Reptile keeping summer 2015

SNAKES◆LIZARDS◆TORTOISES◆AMPHIBIANS◆INVERTS
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JUNE 2012 | 3
T
hereisaninterestingarticlethismonthfromJamesBrereton,whohas
beendelvingintoahostofscientificjournalstoseewhathasbeen
recordedaboutthefeedinghabitsoftheso-called“Mediterranean”groupoftortoises,andhowthiscouldbenefit
theircareincollections.Hecomesupwithsomeinterestingconclusions.
It’sperhapssurprisingthatoften,whenyoutrytolocateinformationaboutreptilesanddiscovermoreabouttheir
lifestyles,basedonstudiesinthewild,thereisfrequentlylittleinformationrecordedabouttheminmanycases.Thisapplies
notjustwithrarespecies,butfamiliaronestoo.
Therereallyareopportunitiestoaddconsiderablytoknowledgeaboutthebiologyofparticularspeciesthoughstudying
reptilesandamphibiansinvivariumsurroundings,andbreedingthemtoo.It’sgoodtobeabletopublishanarticleabout
successwithcat-eyedsnakesinthisissue–agroupthathasnotbeenfreelybredinthepast.
Backintheearly1990s,IremembersittinginameetingwiththenofficialsfromtheDepartmentoftheEnvironment(now
Defra),withoneofthetopicsontheagendabeingthemortalityofchameleons.Itwasthoughtthatiftheselizardswere
difficulttokeepalive,thenthereshouldbeabanonkeepingthem.Thankfully,thisviewdidn’tprevail,andmanydifferent
speciesofchameleonarenowbeingwidelybred,withtheYemen(veiled)chameleonevenbeingjustifiablyconsideredas
quitesuitablefornewcomerstothehobbytoday.
Thismeanspeoplecanexperiencetheamazingbiologyoftheselizardsliterallyintheirlivingrooms.Beingengagedinthis
wayhelpstoreinforceafeelingofinvolvement–whenforestsarebeingclearedandhabitatdestroyed,thereismorelikelyto
beanexpressionofoutrage.
Sowhathappenedwithchameleons?Firstly,itbecameclearthatimportedstockwasparticularlyvulnerabletointestinal
parasites,acquiredfromtheirinvertebrateprey.Theimportanceofmonitoringthedroppingsofallreptilesasahealth
indicatorcannotbeover-emphasised,asDrTariqAbou-Zahrexplainsthismonth.
Secondly,observationsonchameleonsrevealedthattheytendnottodrinkfromstandingcontainersofwater,butneed
theirsurroundingssprayedforthispurpose.Finally,technologicaladvancesintermsoflighting,combinedwithbetter
nutrition,astheresultofthedevelopmentofspecificsupplementstousewithlivefood,havealsomadesignificant
contributionstothesuccessfulcareoftheselizards.It’salsoperhapsworthpointingoutthatallofthisinformationwasgained
throughthedeterminedeffortsofreptilekeepersthemselves,keentoensurethatchameleonswouldthriveintheircare.
DavidAlderton,Editor.
Email: prk.ed@kelsey.co.uk
Welcome
David Alderton
✥ David has extensive practical experience with this group of creatures, extending back over 40 years. He has
written and broadcast widely about their care and biology, and his website can be found at www.petinfoclub.com
Features
ContentsWelcome
.Summer 2015.Maincoverimage:YoungHermann’stortoise/photocourtesyNneirda,www.shutterstock.com
24
LOOKING TO BUILD UP A LIBRARY OF
USEFUL INFORMATION ABOUT REPTILES,
AMPHIBIANS AND INVERTEBRATES?
THEN BUY ONE OR MORE OF THESE TITLES! CHOOSE FROM
INVERTEBRATES, TORTOISES, SNAKES, LIZARDS AND AMPHIBIANS
8 A SNAKEKEEPING PIONEER–DanEatherleydelvesbackintothelifeofa
snake-keepingpioneer,whoisthesubjectofhisnewbook. There’sachancetowina
signedcopytoo!
24DIETS OFWILDTORTOISES–JamesBreretoninvestigatesastohowmuchwe
knowaboutwhattortoiseseatinthewild,andexplainsthesignificanceofthese
findingswhenitcomestothecareofpettortoises.
30HUMIDITY MATTERS–alongsidethecorrectheatingandlighting,thereisa
thirdcomponentthatiscriticaltothewell-beingofthevivariumoccupants,inthe
guiseofhumidity,asRichardWhitediscussesinthisarticle.
36SETTING UP A JUNGLESTYLEVIVARIUM–ChrisJonesofWhitePython™
explainsinastep-by-stepguidehowtosetupanattractive,easilymaintained
vivariumwithartificialplants,designedprimarilytosuitarborealsnakes,butitcanbe
usedforlizardsaswell.
38SUCCESSWITH CATEYED SNAKES–discoverhowSamThomasofStriking
BeautyReptileskeepsandbreedsgreencat-eyedsnakes,andhisexperienceswith
thisgroupofreptilesthathavehadareputationforbeingdifficulttomaintaininthe
past. HetalkswithJohnCourteney-Smith.
42SEEING SPIDERS IN A NEWWAY–SusieKearleyvisitsthenewspiderexhibit
atZSLLondonZoo,andalsoreportsonthezoo’sreintroductionprogrammeforthefen
raftspider–oneofBritain’srarestcreatures.
4NEWS ANDVIEWS–featuringnewsabouttheftsoftortoises,areptilerescue
eventthatneedsyoursupport,anewseriesofonlinereptilecarevideosandhow
snakesareprovinganinspirationforF1cardesign.
10OUT OF AFRICA–stickinsectshaveanappealtopeopleofallages,asPaul
Donovanexplains.Theyarearemarkablegroupofinsects.
15INTERPRETINGWHAT COMES OUT–veterinarysurgeonDrTariqAbou-Zahr
discussestheimportantyetinfrequentlydiscussedsubjectofwhatcanbelearntfrom
reptiledroppings.
20Q&A–addressingtheproblemsthatyouwantanswered,concentratingthis
monthonconcernsaroundsafetyissueswithvivariumlighting.
22COMPANY PROFILE–thismonth’ssubjectisExoticDirect.
32JOANNA’S CASEBOOK–itisnotjustaquestionoflookingataturtlefrom
abovetocheckthatitappearshealthy,butyouneedtolookunderneathaswell,as
veterinarysurgeonJoannaHedleyexplains.
34REPTILE FOCUS–profilingoneofastunninggroupofNewWorldlizards.
46TALES FROMTHE REPTILE HOUSE–retiredzoologicalcuratorBillLowe
reflectsontheamphibianthatquiteliterallyservedformanyyearstotransform
people’slives,andisstillofcriticalimportancetoustoday.
54HERPETOLOGICAL MYSTERIES–DrKarlShukerconcludeshisinvestigation,
drawingonnumerousreportsextendingbackovermanyyears,astowhetherthere
couldbeunidentifiedreptiliansurvivorsfromtheageofthedinosaursstilllivingin
Africa.
60PUZZLES–testyourknowledgewithourrangeofreptile-relatedpuzzles.
61YOU ANDYOUR REPTILES–astunningselectionofthephotosthatyou’vesent
in.Whynottryyourhandattakingsomepicturesofyourpets,emailthemtousand
hopefullyseetheminprint,andpossiblywinaprizeaswell?
66NEXT MONTH–andalsohowtocontactus.
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SNAKES◆LIZARDS◆TORTOISES◆AMPHIBIANS◆INVERTS
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No.78: Summer 2015 £3.70
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News & Views Featuring news this month about how snakes could be
helping us to develop new technology, a rescue event and
the launch of an on-line range of informative reptile care videos,
plus information about missing tortoises.
T
he National Theft Register has just
released its annual report for last
year, dealing with tortoises. As will be
seen from the figures below, the
encouraging news is that there was a
steady decrease for the second year
running in the total number of reports
received.
“When considering the number of
reports, we dealt with 69 cases of
lost and found animals last year,
compared with 80 in 2013. The 41
found tortoises are separate reports
and not linked to the recorded
losses. This figure is identical to the
previous year,”explains John
Hayward.“A number of escapees
were recovered. There was an
increase of tortoises‘digging in’and
later re-appearing in the garden.
Others were found in neighbours’
back gardens.”
There were a number of notable
successes with lost tortoises being
found and re-united in Manchester,
Burton on Trent, Oakhampton, St. Agnes,
Dorchester and Carmarthen. One was
tracked down at Reepham, Norfolk in an
adjacent field six weeks later, and another
discovered five days after disappearing,
walking along the High Street in
Sherington, Buckinghamshire.
Thefts nationwide
“Dealing with the eleven reported thefts,
they all appear to be one-off opportunist
incidents and we did not identify any
real organised crime,”says John.“Three
were stolen at Dewsbury, a Hermann’s at
St. Helens which was later recovered
locally as the result of press appeals, two
were taken from a garage at
Southampton, four from a shed at
Reading and one was traced. A further
two Hermann’s were taken in Ware, and
others at Rotherham and Leicester.
“During the latter part of the year, four
other thefts were reported. A Hermann’s
Further information
For security and crime prevention advice
call John Hayward, Co-ordinator National
Theft Register on 01869 325699. Email:
jh@ntr.supanet.com
4 |Practical Reptile Keeping
was taken in Birmingham, a Horsfield’s in
East Lothian, two sulcatas from a shed in
Manchester and finally, two from a
garden at Worcester together with a dog
kennel. Local publicity helped in the
recovery of the tortoises in this particular
case, but the kennel was never found.”
Security measures
It is apparent that the majority of losses
and thefts could have been prevented by
heightened perimeter security and that
vigilance is required to deter the thieves,
especially when the tortoises are clearly
visible in the open. Owners should also
be aware of the need to protect their
animals during the winter months when
hibernating them in external buildings
like sheds and garages.
“Finally, I’d like to emphasise that the
new mini-microchip is now on the
market, measuring just 8mm in length
compared with the previous standard
size of 12mm. This has been endorsed by
Defra and specialist exotic vets, and can
be used with all species – not just those
that have to be microchipped – and
again provides a permanent means of
identification.
“In addition, it is always advisable to
photograph your tortoise, taking
close-up photographs of both the
carapace and plastron (upper and lower
shell respectively) to show its individual
markings. These should be printed out
and stored somewhere safely, serving as
evidence for identification purposes and
proof of ownership,”adds John.
plus information about missing tortoises.
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Thefts 32 13 10 15 15 20 11 9 11
Losses 31 11 19 31 29 68 39 39 28
Found 34 30 15 25 53 67 51 41 41
Total 97 54 44 71 97 155 101 89 80
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Thefts 32 13 10 15 15 20 11 9 11
Losses 31 11 19 31 29 68 39 39 28
Found 34 30 15 25 53 67 51 41 41
ˆ An increasing number
of tortoises were
discovered to have dug
themselves in,
re-emerging from their
hiding place later, rather
than disappearing for any
more sinister reason.
ˆ Shell markings are
unique, and should be
recorded.
Lost, found and
stolen tortoises

