The branch of dentistry which – in the interests of justice – deals with the proper handling and examination of dental evidence and with the proper evaluation and presentation of dental findings. - Keiser Neilsen - 1970

1. FORENSIC
ODONTOLOGY
VALARMATHI

2. CONTENTS
● DEFINITION
● TIMELINE
● METHODS OF GENDER
DETERMINATION
● PERSON
IDENTIFICATION
● AGE ESTIMATION
METHODS
● CURRENT TRENDS
● SUMMARY

3. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
The branch of dentistry which – in the interests of
justice – deals with the proper handling and
examination of dental evidence and with the proper
evaluation and presentation of dental findings.
Keiser Neilsen - 1970

4. The identification of remains by dental
evidence is possible because, the hard
tissues are preserved after death
and can even withstand a temperature of
1600 degree C when heated without
appreciable loss of microstructure,
and the status of a person’s teeth change
throughout the life and the combination of
decay, missing, filling can be
obtained from any fixed time

5. Timeline
First reported case of
dental identification -
1453
1775 - Dr.Paul Revere:
the first forensic
odontologist, who
identified the remains
of a victim based on
the retrieval of a
prosthesis constructed
by him
1849 – The first
conviction based on
dental evidence of a
metalcrown from
charred remains of
the victim
1898 – First treatise on
forensic odontology was
written by Dr.Oscar Amoedo
the father of Forensic
Odontology
Ranganathan, Kannan & Thavarajah, Rooban & Lakshminarayanan, V. (2008). Forensic odontology: A review. J
Forensic Odontol. 1. 4-12

6. 1932 - Locard
recommended the
use of lip prints in
identification
1937 – Murder trial
conviction based on
bitemark evidence
first time in history
1946 - Welty and
Glasgow devised a
computerised
program to sort 500
dental records
1985 -
Jeffreys'discovered'
DNA fingerprint
Ranganathan, Kannan & Thavarajah, Rooban & Lakshminarayanan, V. (2008). Forensic odontology: A review. J
Forensic Odontol. 1. 4-12

7. Types (American
board of forensic
odontology)
The ante-mortem and
postmortem data match
to establish that it is from
same individual
Positive identification
01
The ante-mortem and postmortem data have few
consistent features, but because of quality of the
records it is difficulty to establish the identity
Possible identification
02
The data is not enough to
form the conclusion
Insufficient evidence
03
The ante-mortem and
postmortem data are clearly
inconsistent
Exclusion
04

8. Person
identification
Age estimation
Gender determination

9. BIOLOGICAL SEX DETERMINATIONN
Gender
Determination
Morphological
Analysis
Hard Tissue
analysis
Soft tissue
analysis
Molecular
Analysis

10. HARD TISSUE
ANALYSIS

11. ● Teeth may be used for differentiating
sex by measuring their mesiodistal and
buccolingual dimensions
● Mandibular canines show the greatest
dimensional difference with larger
teeth in males than in females.
● Premolars, first and second molars, as
well as maxillary incisors, are also
known to have significant differences
● Least extracted teeth
● Less affected by
periodontal disease
● Last teeth to be
extracted in respect of
age
Sex differences in tooth size
Canine
Bossert WA, Marks HH. Prevalence
and characteristics of
periodontal disease in 12,800
persons under periodic dental
observation. J Am Dent Assoc
1956;52:429-42.

12. Parameters
● (i) The mesiodistal width of
maxillary and mandibular
canines,
● (ii) The maxillary canine
arch width (inter-canine
distance), and
● (iii) The mandibular canine
arch width.
Sherfudhin H, Abdullah MA, Khan N. A cross-sectional study of
canine dimorphism in establishing sex identity: Comparison of
two statistical methods. J Oral Rehabil 1996;23:627-31
 >SI – Male
 <SI - Female

13. ● “Distal Accessory Ridge,” “a non metric
feature on the canine” “is the most
sexually dimorphic crown trait in the
human dentition, with males showing
significantly higher frequencies and more
pronounced expression than females.” -
Scott and Turner
● Four cusps (absence of the distobuccal
cusp or distal cusp) on the mandibular
first molar in females – Rao et al
Tooth morphology
Scott GR, Turner CG 2nd. The Anthropology Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation in Recent Human Populations.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1997

