIAL BONES
• Mandibular gonial angle
• Maxillary sinus
• Mastoid
• Superior orbital ridge
9

10. For convenience I have classified various methods of sex determination as
1.Clinical methods
2.Histologic methods
3.Radiological methods
10

11. SEX DIFFERENCES IN TOOTH SIZE:
• Sex determination from the tooth is an easy, non-destructive and simple method in
comparison to other methods which are time consuming, expensive, less reliable and
destructive which can be applied to both living and deceased persons.
• Canine teeth is most potential tooth which can be used for sex determination because it is
least affected from wearing and long standing tooth in comparison to other teeth.
• Sexual Dimorphism” refers to differences in size and form between males and females that
can be applied to dental identification.
Cameriere R, Ferrante L, Belcastro MG, Bonfiglioli B, Rastelli E, Cingolani M. Age estimation by
pulp/tooth ratio in canines by peri-apical X-rays. J Forensic Sci. 2007;52(1):166-70.11
CLINICAL METHODS

12. • Males possess larger tooth crowns than females in contemporary human populations,
which can be attributed to the longer period of amelogenesis for both deciduous and
permanent dentitions.
• Sexual dimorphism in the tooth can be attributed to the presence of relatively more
dentine in males when compared with females.
• Agnihotri and sikri attributed the difference of mesiodistal widths between genders to
the genetics, where y chromosome controls the size of the teeth and x chromosome
controls the thickness of the enamel.
Agnihotri G, Sikri V. Crown and cusp dimensions of the maxillary first molar: a study of sexual
dimorphism in Indian Jat Sikhs. Dent Anthropol 2010;21(1):1–6. 12

13. Canines were observed to show higher sexual dimorphism among all teeth. This
can be attributed to many factors which include:
a) Influence of environmental factors and eating habits .
b) Evolutionary differences in the size of canines in males and females where
the size of canines were related to threat of aggression in primates.
c) Genetic influence of Y chromosome in determination of size of the canine.
d) Influence of steroid hormones on tooth size and shape
Chennoju Sai Kiran,P Ramaswamy,et.al .Discriminant canine index – a novel approach in sex
Determination, Annali di Stomatologia 2015; VI (2): 43-46 13

14. Observed mandibular canine index(MCI0) =
MD crown width of mand. canine
width of mandibular canine
Standard mandibular canine index(MCIs) =
(Mean male MCI − SD) +(𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝐶𝐼+𝑆𝐷)
2
MANDIBULAR CANINE INDEX:
14

15. Measurement of mandibular canine width Measurement of mandibular intercanine width
Mandibular canines have been called the ‘keyteeth’
in human identification
15

16. • The cut-off point, or standard MCI value, obtained by Rao and associates was
0.274.
• MCI value less than or equal to the standard MCI, the individual is female.
• Value more than the standard MCI would group the person as male.
• The success rate of determining sex using the standard MCI was almost 86%.
Dayal PK, Srinivasan SV, Paravatty RP.Textbook of Forensic Odontology. 1st edition.
Baba Book Company: Paras Medical Publisher; 1998. 16

17. DISCRIMINANT CANINE INDEX:
Discriminant equation is a statistical method used to classify individuals into groups
on the basis of set of measurements. It is more commonly used in forensic studies for
sex determination
DCI = (-18.656) + (2.668 X D)
“D” is mesiodistal width of mandibular canine.
Chennoju Sai Kiran,P Ramaswamy,et.al .Discriminant canine index – a novel approach in sex
Determination, Annali di Stomatologia 2015; VI (2): 43-46 17

18. • A greater DCI value (DCI > 0) indicates male gender, while a lesser DCI value
(DCI < 0) indicates the probability of female gender.
• In the study conducted by Sai kiran et.al the discriminant canine index (DCI)
has identified 68.3% of males and 76.7% of females correctly with an overall
accuracy rate of 72.5%.
18