SUMMER 2015 | 5
Further information
View the videos through the Arcadia
Reptile website (http://www.arcadia-
reptile.com/) or https://vimeo.
com/132929989
Care videos on-line
A
rcadia Reptile has just launched a
series of videos explaining the basics
of vivarium lighting, presented by
the well-known television scientist
and reptile-keeping enthusiast Dr Mike
Leahy.
Filming went very well indeed, partly
because Dr Leahy was already very familiar
with the Arcadia range as he uses it for his
own collection.
“It was so nice to have someone that
not only knew the science behind what
we wanted to say, but knew how to
communicate it,”says John Courteney-
Smith, Arcadia Reptile Products Manager.
“We used a very slick production company
called Videosweet who usually do high
end motoring and music videos. With
them working alongside Dr Mike, the
scripts really did spring to life.
“There were no disasters or horrific
Date for your diary
L
uton Reptile Rescue works tirelessly to rehabilitate reptiles that are no longer
wanted and homeless. Whenever possible, they are placed into suitable and
experienced care, but many animals have become permanent residents of the
rescue.
Such facilities and intensive care costs money, which can add up to several thousand
pounds. Luton Reptile Rescue (LRR) is a non-profit making organisation relying entirely
on donations in order to keep doing what it does.
“We are holding our third annual fund raiser to ensure another year of care can be
given by this dedicated and incredible team of people who work alongside me,”explains
LRR’s Natalie Cawdell.“And we hope that people will come along and give us their
support.”
For further information on Luton Reptile Rescue and its team, please look up Elvis the
Iguana onYouTube. Please note that this video contains some harrowing scenes but it
does have a happy ending.
out-takes. I guess you could say it was all
very boring on that front, with no escapes
or bites or similar issues either. It was just a
very smooth process – another day at the
office!”
The set-ups that you can copy
The series of videos was filmed at Arcadia
Reptile HQ near Redhill in Surrey, and
show just some of the collection of mostly
rescue animals that all live in planted,
bio-active vivariums there.
“The mountain horned dragon vivarium
is a 6x5x2 Terrapod and is powered by our
HO T5 linear lighting, D3+UVFLOOD and
Arcadia Jungle Dawn. It has a HabiStat
ReptiRadiator and Digistat with a NewJet
600 pump powering the waterfall. This
unit is decorated with all live plants and
natural wood,”says John.
“The pygmy chameleon vivarium is a
90x60x45 Swell glass viv
with a 90cm Arcadia Pro
Viv T5 canopy, 22W
Arcadia Jungle Dawn
and 75W Arcadia Reptile
Halogen heat spot with a Habistat day
night stat. Again it features all live plants,
supplied by Rep-tech and ProRep, and the
Arcadia‘EarthMix’Bio-active substrate.“
Three other vivarium set-ups also
feature.“The eyed lizards have a 4x2x2 ND
vivarium and stand, it is powered by an
Arcadia Reptile 24W twin ZooBar
Zoological fitting and a 22W Jungle Dawn.
It uses a HabiStat ReptiRadiator and
Digistat. Arcadia‘EarthMix’Bio-active
substrate and natural slate and branches,”
says John.
“The rainbow boas have a 30x24x24 ND
viv and stand with a D3+UVFLOOD for UV
and light and a single 13W Arcadia jungle
Dawn. It has Arcadia‘EarthMix’bio-active
substrate plus live bromeliads and natural
cork, again with a HabiStat ReptiRadiator
and Digistat.
“Finally, Darwin, our old rescue tortoise,
has a Monkfield Table, D3+UVFLOOD and
stand with a HabiStat controlled halogen
heatspot, and an Arcadia‘EarthMix’
combined with a dried alfalfa and hay
substrate.”
Dr Mike Leahy presenting one of the
videos. Photo courtesy Arcadia Reptile.
ˆ A relaxed Dr Leahy
between shoots. Photo
courtesy Arcadia Reptile.