14. RACIAL VARIATION

15. Racial Differentiation
 Deep lingual fossa with raised cingulum –
Shovel shaped incisor
 Premolar - tubercle, usually on the buccal
cusp
 Molar - Extra distolingual root in the
lower first molar and third molar ;
Taurodontism
 Parabolic arch
Mongoloid
 V shaped arch
 Chisel shaped incisors with smoother and
smaller lingual surface
 second molars mostly have four cusps
 Cusp of Carabelli - maxillary first permanent
molars and the maxillary second deciduous
molars
Caucasoid
o Large arch with larger
teeth
o Severe attrition with
edge to edge teeth
o Mesial drifting of teeth
Australoid
 Midline diastema; smaller
teeth
 Class III malocclusion and
open bite
 Mandibular first premolar
with two distinct cusps
Negroid
Rawlani SM, Rawlani SS, Bhowate RR, Chandak RM, Khubchandani M. Racial
characteristics of human teeth. Int J Forensic Odontol 2017;2:38-42.

16. SOFT TISSUE
ANALYSIS

17. Method of
identification of a person
based on characteristic
arrangement of lines
appearing on the red part of
lips or as a science dealing
with lines appearing on the
red part of lips.
R.FISHER – 1902 Chatra L, Peter T, Ahsan A. Cheiloscopy. Int J
Forensic Odontol 2016;1:48-52.

18. Chatra L, Peter T, Ahsan A. Cheiloscopy. Int J
Forensic Odontol 2016;1:48-52.

19. CLASSIFICATION
• Thin lips
• Medium lips(8-10mm)
• Thick lips
• Mix lips
Thickness and
position
Type 1
Type 1’
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4
Type 5
Suzuki and
Tsuchihashi – Lip
groove
Simple:
(1) straight line,
(2) curved line,
(3) angled line, and
(4) sine-shaped curve
Compound:
(1) bifurcated,
(2) trifurcated, and
(3) anomalous
Dr. Santos

20. Lip impressions can be
taken from cups,
glasses, cigarettes,
windows, and doors
● Type I and Type I’ lip
groove - females
● Type IV and Type V
lip groove - males
Mujoo S, Sakarde SB, Sur J Singh A, Khan
F, Jain S,Deeplaxmi R. Cheiloscopy and
palatoscopy: A novel tool for sex
identification. Chettinad Health City Med J
2012;1:146-51

21. RADIOGRAPHIC
DETERMINATION

22. Sreeja C, Pratima D, Aesha I, Vijayabanu B, Ramakrishnan K, Sharma S. Sex determination in forensic
odontology: A review. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences. 2015;7(6):398.

23. ● Maxillary sinuses remain intact despite the skull and other
bones getting badly disfigured in victims who are
incinerated.
● Overall size of the maxillary sinus was larger in males than
in females
MAXILLARY SINUS

24. ● The masseter and medial pterygoid muscles decrease with age as masseter and medial pterygoid muscles gets
inserted into the region of the gonial angle.
● The strength of masseter and anterior temporal muscle activity is related with greater posterior facial height, a flat
mandibular plane and a small gonial angle.
● Males have a larger ramus height and bigonial width than females but a sharper gonial angle.
● Decrease in ramus height and an increase in gonial angle as age increased
MANDIBLE

25. ● MF appears as either round, oblong, slit-like or
very irregular radiolucent area which is partially
or completely corticated.
● MF is located in the body of mandible midway
between the inferior and alveolar margins.
● Panoramic radiographs (orthopantomogram
[OPG]) show bilateral location MF, mandibular
foramen, ramus, angle, and body of the
mandible.
● OPG allows more accurate location of the MF in
both horizontal and vertical dimensions
● The mean values of SMF to LBM and IMF to LBM
were significantly higher in males as compared to
females
MENTAL FORAMEN

26. MICROSCOPIC
DETERMINATION

27. ● In 1949, Barr and Bertram determined that there was a difference between male and female cells.
● They found that, in female cells, there was a small chromatin condensation at the nuclei of nerve cells of
cats (Barr et al., 1950).
● This condensation is called as Barr body or Barr chromatin which is also found in found in bone cells, cells
of the retina, and oral mucosal cells.
● Duffy et al. have showed that Barr bodies are preserved in dehydrated pulp tissues up to 1 year and pulp
tissues retain sex diagnostic characteristics when heated up to 100°C for 1 h.
BARR BODIES
Khorate, Manisha M et al. “Gender determination from pulpal tissue.” Journal of forensic dental sciences vol. 6,2 (2014): 107-12.