19. • Acharya et al. has explained this with an excellent example in his article, where he
considered a male canine with 8 mm of mesiodistal width and 32 mm of inter-canine arch
width, and a female canine with 6 mm of mesiodistal width and 24 mm of inter-canine
arch width.
• Though the male dimensions were 33.33% larger than the female, MCI was interestingly
the same in both the genders (8/32 = 6/24 =0.25) (10). Hence the degree of dimorphism
also depends on the influence of parameters (mesiodistal width and inter canine arch
width) over one another in MCI.
• Therefore DCI has a definite advantage over MCI in sex determination.
19

20. MAXILLARY MOLAR ARCH WIDTH:
• It is the measurement from maxillary first molar to first molar width.in many studies it was
proven that maxillary molar width can be used as a predictor for sex determination.
20

21. • Ritu Jindal et.al conducted a study on Sex Determination Using Arch Width in
North Indian (150 males and 150 females) which concluded that maxillary molar
arch width can be used for gender prediction.
Syed MA et al.: Sexual dimorphism of permanent canines and intermolar width. Journal of
Indian Academy of Oral Medicine & Radiology | Jul-Sep 2015 | Vol 27 | Issue 321

22. • M.A.Syed et.al conducted study on Sexual dimorphism in permanent maxillary and mandibular
canines and intermolar arch width(500sample) using Garn and Lewis formula which revealed that the
mean values for mandibular and maxillary intercanine and intermolar distances for females were less
than for males and the differences were statistically significant.
Syed MA et al.: Sexual dimorphism of permanent canines and intermolar width. Journal of
Indian Academy of Oral Medicine & Radiology | Jul-Sep 2015 | Vol 27 | Issue 322

23. • In addition to the canines being the most sexually dimorphic teeth in terms of size, Scott
and Turner highlight that the ‘Distal Accessory Ridge’, a nonmetric feature on the
canine” is the most sexually dimorphic crown trait in the human dentition, with males
showing significantly higher frequencies and more pronounced expression than
females”.
• Rao and Rao have reported greater incidence of four-cusps (absence of the distobuccal
cusp or distal cusp) on the mandibular first molar in females (40.6 per cent) compared to
males (16.2 per cent) in a south Indian population.
• They cite Anderson and Thomas who opine that the reduction in the number of cusps is
a reflection of an evolutionary trend towards overall reduction in the size of the lower
face, with male apparently resisting this trend.
TOOTH MORPHOLOGY:
23

24. • Histologic methods are mainly done by the use of DNA from pulp.
• It has been shown that up to a period of 4 weeks after death, we can determine the
sex accurately from the study of X- and Y-chromosomes, keeping in mind the
variations in temperature and humidity.
• It has been reported that sex determination from necrotic pulp tissue stained by
quinacrine mustard using a fl uorescent Y-chromosome test for maleness and claimed
that up to 5 weeks after death, sex determination can be done with a high degree of
accuracy.
HISTOLOGIC METHODS:
24

25. EXTRACTION OF PULP
25

26. • Amelogenin (AMEL) is the major matrix protein synthesized during enamel formation.
• It has a different signature (or size and pattern of the nucleotide sequence) in male and female
enamel.
• The females have two identical AMEL genes or alleles, whereas the males have two different
AMEL genes.
• Therefore it can be used to determine the sex of the remains with very small samples of DNA
Dayal PK, Srinivasan SV, Paravatty RP. Textbook of Forensic Odontology. 1st edition.
Baba Book Company: Paras Medical Publisher; 1998.
AMELOGENIN GENE:
26

27. • AMEL gene is located on the X chromosome on Y chromosome in humans.
• Females (XX) have two identical AMEL genes but the males(XY) have two non identical
genes.
• Preparing DNA from teeth, authors obtained 100% success in determing sex of the
individual.
27

28. • Sex can also be determined by using X and Y chromosomes in the cells which are
inactive.
• X chromatin in its inactivated form is present as a mass against the nuclear membrane
in females is known as Barr body as it was first named by Barr and Bertem (1949).
• These Barr bodies are present in 40% of females who are considered as chromatin
positive and absent in males who are considered as chromatin negative.
BARR BODIES:
28