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News & Views
Snakes offer a way forward
S
nakes obviously move across the
ground without limbs, dragging their
bodies and this can cause friction as a
result. But now a new study has
shown the impact of friction is a lot lower
than previously thought. In fact, the degree
of friction is some 40% less than in the case
of high performance materials in use today.
By mimicking the property of snake skin,
scientists now hope that they will be able
to increase the reliability of mechanical
components in machines such as
high performance cars, and assist
engineers who are designing a
new generation of space
exploration robots.
The skin of many snakes and lizards has
been studied by biologists and has long
been known to provide friction reduction
to the animal as it moves. It is also resistant
to wear, particularly in environments that
are dry and dusty or sandy.
Dr Greiner and his team used a laser to
etch the surface of a steel pin so that it
closely resembled the texture of snake skin.
They then tested the friction created when
the pin moved against another surface.
In dry conditions, where there was no oil
or other lubricant present, the scale-like
surface created far less friction - 40% less
- than its smooth counterpart.
A major advance
Lead researcher, Dr Christian Greiner
explains:“If we’d managed just a 1%
reduction in friction, our engineering
colleagues would have been delighted;
40% really is a leap forward and everyone is
very excited!”
Applications are likely to be in the field
of mechanical devices that are made to a
micro or nano scale. Familiar examples
include the sensors in car anti-lock braking
systems, computer hard disk drives, and
the component called an accelerometer,
which means your mobile phone can tell if
it is in portrait or landscape mode, and
activity bands that count your steps as you
move.
Further information
Christian Greiner, Michael Schäfer.
Bio-inspired scale-like surface
textures and their tribological
properties. Bioinspiration &
Biomimetics, 2015; 10 (4): 044001 DOI:
10.1088/1748-3190/10/4/044001
Ball (royal) pythons are
helping to reduce friction.
backwards motion. The steel pins tested
in this research mimic only the
overall surface texture of snake
skin and reduce friction in at
least two directions.
Dr Greiner has made
some progress with
polymers that even more
closely mimic snake skin,
so as to reduce friction in
only one direction. It is, he
says, early days at this
stage.
The only caution is that
this new surface doesn’t work
well in an environment where oil
or another lubricant is present. In
fact, the snake skin effect created three
times more friction with lubricant,
compared with an equivalent smooth
surface.
“This wasn’t a huge surprise, since we
were looking to nature for inspiration and
the species we mimicked – the ball (royal)
python and a lizard called a sandfish skink
- live in very dry environments and don’t
secrete oils or other liquids onto their skin,”
explains Dr Greiner.
“Our new surface
texture will mainly come
into its own when engineers are
really looking to push the envelope,”Dr
Greiner says.
Indeed, the snake skin surface could be
used in very high end automotive
engineering, such as Formula 1 racing cars;
in highly sensitive scientific equipment,
including sensors installed in synchrotrons
such as the Diamond Light Source in the
UK or the Large Hadron Collider in
Switzerland; and anywhere that the
engineering challenge is to further
miniaturise moving parts.
There is interest in snake
skin inspired materials from
the robotics sector, too,
which is designing robots,
inspired by snakes. These
could aid exploration of
very dusty environments
on earth or even in space.
This raises a new challenge
for Dr Greiner’s team - to
make a material that decreases
friction in only one direction.
Further developments
Anyone who has felt a snake’s skin will
know that the scales all lie in the same
direction and are articulated to aid the
snake in its forward motion, whilst resisting
backwards motion. The steel pins tested
in this research mimic only the
overall surface texture of snake
skin and reduce friction in at
least two directions.
some progress with
says, early days at this
stage.
this new surface doesn’t work
well in an environment where oil
or another lubricant is present. In
fact, the snake skin effect created three
times more friction with lubricant,
such as the Diamond Light Source in thesuch as the Diamond Light Source in the
UK or the Large Hadron Collider in
Switzerland; and anywhere that the
engineering challenge is to further
make a material that decreases
friction in only one direction.
Further developments
Anyone who has felt a snake’s skin will
… Advances thanks to
this snake study are
predicted in the design
of computer hard drives.
‡ Sandfish skinks have
been used in this
research as well.
Photo courtesyWilfried
Berns.

SUMMER 2015 | 7
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W
hether it be stamp-collecting, train-
spotting or fishing, the degree of
enthusiasm for a particular hobby can vary
enormously. At one end of the spectrum
are the dabblers, the fair-weather practitioners,
those with a fleeting interest. At the other are the
fully committed - the dedicated devotees.
Reptile keeping is, of course, no different. Most
readers of this magazine will be happy with a turtle,
a few geckos, or a small python possibly. Others will
seek quantity as well as quality, filling their homes
and perhaps trying the patience of their family.
The deadly bushmaster
Then there will be a few diehards who gravitate
towards the‘hot’species - venomous reptiles such
as rattlesnakes, cobras and gila monsters for which
special permits are required and years of experience
recommended. And when it comes to hot herps,
they don’t come much hotter than the four species
of South American bushmaster (Lachesis), which are
the world’s largest vipers.
Not only are they huge – a specimen killed in
Trinidad is reliably put at 12ft (3.65m)
in length – but they pack a considerable punch.
These snakes are able to deliver massive volumes of
venom potentially in just a single bite, courtesy of
fangs that are 5cm (2in) long.
One 17th century explorer described a
bushmaster bite as quickly causing pain, dizziness,
colic, delirium, and fever. Soon after, he maintained,
the blood rapidly corrodes and boils up through
the nostrils, ears, and even the hands and feet.
Death comes within twenty-four hours.
For the majority of people, you’d have to be crazy
to want to go anywhere near a bushmaster, let
alone keep one.Yet as my new book Bushmaster
makes clear, this deadly snake was the object of
fascination for a very special but now largely
forgotten pioneer of reptile keeping.
Speaking up for reptiles
Born during 1876 in Newark, New Jersey, Raymond
Lee Ditmars would enjoy a varied early career,
including working as an assistant at the
entomology department of the American Museum
of Natural History, and reporting for the New York
Times. But ultimately, he rose to prominence as the
first curator of reptiles and mammals at the New
York Zoological Park – which is better known these
days as the Bronx Zoo.
Ditmars eventually produced seventeen books
and a wealth of articles on natural history, with his
influence and interests extending far beyond the
world of snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and
turtles. He also delivered countless
public lectures and was a pioneering
natural history filmmaker.
In the beginning
Ditmars’s interest in reptiles started early.
As a child, he had started bringing home
harmless garter snakes and water snakes as pets.
Venomous species living near the city, including
rattlesnakes and copperheads, were later added to
his collection. The city’s waterfront also offered rich
pickings, as boas and other tropical snakes often
slithered out from fruit shipments that were being
unloaded from steamboats. He persuaded
stevedores to save any snakes they saw for him,
rather than killing them.
Resistant at first, his parents yielded to their son’s
hobby, eventually surrendering the entire top floor
of their large brownstone house in the Bronx to the
burgeoning reptilian menagerie.
Ditmars also began extracting venom from
rattlesnakes and other deadly species, manipulating
them with all the skill and precision of a surgeon
twice his age. This was passed to scientists seeking
cures for snakebite.
Fellow snake enthusiasts
Interestingly, the young enthusiast growing up in
late nineteenth century NewYork was far from
alone in his fascination with cold-blooded
creatures. During his stint on the New York Times,
Ditmars was asked to write“around-town stuff”for a
Sunday pictorial magazine supplement which had
been recently introduced as a way of boosting the
paper’s circulation.
Stories that were decidedly serpentine in subject
‡ The deadly impact of a bushmaster’s venom was first
documented as early as the 1600s.
Asnake-keepingpioneer
Dan Eatherley is the author of Bushmaster: Raymond Ditmars and the Hunt for the
World’s Largest Viper (Arcade, £16.26), and here, in the first of two exclusive articles, he explains
Ditmars’fascination with snakes, and the bushmaster in particular.
‡ Ditmars was in charge of both the reptiles and mammals at the
New York Zoological Park – now the Bronx Zoo.