28. ● Whittaker et al. determined sex from necrotic pulp tissue stained by quinacrine mustard using
fluorescent Y chromosome test for maleness and claimed that up to 5 weeks after death, sex
determination can be done with high degree of accuracy
● Stained with quinacrine dihydrochloride
● Only those cells which contained the characteristic Y chromatin or FB, i.e., a brightly
fluorescent spot attached to the nuclear membrane were counted as positive cells while those,
which did not show any such fluorescent spot were labeled as negative.
F BODY
Khorate, Manisha M et al. “Gender determination from pulpal tissue.” Journal of forensic dental sciences vol. 6,2
(2014): 107-12. doi:10.4103/0975-1475.132540

29. PERSON IDENTIFICATION

30. ● The frontal sinuses are paired sinuses/ two in number, divided by a median
septum, which often deviates from the midline
● Radiographically, they become evident by the age of seven to nine years
● The frontal sinuses are unique for every individual, which was first proposed
by Zukerkandl in 1875
FRONTAL SINUS

31. Rugoscopy
Rugae - transverse ridges in the
mucous membrane behind
the incisive papilla in the
anterior portion of the
palate.
● Pattern might change with orthodontic
tooth movement, trauma, or any other
pernicious habits.
● Method:
1.Computer software program
2. Visual comparison of ante- and postmortem
rugae patterns
Venegas VH, Valenzuela JS, López MC, Galdames IC. Palatal rugae: Systematic
analysis of its shape and dimensions for use in human identification. Int J Morphol
2009;7:819-25

32. Mac Donald- Mark
caused by the teeth
either alone or in
combination with
other mouth parts
American Board of Forensic Odontology (ABFO) –
● “A circular or oval (doughnut or ring-shaped)
patterned injury consisting of two opposing (facing)
symmetrical, U-shaped arches separated at their bases
by open spaces.
● Following the periphery of the arches is a series of
individual abrasions, contusions, and/or lacerations
reflecting the size, shape, arrangement, and
distribution of the class characteristics of the
contacting surfaces of the human
dentition.”
Manual of forensic odontology. [Austin, TX]: American
Society of Forensic Odontology; 2007.

33. RECORDING
Double swab
technique – Wet and
dry swab;
SALIVARY SWABBING
Higher-resolution
cameras and lenses
(UV,IR)
PHOTOGRAPHY
Polyvinylsiloxane or polyether
impression material to record
surface characteristics
IMPRESSION OF THE INJURY
Stabilize the bite injury
area with an acrylic
ring “super-glued” and
sutured to the body.
INVASIVE ANALYSIS
Sweet D: Bitemarks as biological
evidence, noninvasive analysis. In:
Dorion RBJ (ed): Bitemark
Evidence. Marcel Dekker, New
York, 2005,pp 183-201.

34. CHARACTERISTICS
Maxillary arch will be larger than
the lower arch
Average maxillary intercuspid
distance (cuspid to cuspid) -33 mm.
Maxillary bite mark - 3.5 to 4.0 cm.
 Mandibular mark - 25 mm.
Primary dentition (under the age of
6) - 3.0 cm from cuspid to cuspid.
ARCH - Rotated teeth, buccal or
lingual version, mesio-distal
drifting, and horizontal alignment
contribute to differentiation
between individuals.
DENTAL - Individual tooth
variation such as unusual wear
patterns, notching, angulations,
and fractures.
ABFO bitemark terminology guidelines. In: Diplomates Reference Manual.The American Board of Forensic Odontology, 2009, pp 124-127.Available at
www.ABFO.org/pdfs/ABFO%20manual%20revised%2010-28-09B.pdf

35. Age
estimation

36. Chaudhary RK, Doggalli N. Commonly used different dental age estimation methods in children and adolescents.
Int J Forensic Odontol 2018;3:50-4.