29. • Barr bodies are basophilic structures measuring 0.8 × 1.1 microns.
• They exhibit various shapes such as spherical, rectangular, plano-convex,
biconvex, and triangular.
• In electron microscopy, they resemble as various alphabetical letter such as V,
W, S, or X.
• As Barr bodies are seen with the nucleus, they can be visualized by various
special staining procedures like papanicolaou stain.
• Negative results can be attained under certain pathological conditions as they
can be associated with variations in size and shape of Barr bodies
Das N, Gorea RK, Gargi J, Singh JR. Sex determination from pulpal
tissue. JIAFM. 2004;26:50–4.
29

30. Female pulpal tissue at 100°C shows fibroblasts
with prominent Barr chromatin condensation in the
periphery of the nucleus
Male pulpal tissue at 100°C showed the presence of
fibrovascular connective tissue. The fibroblasts
lacked the presence of Barr chromatin
Vikram simha, ravi prakash,laxmi keerthana et.al.Gender determination using barr bodies from teeth exposed
to high temperatures,journal of forensic dental sciences, 2017 Jan-Apr; 9(1): 44 30

31. VARIOUS STUDIES:
• Suazo et.al conducted the Sex Determination by Observation of Barr Body in Teeth
Subjected to High temperatures on 50 sample .
• The teeth were subjected to high temperatures 100, 200,300,400,500,600ºC consecutively
and seen for barr bodies.
• Barr bodies were seen UNTIL 400ºC and above temperature no cells are visible
• Duffy et al. ( 1991 ) have shown that Barr bodies and F bodies of Y-chromosomes are
preserved in dehydrated pulp tissues up to 1 year and that pulp tissues retain sex diagnostic
characteristics when heated up to 100°C for 1 h.
Suazo GI, Flores A, Roa I, Cantín M, Zavando D. Sex determination by observation of Barr body in
teeth subjected to high temperatures. Int J Morphol. 2011;29:199–203. 31

32. • Kaveri S conducted the Efficacy of Sex Determination from Human Dental
Pulp Tissue and its Reliability as a Tool in Forensic Dentistry on 90 pulp
samples (45 males and 45 females) .
• 90 healthy pre-molars and molars in adult patients were divided into three
groups; 45 males and 45 females and stored at normal room temperature for
15 days, 1 month, and 2 months.
• Based on the statistical analysis samples showing more than 6 cells positive
for Barr body could be considered as a female sample with 100% sensitivity
and specificity.
Khanna KS, Sex determination from human dental pulp Journal of International Oral Health
2015; 7(Suppl 2):10-16 32

33. SRY GENE:
• The abbreviation of SRY is the sex determining region “Y” gene.
• These gene codes for the sex-determining region Y protein, which is
responsible for further development as male.
• Females have 2X chromosomes (46XX), and males have 1X and 1Y
chromosome (46XY).
• SRY is located on the short (p) arm of the Y chromosomes at the position
11.3.Therefore, SRY gene can be used as a sex-typing marker in forensic
samples.
33

34. • Extraction of DNA can be done either cryogenic grinding which involves
cooling the whole tooth to extreme low temperature using liquid nitrogen, and
grind the tooth to extract the DNA.
• The lesser destructive method for DNA isolation involves opening of root
canals and scrapping the pulp area with a notched medical needles.
• The extracted DNA can be analyzed by various methods like restriction
fragment length polymorphism, polymerase chain reaction (PCR),
microarrays, etc.
34

35. 35

36. • Prachi R N et.al conducted a study on Viabilty of human dental pulp in sex
determination by SRY gene through DNA analysis on 20 teeth.
• The pulp was extracted from tooth subjected to analysis through PCR technique.
• Statistical analysis showed that the storage time had no correlation on the DNA yield.
The results on the gel showed the presence of Y specific bands at 500 base pairs.
• Males were distinguished from females by the presence of bands. Thus, the gender
from unknown samples was determined with 100% accuracy.
Prachi R N et.al, Viabilty of human dental pulp in sex determination by SRY gene through DNA
analysis, Journal of Indian academy of Oral medicine and Radiology,2012 April;24(2): 133-13636