FEATURE | HYPOMELANISTIC GRASS SNAKES
where matters were coming to a head. Not satisfied
with local snakes or those turning up at the docks,
the young Raymond - still living with his parents
– was now exchanging specimens with reptile-
keepers all over the world.
One day he took delivery of a large crate of
snakes from Trinidad. (Customs rules were laxer in
those days!). He subsequently described
excitedly prizing open the wooden
box dispatched from the West
Indian island by a fellow
serpent aficionado. Among
the tropical boas, rat snakes,
coral snakes, and
fer-de-lances in this exotic
consignment was the star
of the show: a 2.4m (8ft)
long bushmaster in good
condition, which, the
delivery note stated,
Ditmars should“be extremely
careful with liberating.”
On its release, and clearly
displeased for being cooped up for
several weeks, the viper supposedly
chased the young snake devotee about the room,
with the rest of the family downstairs being totally
oblivious to his plight. Finally, with the help of a
broom, Ditmars persuaded the bushmaster to
slither into a cage and he lived to tell the tale.“I
figured it had received one of the surprises of its
life,”he later wrote,“and it had certainly given me
the worst jolt of mine.”
The hair-raising encounter with the giant viper
was a formative moment for the young
herpetologist. As my book Bushmaster reveals, thirty
years later, the incident kindled in Ditmars an
obsession to catch a wild bushmaster for himself.
The middle-aged zoo curator would make repeated
snake-hunting expeditions to Central and South
America, a quest that for a period during the 1930s
made national newspaper headlines. The
remarkable Raymond Ditmars was clearly at the
extreme end of the reptile-keeping spectrum! ✥
* Dan Eatherley is a British naturalist, writer and
wildlife film-maker with a first class zoology degree
from Oxford University. Dan has made a variety of
natural history TV documentaries for the BBC, National
Geographic, and the Discovery Channel, including
working as an assistant producer with Sir David
Attenborough. These days, when not hunting giant
vipers, he works from his home in southwest England
as a consultant in environmental sustainability. His
website can be found at www.daneatherley.com
enthusiastic member.
However, Ditmars
reserved perhaps his
greatest admiration for a
certain George R. O’Reilly, an
itinerant newspaper editor and
school professor of Irish origin who
had“been in nearly every temperate and
tropical country in the world in his search and study
of serpent life.”
Having spent several years collecting in Trinidad,
Venezuela and British Guiana (now Guyana), O’Reilly
moved to New Jersey. He brought with him some
five hundred snakes as housemates, a good
proportion of which he had bred himself.
Ditmars described O’Reilly as being“among the
most enthusiastic collectors of ophidians,”whose
room“of ordinary dimensions”was crammed with
“about forty cages, ranging in size from a packing
case down to a soap box. In these cases, snakes of
all colours and sizes writhe and twist, and glare
ominously at the visitor.”He also noted that the
collection would be“positively alarming”to the
uninitiated and wherever O’Reilly“took up his
abode”, the entire district became“immediately
uncomfortable.”
O’Reilly reputedly forbade the papers from
printing his address for fear that his neighbours
might“present a petition to the landlord requesting
that the serpent expert be ignominiously bounced.”
Like Ditmars, O’Reilly invariably had a serpent or
two about his person, carrying them in his pockets
while riding streetcars and railroad trains. Once, on
a crowded Fifth Avenue sidewalk, he was prevented
from greeting a lady because he had a snake under
his hat!
A formative moment
But back to the Bronx, and the Ditmars household,
Win a signed copy!
We have two signed copies of Dan’s book, in which he follows in
Ditmars’s footsteps after 80 years, with the aim of finding a
bushmaster in the wild.
To enter, simply send your name and address to: Bushmaster
Competition, Practical Reptile Keeping, Kelsey Media, Cudham
Tithe Barn, Berry’s Hill, Cudham, Kent TN16 3AG. The closing date
for entries is Friday, August 20th, and the first two entries drawn
will be the winners. The judges’ decision is final, and no
correspondence can be entered into.
FEATURE | A SNAKE-KEEPING PIONEER
matter began gracing the pages of the city’s finest
publication, as Ditmars brought to wider attention
his fellow snake hobbyists. These included Charles
H. Higby, an eccentric artist specialising in the
design of theatre programmes, for whom snakes
served as inspiration for his“peculiar work, elaborate
in decorative effect”, as Ditmars described it.
Higby was the proud owner ofYao, said at the
time to be NewYork’s only albino boa constrictor
– 2.4m (8ft) of bright yellow snake. Then there was
Frank Speck of Hackensack, New Jersey, who
possessed“a complete collection of the reptiles of
the State”. They included“two lively black racers,
which constantly dance up and down the glass
front of their cage to the consternation of nervous
callers.”
His influences
Another notable snake collector of this period, and
a great influence on Ditmars, was Dr C. Slover Allen.
Although expert in ear, nose, and throat maladies,
natural history was the genial medical doctor’s true
calling. Early publications focused on birds but the
physician switched his attentions to an enduring
problem: finding a snakebite cure.
He never did arrive at a solution but Allen
gathered valuable data on water moccasins and
rattlesnakes, which were trapped during holidays in
Florida. Allen demonstrated his reptiles at meetings
of NewYork City’s Linnaean Society, the leading
naturalists’club of the day, of which Ditmars was an
As their name
suggests, black
racers can be very
fast moving.
those days!). He subsequently described
excitedly prizing open the wooden
box dispatched from the West
Indian island by a fellow
serpent aficionado. Among
the tropical boas, rat snakes,
delivery note stated,
Ditmars should“be extremely
careful with liberating.”
On its release, and clearly
displeased for being cooped up for
several weeks, the viper supposedly
certain George R. O’Reilly, an
itinerant newspaper editor and
school professor of Irish origin who
Above: The bushmaster proved very lively after being released from its travelling crate.
Right: Raymond Ditmars was a newspaper journalist and early film producer too. Source PD.
Next issue: Discover more about Raymond
Ditmars’quest to find a bushmaster.

Phasmids, which include stick insects and leaf insects, have often been regarded as children’s pets,
rather than being of interest to the serious bug keeper, writes Paul Donovan. I remember that many
fellow invertebrate keepers would mock me when I used to return from Kempton bug show with a
box-load of plastic tubs full of spindly looking insects. But I still ﬁnd them fascinating, even today, partly
because of the diversity that exists within this group.
exceptions to this rule. While many may
not grow much bigger than a few
centimetres in overall length, phasmids
actually rank amongst the largest of all
insects. The largest known species was
discovered in 2008 and is called the Chan’s
megastick (Phobaeticus chani).
This species is known only from the
rainforest of Sabah on the island of
Borneo. It currently holds the record for
T
heir order Phasmatodea includes
some 3,000 species, and there is a
distinct diﬀerence in their common
names, depending on which side of
the Atlantic you are resident. Only
Europeans know them as‘stick insects’,
whereas Americans and Canadians refer
to them as‘walking sticks’. Whatever name
they go by, it is doubtful whether you
could mistake them for almost any other
insect.
The giants of the group
These common names both derived from
their spindly bodies and even spindlier
legs, although as always, there are some
Stickinsectsappeal
topeopleofallages
Out ofAfrica
… The heaviest stick
insect of all – a female
jungle nymph.
A male Chan megastick, revealing its slender wings, running over the abdomen. Photo courtesy P.E. Bragg.
Chan’s megastick – the longest known insect in the world. This is the first female that was documented. Photo courtesy P.E. Bragg.
being the longest insect in the world with
a body length of 35cm (14in), and when
its legs are fully stretched out, it measures
55cm (22in); a true beast of the jungle if
ever there was one!
A phasmid representative also ranks
amongst the heaviest of all insects, with a
gravid jungle nymph (Heteropteryx
dilatata) typically weighing up to 65g
(2.5oz). Females are an attractive