37. Chaudhary RK, Doggalli N. Commonly used different dental age estimation methods in children and adolescents.
Int J Forensic Odontol 2018;3:50-4.

38. Schour and Masseler in 1941 described 21 chronological steps from 4 months to 21 years of age and published
the numerical development charts for both deciduous and permanent teeth.
Shahin, K. A., Chatra, L., & Shenai, P. (2013). Dental and craniofacial imaging in forensics. Journal of Forensic Radiology and Imaging, 1(2),
56–62. doi:10.1016/j.jofri.2012.12.001

39. Moores, Fanning and Hunt gave a detailed calcification of mandibular first
molars based on radiographs
Nayyar AS, Babu BA, Krishnaveni B, Devi MV, Gayitri HC. Age estimation: Current state and research
challenges. J Med Sci 2016;36:209-16.

40. Nayyar AS, Babu BA, Krishnaveni B, Devi MV, Gayitri HC. Age estimation: Current state and research
challenges. J Med Sci 2016;36:209-16.

42. • Based on the relationship between age
and measurement of open apices in
teeth.
• Seven left permanent mandibular teeth
were evaluated.
• The numbers of teeth with root
development completed with apical
ends completely closed were calculated
(N0)
Cameriere, R., Ferrante, L., & Cingolani, M. (2005). Age estimation in children by measurement of open apices
in teeth. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 120(1), 49–52. doi:10.1007/s00414-005-0047-9

43. ASPARTIC ACID
RACEMIZATION
If only caries-affected teeth are available,
dentine samples from at least two teeth
from the same individual should be
analyzed as it seems unlikely that caries-
induced protein degradation occurred
with identical kinetics in two different
teeth.
● An age-dependent accumulation of D-aspartic
acid has been observed. e. g., in dentine, enamel ,
tooth cementum , erythrocytes, bone ,
intervertebral discs , lens, human skin etc.
● Dentine is the tissue of choice for age estimation
based on AAR, as it is a bradytrophic tissue
exhibiting a very close relationship of D-aspartic
acid content and age
● Quantification will be performed with a gas
chromatograph
Sirin, N., Matzenauer, C., Reckert, A., & Ritz-Timme, S.
(2017). Age estimation based on aspartic acid
racemization in dentine: what about caries-affected
teeth? International Journal of Legal Medicine, 132(2),
623–628. doi:10.1007/s00414

44. CURRENT TRENDS

45.  Amelo - Enamel; Glyphics - carving
 Study of enamel rod patterns
 Exclusion: Fractured, decayed,attrited, abraded, and eroded teeth
 In deciduous teeth, rods are horizontally arranged at cervical third
 In permanent teeth, the rods incline toward the root
Ameloglyphics

46. Manjunath, Kopparam et al. “Enamel rod end patterns: a preliminary study using acetate peel technique and
automated biometrics.” (2008).

48. A scalpel-free procedure of autopsy subsequently
developed into a multitool documentation and
analysis research project, combining 3D body
surface imaging methods with merged
CT/magnetic resonance imaging (CT/MRI) data and
3D shape analysis.
- Richard Dirnhofer
Vidhya A, Doggalli N, Patil K, Narayan K,Thiruselvakumar D, Abirami A. Virtual autopsy: An imaging technological
integration in forensic odontology. Int J Forensic Odontol 2019;4:2-6

49. ● Paranasal sinuses, but also medical
implants such as dental implants,
bone screws and plates, pacemakers
● Absence of motion artifacts in the
PM setting
● The relaxation times T1 and T2 are
both temperature dependent,
image
contrast may change with
decreasing body temperature of a
decedent
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY MRI
Vidhya A, Doggalli N, Patil K, Narayan K, Thiruselvakumar D, Abirami A. Virtual autopsy: An imaging technological integration in forensic
odontology. Int J Forensic Odontol 2019;4:2-6

50. DNA ANALYSIS
Gains importance when conventional
identification methods fail due to the
effects of heat, traumatism or autolytic
processes, distortions, and difficulties
in analysis.
Blood, semen, bones,
teeth, hair, and saliva
Genomic DNA , Mitochondrial DNA
Streptococcus salivarius and
Streptococcus mutans
Muruganandhan J, Sivakumar G. Practical aspects of
DNA-based forensic studies in dentistry. Journal of
Forensic Dental Sciences. 2011;3(1):38.