37. • M. Kholief et.al conducted a study on Sex determination from dental pulp
DNA among Egyptians on 40 teeth.
• The pulp was extracted from tooth subjected to analysis through PCR
technique.
• Statistical analysis showed 100% accuracy of sex determination using SRY
gene..
Kholief et al. Sex determination from dental pulp DNA among Egyptians, Egyptian Journal
of Forensic Sciences (2017) 7:29
37

38. MASTOID PROCESS:
The mastoid process are located on the inferior portion of the temporal bone,
just posterior to the external auditory meatus.
Mastoid process: larger, more blunt in males ; and
smaller, more pointed in females
38
RADIOGRAPHIC METHODS

39. Amin W, Saleh M-W, Othman D, Salhab D, and Thunaibat H., “Osteometric
Assessment of the Mastoids for Gender Determination in Jordanians by
Discriminant Function Analysis.” American Journal of Medical and Biological
Research, vol. 3, no. 4 (2015): 117-123. doi: 10.12691/ajmbr-3-4-7.
• Amin W et.al conducted the Osteometric analysis of Mastoids on 192
Jordanian adults.
• The study identified four parameters that can be used to determine sex
accurately –IMD, MS,MMCA(Mastoid Medial Convergence Angle), ML.
• Based on the statistical analysis of these parameters the sex of the subject was
determined with an accuracy 90.6%
39

40. • In another study conducted by Dilhan İlgüy et al on 161 adults
, the sex was determined using craniometric measurements of
the foramen magnum and mandible obtained from CBCT
scans.
• The study determined that the gonial angle (G-angle) , ramus
length (Ramus-L), gonion– gnathion length (G–G-L) ,
bigonial breadth (BG-Br) and sagittal diameter of the foramen
magnum could be used as reliable predictors of sex.
• The sexes of the subjects was determined with an accuracy of
83.2%.
Dilhan İlgüy et.al ,Measurements of the Foramen Magnum and Mandible in Relation to Sex Using CBCT, J
Forensic Sci, May 2014, Vol. 59, No. 3
40

41. Chandra A, Singh A, Badni M, Jaiswal R, Agnihotri A. Determination of sex by
radiographic analysis of mental foramen in North Indian population. J Forensic Dent Sci
2013;5:52-5.
• A Chandra et.al conducted a study on Determination of sex by radiographic analysis
of mental foramen in North Indian population on 100 OPG.
• Mental foramen height was calculated by measuring distance from superior border
of foramen to lowrer border of mandible and from inferior border of foramen to
lowrer border of mandible on both right and left sides.
• The average values of S-L and I-L were significantly higher in males than in
females, while the distances for the right and left sides of an individual were almost
similar in both the male and the females group, and the results were non-significant.
• The distances from the mental foramen to the lower border of the mandible exhibit
sexual dimorphism in the north Indian population.
41

42. • Vinay G et.al conducted study on Sex Determination of
Human Mandible Using Metrical Parameters on 200
panoramic images (100 males and 100 females) of Saudi
patients.
• Five mandibular ramus linear measurements (maximum
ramus width, minimum ramus width, maximum coronoid
height, maximum condylar height and maximum ramus
height), two mandibular body measurements (body height
in the premolar and molar region), gonial angle and
bigonial width measurements were made.
(A) Maximum ramus breadth. (B)
Minimum ramus breadth. (C) Condylar
height (D) Maximum ramus height (E)
Coronoid height.
42

43. • In the selected Saudi population sample, the mandibular ramus showed a high
sexual dimorphism and accuracy on combination of 9 parameters was 92.75% and
proved to be beneficial in sex estimation.
Sandeepa N C, Mandibular Indices for Gender Prediction: A Retrospective Radiographic Study
in Saudi PopulationJournal of dental and oral health, Volume 3 • Issue 9 • 095
43

44. Frontal Sinus Pattern As An Aid In
Identification
• Human identification is not a difficult task, when it is about a live
individual or a cadaver chronologically recent and intact.
• However, when there is not a complete skeleton, but a group of bones,
the identification process becomes progressively harder and
sometimes impossible to be accomplished.
• The frontal sinuses can provide significant evidence for forensic
identification.
44