being blown by the wind – just like a
plant in a breeze! Some may simply just
freeze, or even fall to the ground as
though they had just died, or were a piece
of branch that had snapped off. This is a
ploy favoured by the African giant stick
insect (Bactrododema tiaratum).
When picked up, many stick insects will
vomit up the contents of their stomach,
which is distasteful to predators. This is a
similar protective ploy that can be
used by locusts and
grasshoppers. Others, such as
the New Guinea stick insect
(Eurycantha calcarata) rely
on brute force, with their
body being well-
protected by spines.
On the inner thigh of
its rear legs, this bulky
stick insect has a vicious
sharp spine. When
provoked, the legs are
promptly brought together
like a spring clamp. A small
predator could suffer a
debilitating injury as a
consequence of being impaled in
this vice, while a larger one is likely to
sustain a very painful wound. Handling
these stick insects needs to be carried out
with care. Otherwise, should one of your
fingers end up being trapped between
these spines, it is likely to end up bleeding
as a result.
The most extreme form of defence
employed by stick insects can be seen in
the species forming the genus
Anisomorpha. When angered, these stick
insects, that are to be found in south-
eastern parts of the USA, can emit a
potent defensive spray. It has a pungent
odour and can also cause extreme
discomfort if it gets in the eyes or mouth.
In the case of eye contact, it may event
result in temporary blindness.
The glands from which this spray is
ejected are situated on the forward edge
of the prothorax. At one time, it was
thought that the pungent odour
originated from chemicals that the stick
insects extracted from the plants upon
OUT OF AFRICA | STICK INSECTS
The cerci are evident right at the
end of the stick insect’s body.
†
lime-green with a robust body, while the
male is more spindly and overall brown in
colour.
Range and characteristics
Phasmids have a wide distribution
throughout the warm regions of the
world, with the greatest diversity
occurring in South-east Asia, South
America, Australia and Africa, although
some are also to be found in Europe and
North America. In terms of appearance,
stick insects have rectangular or oval
shaped heads with small eyes and strong
mouthparts.
Typically their first thoracic segment
– the section of the body after the head -
is small, being followed by a larger second
and third segment. The abdomen has 11
segments and terminates in a pair of cerci,
which in males may be modified into a
structure that can be used to clasp. Cerci
are thought to derived from a pair of legs
that were present in the ancestors of
today’s insect lineage.
Although a few species of stick insect
do possess wings, these are not present in
most species. Where they do occur, they
are usually strongly developed in males,
with the hind wings being long and only
partially covered by the forewings. Stick
insects cannot fly powerfully though,
tending to use their wings more for
gliding. In some cases
their wings are
rudimentary and
non-functional.
When annoyed, male
stick insects will raise their
hind wings to expose bright
colours often hidden here, and
rub their wings together to
produce a loud hissing-like sound.
Most stick insects are nocturnal, although
a number of species are active during the
day.
Masters of disguise
As you can imagine, stick insects are
extremely difficult to spot on foliage, as a
result of their superb camouflage and
appearance. Most of the individuals I have
found here in Botswana have been
spotted in more conspicuous places, such
as hanging from walls. I have yet to find
one in their more usual habitat amongst
vegetation, as being such masters of
disguise, they could be staring at you in
the face here, and you still wouldn’t see
them!
Although camouflage is a great ploy
against predator protection, and works in
most cases, stick insects have actually
evolved a number of defensive measures.
If spotted and touched, they may begin to
sway or rock rhythmically as if they were
The ferocious spike present on
the hind legs of the New
Guinea stick insect can be
seen here.
vomit up the contents of their stomach,
which is distasteful to predators. This is a
similar protective ploy that can be
used by locusts and
grasshoppers. Others, such as
the New Guinea stick insect
(Eurycantha calcarata)
on brute force, with their
provoked, the legs are
promptly brought together
like a spring clamp. A small
predator could suffer a
debilitating injury as a
consequence of being impaled in
this vice, while a larger one is likely to
stick insects will raise their
hind wings to expose bright
colours often hidden here, and
rub their wings together to
produce a loud hissing-like sound.
‡ Defensive displays of
some species, can look
quit intimidating. Photo
courtesy of the author.
SUMMER 2015 | 11
ˆ A male Anisomorpha
paromalus. These stick
insects can defend
themselves with an
unpleasant spray.
Photo courtesy Ed Baker.

which they fed. It is now believed that
they actually make this obnoxious fluid
themselves.
A further form of defence employed by
various species is to bleed from the joints
of the legs. The stick insects’blood (called
haemolymph) contains certain additives
that are distasteful to would-be predators,
serving as an additional deterrant.
Breeding
One of the usual features associated with
a number of different species of stick
insect is a form of reproduction known as
parthenogenesis. This refers to the ability
of a female Indian stick insect (Carausius
morosus) to lay fertilised eggs without the
need for a male to be present for mating.
In fact, in this particular case, males are
generally not present in the population. In
cases where they are, they are generally
smaller than the females and fewer in
number. Having said that, some
parthenogenic females do have
the ability to mate with males
should they be present.
In those species where
both sexes occur, mating
can often be a lengthy
matter. The male will hop
onto the females back,
and then hold on tight
with his legs, or with a
paired pincer-like cerci, as
mentioned previously. He
will remain on the females
back anywhere from a couple
of hours to several weeks.
It is difficult to understand as to
why mating should take so long. One
hypothesis, accepted by many biologists,
is that it prevents the female from being
mated by other males, and thus ensures
that it is the original male’s sperm that
fertilises her eggs. If confronted by
another male, the established male will
bring the female’s genital opening
upwards so that it lies along the top of the
abdomen, and rain blows down upon his
challenger.
Females can lay between 100 and 1000
or more eggs, depending on the species.
The eggs are quite large, and, with their
hardened exteriors, they are easily
mistaken for plant seeds. There are several
ways in which the eggs can be dispersed.
In the most dramatic cases, the female
uses her abdomen rather like a sling shot,
flicking the eggs out and dispersing them
quite widely, allowing them to fall to the
ground. Alternatively, in a less
demonstrative fashion, eggs may simply
be stuck to the stem of a food plant,
buried in the soil, or attached to rocks.
An amazing lifecycle
Although many of the eggs hatch where
they were laid, a number of species make
use of a remarkable means of dispersal by
ants called myrmecochory. The eggs of
these particular stick insects have a fatty
Mating is often a
protracted process.
cases where they are, they are generally
smaller than the females and fewer in
number. Having said that, some
parthenogenic females do have
the ability to mate with males
back anywhere from a couple
It is difficult to understand as to
why mating should take so long. One
Stick insect eggs vary greatly in
appearance. They tend to look like
seeds, and some have a distinct
swelling resembling an eliaosome.
… The elaiosomes of the African lenke
tree are very clearly highlighted in
these seeds, being orange in colour.
Photo courtesy Jeffdelonge.

50/50 chance of being either male or
female.
Phasmids are described as being
hemimetabolous, meaning that they
undergo incomplete metamorphosis. The
nymphs resemble adults and undergo
several moults, numbering anywhere from
four and eight in total, before taking on
adult form. Any loss of limbs – to which
stick insects are susceptible – will be made
good when a nymph is moulting, but
adult stick insects are unable to regenerate
missing legs.
The life expectancy of phasmids varies
enormously. Adults of some species may
survive for little more than a few weeks,
while others may have a life expectancy in
excess of five or six years. As a rule, females
live longer than males.
Captive care
One of the reasons why phasmids are so
popular, apart from being inexpensive to
buy, is that they are easy to look after,
hardy, cost nothing to feed and take up
virtually no room. Although there are
many different species of stick insects for
sale, by far the most common is the Indian
or laboratory stick insect (Carausius
morosus).
Originating from India as its name
suggests, this stick insect has been
introduced, either intentionally or
unintentionally, into many other countries
where the climate has proven to its liking. I
have found this species both in the
Limpopo region of South Africa, and also
here in Botswana.
Housing requirements vary from
species to species, according to their size
and also their lifestyle. The majority are
arboreal by nature, but the New Guinea
stick insect prefers to live on the ground,
and is also highly unusual in eating grass!
A couple of pairs of Malaysian jungle
nymphs (Heteropteryx dilatata) require an
enclosure in the form of a 1m (39in) cube,
whereas I known some people who keep