51. Muruganandhan J, Sivakumar G. Practical aspects of DNA-based forensic studies in dentistry. Journal of Forensic
Dental Sciences. 2011;3(1):38.

52. ● PCR is useful in cases of very minute and degraded samples to increase the quantity of DNA.
● STRs(Short Term Repeat) are polymorphic sequences of DNA (200–500 base pairs [bp]) that
are remarkably conserved among species and are similar especially in firstdegree relatives.
● This technique is especially suited for determining the identity of suspects, victims, and
human remains.
● STR based systems provide excellent sensitivity down to less than 0.20 ng of DNA
Muruganandhan J, Sivakumar G. Practical
aspects of DNA-based forensic studies in
dentistry. Journal of Forensic Dental
Sciences. 2011;3(1):38.

53. Digital
forensics
Application of
computer science and
investigative procedures for a
legal purpose involving the
analysis of digital evidence.
● Digital dental records or dental chart is an
official document that contains all the
patient-related information such as
history of present illness, clinical
examination, diagnosis, treatment done,
and prognosis.

54. 3D Printing
Three-dimensional (3D) printing
is a procedure that is used to
generate a 3D object during
which consecutive layers of
material are established
under computer control. This
object is generated using
digital model data from a 3D
model. Chaudhary RK, Doggalli N, Chandrakant HV, Patil K.
Current and evolving applications of three-dimensional
printing in forensic odontology: A review. Int J Forensic
Odontol 2018;3:59-65.

56. ● Forensic odontology has played a key role in identification of persons in
mass disasters (aviation, earthquakes, Tsunamis), in crime investigation, in
ethnic studies, and in identification of decomposed and disfigured bodies
like that of drowned persons, fire victims, and victims of motor vehicle
accidents.
● The various methods employed in forensic odontology include rugoscopy,
cheiloscopy, bite marks, tooth prints, radiographs, photographic study and
molecular methods.
● Though the shortcomings with these various methods are few, the
discrepancies associated with them are to be weighed cautiously to make
forensic odontology a more accurate, reliable, and reproducible
investigatory science.
SUMMARY

58. METHOD
FOR
RECORING
BITEMARKS

59. ● A wax impression was
taken on a sheet of
modeling wax and the
impressions were
traced on an acetate
sheet
● Silver amalgam powder mixed with surgical spirit was added to the
individual tooth impressions taken,
● A radiographic image was taken on an intraoral dental X-ray film.
● The film was processed; the bite marks showed as white teeth on a
dark background.
● The radiographic image was then traced on a transparent sheet
Wax impression
technique
Radiographic
Technique

60. ● The dental model of the suspect
applied to the cast of the bitten
object to determine if they dock or
match
● In the manual docking (direct)
technique, the dental casts of each
individual were docked to the die
stone cast (positive replica) of the bite
mark on apple, OR chocolate to check
for matching of incisal edges of the
anterior teeth with the bite mark
pattern on the food material.
DOCKING
TECHNIQUE

62. ● Images of one dental cast were imported into a software program (Adobe
Photoshop 7.0.1).
● In the software, the biting surfaces of the maxillary incisor teeth were traced
semi automatically.
● The bite mark Superimposition of the traced biting surfaces onto the bite
mark on image
Overlay technique

63. 3D Scanning
1. The dental casts of these suspects as well as the bite marks were digitized using 3D surface
scanning and were compared in 3D using computer software.
2. The scan of each bite mark in food and the comparison were repeated after days, after weeks and
after months in order to investigate the alteration of bite marks in food and the possibility of
identifying the biter after the passing of time.