45. • A study conducted by Maria Priscilla David et al on a study group of 50
individuals determined that the frontal sinus had considerable individual variation
and could serve as an adjunct in forensic identification.
• A literature review by Jeidson Antonio Morais Marques et al concluded that the
comparison of frontal sinus images by cone-beam computed tomography can be
used as an additional method in the identification process, providing the expert
with greater reliability.
David MP, Saxena R. Use of frontal sinus and nasal septum patterns as an aid in personal
identification: A digital radiographic pilot study.J Forensic Dent Sci 2010;2:77-8045

46. • Ramaswamy et.al conducted a study on Frontal sinus index – A
new tool for sex determination on 216 digital lateral
cephalographic radiographs.
• The parameters calculated were frontal sinus height and width on
SIDEXIS software and frontal sinus index(FSI) was calculated.
• FSI=
𝑀𝐴𝑋𝐼𝑀𝑈𝑀 𝐻𝐸𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇
𝑀𝐴𝑋𝐼𝑀𝑈𝑀 𝑊𝐼𝐷𝑇𝐻
• Discriminant analysis was done using gender as a grouping
variable and the sinus index (R) as an independent variable
and the discriminant equation was obtained for sex
determination.
46

47. D= 1.651–5.671 × R
R- Sinus index
• A greater calculated D (D>0) indicated female gender, while the D value less
than the reference value (D<0) indicates male gender.
• Significant differences were observed in the frontal sinus dimensions between
males and females supporting sexual dimorphism.
• The discriminant function equation was able to differentiate the sex groups
with 67.59% accuracy.
47

48. Rajendran R, Sivaparthasundharam B. Shafer's Textbook of Oral Pathology. 6th ed. New
Delhi: Elsevier; 2009.
48

49. SUPRA ORBITAL RIDGES:
This is the region directly above the orbit and nose, or the brow ridge.
Less pronounced = Female
More pronounced = Male
Supraorbital ridge
more marked in males
49

50. 50

51. • Maxillary sinuses are two spaces, which are filled with air, located in the
maxillary bone and can be in various sizes and shapes.
• Their walls are thin. The apex of the sinuses can extend into the zygomatic
process and can occupy the zygomatic bone.
• The floor formed by the alveolar process, the first, the second and the third
molars and the roots of the canines may elevate the sinuses or may perforate
their floor
Maxillary Sinus As An Aid In Identification
51

52. • O Ekizoglu et.al conducted a study on The Use of Maxillary Sinus
Dimensions in Gender determination using computed tomography
on 140 individuals.
• The study identified four parameters that can be used to determine
sex accurately anteroposterior diameter (RAP, mm), transverse
diameter (RT, mm), cephalocaudal diameter (CC, mm), maxillary
sinus volume (RV, mm3).
• Based on the statistical analysis of these parameters, the
accuracy rate according to gender was 80% for female gender and
74.3% for male gender
Oguzhan Ekizoglu et.al, The Use of Maxillary Sinus Dimensions in Gender
determination using computed tomography, The Journal of Craniofacial
Surgery • Volume 25, Number 3, May 2014
52

53. • Shanaz S et.al conducted study on Sexual dimorphism of maxillary
sinus using cone beam computed tomography on 30 CBCT images .
• This study used parameters like width and height of maxillary sinus.
• This study showed that the maxillary sinus height was the most reliable
predictor of sex with the right sinus height able to classify with 90%
accuracy and left sinus height able to classify with 83.3% accuracy.
Shanaz S et.al , Sexual dimorphism of maxillary sinus using cone beam
computed tomography Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences (2016) 6, 120–125 53

54. CONCLUSION:
 Determining sex using skeletal remains presents a great problem to forensic
investigators, especially when only fragments of the body are recovered.
 Forensic odontologists can assist other experts to determine the sex of remains
by using teeth and the skull.
 The durability of teeth in a fire, during bacterial decomposition, and when
exposed to environmental factors makes them helpful for identification and sex
determination.
54