ˆ The commonly-kept
Indian stick insect.
Always lift stick insects
up gently, freeing their
legs if necessary with
great care, to avoid injury.
The reproductive cycle
Incubation times for stick insect eggs vary
enormously from species to species. In the
wild, the average time can be anywhere
from two weeks to as long as eighteen
months. A number of temperate species
may undergo a process called diapause,
whereby the eggs development is
delayed over the winter and the nymphs
hatch the following spring. Diapause can
be determined genetically or affected
through changes in the photoperiod (light
exposure). This may help to ensure that
the nymphs hatch at the most favourable
time of year, when food will be most
plentiful.
At one end of the egg is a lid-like
structure called an operculum through
which the nymph emerges. Nymphs are
spindly little duplicates of the adults, and
as they emerge from the egg, they will eat
the discarded cast (shell). Nymphs born to
virgin mothers are entirely females,
whereas those from mated females have a
SUMMER 2015 | 13
‡ Female jungle nymphs are one of the heaviest of all insect species. Photo courtesy of the author.
protuberance called a capitulum. This
mimics the structure known as the
elaiosome found on plant seeds to which
ants are attracted.
The ants carry the eggs to their nest
where they feed the capitulum to their
larvae. The developing eggs then remain
unharmed in the nest where they are
protected from seed-eating predators.
When the eggs hatch, the stick insect
nymphs then mimic the ants at first, not
only in looks but also behaviour. This
serves to protect them from being
attacked by the ants. After a short period
of time, they will then make their way out
of the ants’nest to the surface, where they
disperse amongst the foliage.

Indian stick insects in large jam jars. This is
not the most ideal housing arrangements,
as it offers little airflow, and can become
too hot during the summer if left on a
windowsill or elsewhere in direct sunlight.
The floor of the cage can be covered
with a layer of plain paper for ease of
cleaning, and this will also highlight the
presence of eggs. Alternatively, you can
use a 50/50 mix of peat and sand.
There is no need to decorate the
cage, as most of the time, the
stick insects will be attached
to the food plant.
In common with most
invertebrates, their
individual temperature
requirements will vary from
species to species. As a rule,
phasmids are pretty hardy
insects, and providing that the
room where they are being kept
is warm, then supplementary
heating may not be necessary. Most
species are comfortable between
23-28°C (73-82°F).
Moulting
Irrespective of what you keep them in, it is
important that the enclosure is tall
enough to allow the stick insect sufficient
uncluttered room to anchor itself so that it
can moult easily. The height of the
surroundings should therefore be at least
three to four times that of the individual’s
body length.
When the stick insect is ready to shed
its old skin, it will cease feeding and hangs
upside down from a twig or branch. The
individual then inflates its body with air,
almost doubling in size at this stage. As it
does so, the outer skin ruptures and the
insect crawls out. This process may take
several hours to complete. Once free, the
new soft, delicate body casing will
ultimately harden and takes on a darker
colouration.
If things go wrong, and the stick insect
has insufficient space to complete the
moult, the old skin may not be shed
properly and it could start to dry on a
newly emerged individual. This can cause
deformity or death.
You can try and help the stick insect if
ˆ The mouthparts of
stick insects help them to
feed very efficiently.
‡ A moulting stick insect
emerging from its old
skin. Photo courtesy of the
author.
The New Guinea stick
insect is more terrestrial
than other species.
Further
You can find out much more about
the range of species available and
food plants, as well as making
contact with fellow phasmid
enthusiasts through the Phasmid
Study Group, whose website can be
found at http://phasmid-study-
group.org/
information
Head shot of
Bactrododema
tiaratum. Photo
courtesy of the author.
this starts to happen by
lightly spraying it with warm
water, as a means of trying to
soften the skin, and then gently
peeling it off if possible. As a further
precaution against problems, when you
see a stick insect entering the moulting
phase, increase the humidity in its
surroundings.
If the species has wings as an adult
(nymphs never have wings), these will
develop during the final moult. They grow
from wing buds, and at first, they
resemble crumpled pieces of paper, but
will gradually inflate and harden to full
size.
A lost limb
Autotomy, meaning the ability to shed a
limb, is common amongst stick insects.
Fortunately, if this occurs early on during
the lifecycle, the individual has the
capacity to regrow the limb again. Over
successive moults, the limb will gradually
get bigger, and by the third moult will be
full size again. Regeneration is only
possible in nymphs. If an adult loses a
limb, or if an individual is approaching its
final moult, the lost limb will not be
replaced.
Feeding
Phasmids are herbivores, feeding on
nothing but plants. Most can be kept
successfully on a diet of bramble, oak
leaves, privet, ivy, willow herb, fuchsia, and
evening primrose. Some may only take
bramble, others ivy, while a few species
will require more exotic plants such as
Eucalyptus or ferns.You need to grow your
own supplies if possible, because of the
risk that garden centre plants may be
contaminated with insecticides that will
kill the stick insects.
During periods when specific plants
may not be available, experiment with
different types of plants. Out here in
Botswana, I have had marginal success
keeping the giant stick insect
(Bactrododema tiaratum) on a diet of
lettuce and cabbage. This has proven
with a layer of plain paper for ease of
cleaning, and this will also highlight the
presence of eggs. Alternatively, you can
use a 50/50 mix of peat and sand.
There is no need to decorate the
insects, and providing that the
room where they are being kept
heating may not be necessary. Most
species are comfortable between
this starts to happen by
lightly spraying it with warm
water, as a means of trying to
soften the skin, and then gently
peeling it off if possible. As a further
useful when native plants are not
available. Over the winter in temperate
climates, privet can be very useful, as an
evergreen, while bramble may grow well
indoors on a windowsill.
When offering food, place the stemmed
plants in a jar of water. This will ensure that
they stay fresh for longer. Choose a
narrow-necked container, and fill any gaps
around the edge with tinfoil, so as to
ensure there is no risk of the nymphs in
particular drowning in the water.
Tail-end
Phasmids represent a diverse and very
interesting group of insects, being suitable
for keepers of all skill levels. They
encompass interesting aspects of biology,
such as the ability to regenerate lost limbs,
and may practice parthenogenic
reproduction. Many a famous
entomologist has started off by keeping
these unassuming looking insects. ✥