64. Naether, S., Buck, U., Campana, L., Breitbeck, R., & Thali, M. (2011). The examination and identification of bite marks in foods using
3D scanning and 3D comparison methods. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 126(1), 89–95

65. Temperature and PMMR
1. Low body temperatures result in low contrast
between fat tissue and muscle tissue on T2
weighted images, whereas the contrast
between fat tissue and fluids increases.
2. Below 20°c, On T1 weighted images, low body
temperatures result in overall low image
contrast
3. Below 10 °C, the image contrast
deteriorates,which may confound the detection
of pathology or injury
Adolphi N, Gerrard Ch, Hatch G, Takacs N, Nolte K. Determining the
temperature dependence of tissue relaxation times (T1 and T2) for
prospective optimization of postmortem magnetic resonance (PMMR)
image contrast. J Forensic Radiol Imaging 2013; 1: 80.

66. ● Intracranial Hemorrhage
● Sudden Cardiac death(death within
1–24 h after the onset of symptoms)
● Ischaemic Myocardial injury
● Assessment of CAD by PMMR
Angiography
● Bone marrow oedema
● Traumatic soft-tissue injuries
Indications (PMMR)
MRI of a victim who survived strangulation (~1 day
after the aggression) in order to examine the profound
structure of the neck.
Note: Visualization of a trauma-based soft-tissue edema
(red arrow) in the left submandibular region on (A) a
T2 axial view and (B) a T2 coronal view.
Grabherr S, Baumann P, Minoiu C, Fahrni S, Mangin P. Post-mortem
imaging in forensic investigations: current utility, limitations, and
ongoing developments. Research and Reports in Forensic Medical
Science. 2016;6:25-37 https://doi.org/10.2147/RRFMS.S93974

67. DNA analysis
 If fewer than 24 h have
passed, DNA is obtained from
white blood cells.
 For bodies found within 2-5
days of expiration, cartilage is
typically used for extracting
DNA;
 If more than 5 days have
passed, bone and other hard
tissues are the final option
● DNA is preserved in the
teeth and bones for a very
long period and thus are a
valuable source of
information.
● Ancient DNA (aDNA)
analysis can be carried out
in samples that are
hundreds to tens of
thousands of years old.
Sweet D, DiZinno JA. Personal identification through
dental evidence-tooth fragments to DNA. J Calif. Dental
Assoc; 1996; 24:35-42
. Stray JE, Liu JY, Brevnov MG and Shewale JG:
Extraction of DNA from Forensic Biological Samples for
Genotyping. Forensic Sci Rev 22: 159-175, 2010

68. Digital image
fradulence
“Research misconduct is
defined as fabrication,
falsification, or plagiarism in
proposing, performing, or
reviewing research, or in
reporting research results.”
● The very nature of digital
imaging makes it very easy for
the operator to adjust or
modify digital image files.
● With the spread of low-cost,
user-friendly editing tools, the
art of tampering and
counterfeiting visual content
is no more restricted to
experts.
Rossner M, Yamada KM. What’s in a picture? The
temptation of image manipulation. J Cell Biol
2004;166:11-5.

69. Digital
Fradulence
Addition
Removal or
Masking
Modification of
image contrast,
color
Splicing,
blending of
images
Combination of
all of the above
Chowdhry A, Sircar K, Popli DB, Tandon A. Image manipulation: Fraudulence in digital dental records: Study and
review. J Forensic Dent Sci 2014;6:31-5.

70. Chowdhry A, Sircar K, Popli DB, Tandon A. Image
manipulation: Fraudulence in digital dental records:
Study and review. J Forensic Dent Sci 2014;6:31-5.

71. ● Lead to enhancement of
certain features, whereas
diminution of others in the
original image.
● To make the subject in the
image more attractive and
thus is the most common
method of image
manipulation used in
magazines and hoardings
Image retouching

72. ● Pasteup produced by sticking together images using
digital tools available such as Photoshop
Image splicing or photomontage

73. Endodontics
Güneri, P., & Akdeniz, B. G. (2004). Fraudulent management of
digital endodontic images. International Endodontic Journal,
37(3), 214–220. doi:10.1111/j.0143-2885.2004.00780.x

74. Methods to overcome
● Embedded
encryption
● Error correction
code memory
● Digital watermark