55. REFRENCES
1. Rajendran R, Sivaparthasundharam B. Shafer's Textbook of Oral Pathology. 6th ed. New
Delhi: Elsevier; 2009.
2. Suazo GI, Flores A, Roa I, Cantín M, Zavando D. Sex determination by observation of
Barr body in teeth subjected to high temperatures. Int J Morphol. 2011;29:199–203.
3. Vikram simha, ravi prakash,laxmi keerthana et.al.Gender determination using barr bodies
from teeth exposed to high temperatures,journal of forensic dental sciences, 2017 Jan-Apr;
9(1): 44.
4. Das N, Gorea RK, Gargi J, Singh JR. Sex determination from pulpal
tissue. JIAFM. 2004;26:50–4.
55

56. 5. Dayal PK, Srinivasan SV, Paravatty RP. Textbook of Forensic Odontology. 1st edition.
Baba Book Company: Paras Medical Publisher; 1998.
6. Cameriere R, Ferrante L, Belcastro MG, Bonfiglioli B, Rastelli E, Cingolani M. Age
estimation by pulp/tooth ratio in canines by peri-apical X-rays. J Forensic Sci. 2007;52(1):166-
70.
7. Girish KL, Rahman FS, Tippu SR. Dental DNA fingerprinting in identification of human
remains. J Forensic Dent Sci. 2010;2:63–68.
8. Nayar A, Singh HP, Leekha S. Pulp tissue in sex determination: A fluorescent microscopic
study. Journal of Forensic Dental Sciences. 2014;6:77-80.
56

57. 9. Pretty IA, Sweet D. A look at forensic dentistry — Part 1: The role of teeth in the
determination of human identity. Br Dent J 2001;190:359-66.
10. Rajendran R, Sivapathasundharam B, editors. Shafer’s Textbook of Oral Pathology.
7th ed. New Delhi: Elsevier; 2012.
11. Agnihotri G, Sikri V. Crown and cusp dimensions of the maxillary first molar: a
study of sexual dimorphism in Indian Jat Sikhs. Dent Anthropol 2010;21(1):1–6.
12. Chennoju Sai Kiran,P Ramaswamy,et.al .Discriminant canine index – a novel
approach in sex Determination, Annali di Stomatologia 2015; VI (2): 43-46
57

58. 13.Syed MA et al.: Sexual dimorphism of permanent canines and intermolar width. Journal
of Indian Academy of Oral Medicine & Radiology | Jul-Sep 2015 | Vol 27 | Issue 3.
14.Amin W, Saleh M-W, Othman D, Salhab D, and Thunaibat H., “Osteometric Assessment
of the Mastoids for Gender Determination in Jordanians by Discriminant Function Analysis.”
American Journal of Medical and Biological Research, vol. 3, no. 4 (2015): 117-123. doi:
10.12691/ajmbr-3-4-7.
15. David MP, Saxena R. Use of frontal sinus and nasal septum patterns as an aid in
personal identification: A digital radiographic pilot study.J Forensic Dent Sci
2010;2:77-80
58

59. 16.Prachi R N et.al, Viabilty of human dental pulp in sex determination by SRY gene
through DNA analysis, Journal of Indian academy of Oral medicine and Radiology,2012
April;24(2): 133-136.
17.Kholief et al. Sex determination from dental pulp DNA among Egyptians, Egyptian
Journal of Forensic Sciences (2017) 7:29
18. Oguzhan Ekizoglu et.al, The Use of Maxillary Sinus Dimensions in Gender
determination using computed tomography, The Journal of Craniofacial Surgery • Volume
25, Number 3, May 2014.
19. Shanaz S et.al , Sexual dimorphism of maxillary sinus using cone beam computed
tomography Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences (2016) 6, 120–125
59

60. 20.Chandra A, Singh A, Badni M, Jaiswal R, Agnihotri A. Determination of sex by
radiographic analysis of mental foramen in North Indian population. J Forensic Dent
Sci 2013;5:52-5.
21. Sandeepa N C, Mandibular Indices for Gender Prediction: A Retrospective
Radiographic Study in Saudi PopulationJournal of dental and oral health, Volume 3 •
Issue 9 • 095
60