FEATURE | VETERINARY VIEWPOINT
Interpreting what comes out
W
hile not a topic with the most
pleasant imagery – either on the
page or in the mind, the subject of
reptile faeces is an important one, as
it can provide a lot of information about the
health status of our animals. Certainly as a
reptile vet, I would generally always
recommend that a faecal examination is
performed in the case of any sick reptile and
also periodically as a routine screen for
internal parasites in seemingly healthy stock.
Many keepers have a lot of questions
about reptile faeces, including what it
should look like, and how often their
animal(s) should produce it. Hopefully, this
article will provide some answers to such
questions, even if it doesn’t answer all of
them!
Having faecal samples tested regularly
for parasites is important for any reptile
owner or collector, as parasites can
accumulate very easily in the body without
a keeper being aware of this situation. This
can lead to a gradual decline in the animal’s
†
condition. Reptiles are not wormed
periodically on a routine basis, and a similar
protocol to that used in large animals such
as sheep and horses is generally advised,
where so-called“faecal egg counting”is
performed routinely, with treatment then
only being given when it is truly needed.
Faecal structure
Reptile faeces normally contain a brown
faecal element (which is waste derived
from the gut) alongside a hard whitish
urate portion, originating from the kidneys.
Urine is often deposited alongside the
faeces and may be seen as a small pool of
fluid around the dropping.
In reptiles, the end result of protein
metabolism is uric acid. This differs from
the urea created in mammals – which is
excreted in urine and is what we as
humans produce as a waste product. Urea
is 40,000 more times soluble than uric
acid, and this is of great
significance.
Uric acid precipitates out as
Reptile breeder and
veterinary surgeon Dr Tariq
Abou-Zahr discusses the
vital importance of
screening the faeces of
reptiles, not only when an
animal is sick, but also as a
preventive health measure.
SUMMER 2015 | 15
a whitish paste and its production means
that reptiles conserve a lot of water, in
comparison to the situation in mammals.
Whereas mammalian urine should contain
no protein, that of reptiles contains a lot
because mucoid substances are released
to prevent the kidneys from clogging up
with urine. This is not lost though, because
once urine enters the urodeum (the
portion of the cloaca with a urinary
outflow) it is sucked back up into the
rectum by a process called“reverse
peristalsis”.
As a result, it is then
reabsorbed and it is only really
the uric acid that precipitates
out. The faeces of healthy
reptiles should not usually
contain undigested food
material. If they do, it is often
a sign that the individual
concerned is suffering from
gut infections or parasites.
How often?
It is certainly the case that
herbivorous reptiles such as tortoises
produce far more faeces than some of their
carnivorous counterparts, particularly
snakes. This is basically because herbivores
consume high fibre diets that have a low
digestibility. It is quite hard to say exactly
how often a particular reptile should
produce faeces though, and it very much
depends on the taxon in question.
It is difficult to set hard and fast rules,
not least because transit time through the
gut is affected by various factors including
core body temperature, season and diet.
… The presence of
parasites in the gut can
be highlighted by faecal
examinations.
humans produce as a waste product. Urea
is 40,000 more times soluble than uric
Uric acid precipitates out as
portion of the cloaca with a urinary
outflow) it is sucked back up into the
rectum by a process called“reverse
peristalsis”.
As a result, it is then
reabsorbed and it is only really
the uric acid that precipitates
gut infections or parasites.
How often?
It is certainly the case that
herbivorous reptiles such as tortoises
produce far more faeces than some of their
‡ The urinary system of
reptiles helps to conserve
water – this is
particularly important in
desert-dwelling species.

There are too many different kinds of
parasitic worms to cover in any great detail,
although probably the commonest type
that we see in practice are the so-called
pinworms, which are also called oxyurids.
Most lizards have at least one species of
oxyurid, while some have many associated
with them.
Tortoises often feature several different
species in their intestinal tract as well. In
the past, some people have tried to rid
their reptiles completely of
oxyurids. Ironically, it is now
realised that this can
have harmful effects
on the host reptile,
because their
movements
may help to
break up the
particles of
food in the gut,
improving the
digestive
process.
A small number
of oxyurids are
regarded as being part
of the normal faecal flora in
many species. Having said that, if
a reptile is showing clinical symptoms of ill
thrift and there is a particularly large
burden of oxyurid eggs evident on
flotation, then I would normally treat the
reptile with a dewormer.
Tapeworms are another group of worms
that may be encountered quite commonly
in reptiles. When present, the so-called
“proglottids”, which are“segments”of the
body of the tapeworm, are often seen as
small, rice grain-type structures in the
faeces with the naked eye.
Examination of a faecal flotation will
reveal the tapeworm eggs themselves,
which are present within the proglottids.
Tapeworms often do not cause disease in
Obviously, an animal that is not eating very
much will not pass a great deal of faeces.
Whether anorexia is a clinical problem
will depend partly on the species in
question. It may be a totally normal
physiological process in a ball (royal)
python, but it is likely to be a serious issue
in a tortoise and an even more critical
concern in a lizard for example.
If an animal is eating a lot and not
relieving itself as regularly as normal, then
it may be constipated. The two most
common causes of constipation are
dehydration (particularly in bearded
dragons kept in hot, dry vivariums without
the provision of a water bowl, and in
situations where feeder insects are not
kept well hydrated) and also improper
temperatures, which will affect the
gut passage time.
An introduction to
reptile parasites
Parasitic disease is incredibly
common in reptiles. We
routinely test faecal samples
from pretty much all of our
reptile patients throughout the
year but we are especially careful
to check for any evidence of
intestinal parasites in sick reptiles.
It is worth remembering that parasites
can be picked up from the environment
and/or from eating prey items, so
wild-caught individuals are particularly
vulnerable. There are several broad groups
of parasites that we commonly encounter,
and they are as follows:
Worms
Nematodes are tubular worms also
described as roundworms. Some cause
disease, but others are completely normal
members of the gut flora,
alongside beneficial
bacteria for example, and
they can actually be helpful
to the reptile.
As with all parasites, it is vital
to be aware of their lifecycle, to
determine how best to control them,
aside from treating the reptile itself.
Although some roundworms produce
larvae directly, many lay eggs – which are
easily seen in a faecal“flotation”
examination. This is
something that can be
done very quickly by a
vet in practice with
the aid of a
microscope.
ˆ Bearded dragons are
amongst the species at
risk from constipation
caused by dehydration.
dragons kept in hot, dry vivariums without
the provision of a water bowl, and in
situations where feeder insects are not
kept well hydrated) and also improper
temperatures, which will affect the
year but we are especially careful
intestinal parasites in sick reptiles.
It is worth remembering that parasites
can be picked up from the environment
alongside beneficial
bacteria for example, and
they can actually be helpful
to the reptile.
As with all parasites, it is vital
to be aware of their lifecycle, to
determine how best to control them,
Herbivorous reptiles such
as tortoises produce
more faeces than snakes,
because of their high
fibre diet.
‡ Ask your reptile vet
for faecal collection pots
with a spoon in the lid for
easy submission of
samples for analysis.
Photo courtesy of the author.
their reptiles completely of
oxyurids. Ironically, it is now
realised that this can
have harmful effects
on the host reptile,
because their
process.
A small number
of oxyurids are
regarded as being part
of the normal faecal flora in
easily seen in a faecal“flotation”
examination. This is
something that can be
done very quickly by a
vet in practice with
Pinworms from a bearded dragon,
seen on a microscope slide.

FEATURE | Veterinary viewpoint
reptiles, but they can be harmful.
Interestingly, they have been described in
all of the reptile taxa with the exception of
the crocodilians.
Ascarids are a group of worms that are
seen and get very big indeed. There are
several other families of worms, but a full
run through of the taxonomy of reptile
parasites is beyond the scope of this article.
Protozoa
Amoebas – single-celled organisms – are
protozoa that have been frequently
implicated in clinical disease in a range of
reptile species. Coccidia are protozoans
that may cause disease and produce an
“oocyst”that is easily visible on faecal
examination with a microscope by a vet in
practice.
Not all coccidia cause disease and
bearded dragons in particular will very
commonly have coccidians present, even
if completely healthy and displaying no
signs of ill health. In those circumstances,
there is no need to treat the animals.
Coccidiosis is mostly a disease of younger
animals.
Cryptosporidiosis is a condition caused
by a small protozoan parasite known as
Cryptosporidium. There are two species of
relevance in the case of reptiles, one of
which affects snakes and the other
impacts on lizards. Both cause serious
illness. In snakes, infection with
‡ While a scant burden
of pinworm eggs is a
normal finding in many
species, sick animals
with huge numbers of
eggs such as this require
treatment. Photo courtesy of
the author.
Cryptosporidium serpentis is often fatal.
Unfortunately, it is hard to reach a
diagnosis and many animals that look very
suspiciously infected will come back
negative for‘crypto’when a faecal sample
is submitted. The gold standard for
diagnosis is a biopsy of the stomach. This is
often obtained as part of an autopsy,
where a snake is part of a collection and it
is important to find out whether there
could be cryptosporidiosis in the collection
or not.
Flagellated protozoa, like others of their
kind, cannot be seen except under a
microscope, but they are easily identified
by the presence of the flagellae that
provide motility. Some cause disease on
occasions, but they are not always harmful
or pathogenic – meaning that they cause
disease. Ciliates are another type of
protozoan parasite seen in reptiles, but
there is no indication that these cause
disease.
Bacteria
There is a plethora of potential bacteria
that can be isolated from the guts of
reptiles, and although some are harmful,
most are harmless. Yet there are some
particular examples of note, primarily
because of their potential to cause
zoonotic disease in humans. (A zoonosis is
a disease that can be spread from animals
to humans or vice-versa).
Reptiles are well-documented for being
carriers of Salmonella bacteria. Faecal
cultures for Salmonella may not always
yield a positive result, even if this
bacterium is present. We also know that
these bacteria are present in many healthy
reptiles and do not seem to cause a
problem.
While some would argue that because
Salmonella bacteria are potentially
transmissible to humans, if a faecal culture
is positive for Salmonella, then an effort
should be made to rid the reptile of this
bacterium. The problem with treating
Salmonella with antibiotics is the potential
to select for antibiotic-resistant strains of it,
creating longer-term problems.
In addition, the fact is that there is no
guarantee of lasting protection – it may
well be that a few months later, the animal
tests positive once again. In general
therefore, it is safest to assume that all
reptiles carry Salmonella and to take
appropriate steps to aim to prevent
transmission to us as owners, by hand-
ˆ The structure of a
flagellated protozoan
parasite traditionally
called Giardia lamblia
which can affect reptiles.
The flagellae help this
micro-organism to move. 
SUMMER 2015 | 17
The proglottids of a tapeworm showing
the eggs within, seen in cross-section.
Crocodilians are unusual
in that they do not suffer
from tapeworms.

washing and similar measures. Salmonella
can occasionally cause clinical signs in
reptiles, although it is usually completely
incidental.
Campylobacter
These bacteria cause diarrhoea, nausea,
vomiting, abdominal cramps and fever in
humans. It has certainly been proven that
reptiles can carry Campylobacter, without
showing signs of illness. Incidentally, just
as with the majority of zoonotic
pathogens carried by reptiles,
Campylobacter can also be transmitted by
the family dog.
Fungi
Several species of fungi have been
isolated from the guts of reptiles, but
many do not cause any disease.
Aspergillus, Penicillium and Basidiobolus are
all examples. Some like Candida are linked
to clinical disease, being a cause of
so-called‘mouth rot’, typically seen in
tortoises emerging from hibernation.
Faecal analysis
Faecal analysis is commonly
indicated in reptiles. The following
animals must have a faecal tests
performed without exception:
■ Newly imported animals.
■ Any reptile showing
signs of disease or ill
health.
■ Any tortoise going into
hibernation.
■ Reptiles that are currently
in quarantine, prior to being
introduced to a collection.
Nevertheless, it is
recommended to have a faecal
sample tested regularly from all
reptiles being kept, as it provides a lot of
information about the health of the
individual animals and the collection
overall. Most vets who work regularly with
reptiles will be very used to analysing
reptile faecal samples. On a typical day, I
generally look at at least half a dozen
faecal samples under the microscope, and
the fresher the sample, then the more
accurate that the results are likely to be.
There has been an increasing trend of
late towards owners routinely submitting
reptile faecal samples to laboratories for
analysis. This is ﬁne in some circumstances
– but not always. Certain organisms will
only survive for a short period when
outside of the host.
This means that it is very possible that
certain motile protozoa, for example, will
not be visible in a faecal sample
submitted in the post that does not arrive
at the laboratory for 24 hours. It is much
better under these circumstances to pop
that sample into your reptile vet within a
few hours of it being produced, rather
than relying on the post.
A variety of options
The following tests are usually performed
‡ Salmonella bacteria in
the gut often many not
cause disease in reptiles.
indicated in reptiles. The following
animals must have a faecal tests
performed without exception:
recommended to have a faecal
sample tested regularly from all
reptiles being kept, as it provides a lot of
† One of the most useful
pieces of equipment for a
veterinary surgeon with
reptile patients - a
humble microscope. Vital
for faecal analysis.

FEATURE | VETERINARY VIEWPOINT
Dr Tariq Abou-Zahr BVSc MRCVS
is a veterinary surgeon with a
special interest in exotic species,
as well as being both a keen
herpetoculturist and
aviculturist. He currently
practices at Great Western
Exotics, Unit 10, Berkshire
House, County Business Park,
Shrivenham Road, Swindon, SN1
2NR. Tel: 01793 603 800, email:
swindonreferralsexotics@
vets-now.com
Further information
SUMMER 2015 | 19
on reptile faecal samples as standard:
■ A direct or“wet”preparation: This is
a very rapid and easy to perform test,
using a microscope and is especially useful
for detecting motile protozoa. Although
not as sensitive as the faecal flotation test,
it will pick up worm eggs and coccidia too.
Ideally, this test would always be
performed on a fresh faecal sample so
that motile organisms are still detectable.
The ideal situation is during a consultation
when an animal produces a faecal sample
while it is being examined.
■ A faecal“flotation”: A method
favoured predominantly for examining the
faeces for the presence of worm eggs. The
faeces are usually placed in a special
plastic chamber with a filter, and mixed
thoroughly with a saturated salt solution.
It is less rapid that the direct preparation
and takes approximately 10 minutes to
prepare. It is easy to perform with a
microscope and any veterinary surgeon
should be able to do so, without having
to submit the sample to an external
laboratory unless a particularly unusual
parasite is seen that requires identification.
As a rough guide, we charge
approximately £16 for an in-house faecal
analysis and we recommend doing them
every six months in reptiles. We normally
recommend this as an addition to all of
our reptile consultations and it is vital that
owners do not underestimate the
importance of this investigation, rather
than thinking that vets are just trying to
find extra ways to make money out of
them, as is unfortunately
sometimes the assumption! A
faecal sample provides so
much useful information.
■ Faecal cultures: This is
carried out to determine
the flora/microbes within
the gut, as opposed to the
previous tests that are
used predominantly to assess parasite
status. Usually, this is carried out at an
external laboratory that will grow an
inoculation from the faeces on special
growth media. Staff will then attempt to
determine the bacterial population that is
present.
A full sensitivity profile will often be
provided too, which means that the
laboratory will work out which antibiotics
would be effective at treating the bacteria
that are present. It is often the case that
special stains may need to be used for
diagnosis of organisms like
Cryptosporidium, and these types of
analyses would not normally be
performed within the veterinary practice.
A faecal culture is not something that is
performed routinely throughout the year,
but a flotation and wet preparation
should be used on a regular basis to
check the internal parasite status of a
particular reptile.
Conclusions
In conclusion, faeces can provide us with
a huge amount of information about the
health of our animals. A sample should
always be examined there and then in the
case of a sick reptile, and routine
screening is something that should also
be carried out, as part of the general care
of these animals.
Different species produce varying
amounts of faeces, and constipation is a
common problem in pet reptiles. Owners
should always be wary of reptile faeces, in
that they can often harbour potentially
infectious organisms that can cause illness
in humans such as Campylobacter and
Salmonella, although they are not
unique in this respect.
It is not unusual to find a
whole ecosystem of bacteria
and parasites in the faeces of
a reptile.Yet however exotic
or disgusting the organisms
within the faeces are, more
often than not they will be
completely harmless to the
animal itself, and treatment
can frequently do more harm
than good. ✥
All reptiles, large or small, such as this day
gecko, can benefit from faecal analysis.
Further information
than thinking that vets are just trying to
find extra ways to make money out of
sometimes the assumption! A
infectious organisms that can cause illness
in humans such as
Salmonella
unique in this respect.
It is not unusual to find a
whole ecosystem of bacteria
and parasites in the faeces of
animal itself, and treatment
can frequently do more harm
than good.
‡ A faecal flotation
sample being prepared,
with the cover slip in
place, prior to being
placed under the
microscope.
… Culture and sensitivity
testing in the laboratory is
vital for suspected cases
of bacterial illness.
‡ Laboratory work is
helping to add
significantly to our
understanding about the
causes of reptile
diseases.

Questions
ANSWERS&ANSWERSANSWERSANSWERSANSWERS
Email your queries to prk.ed@kelsey.co.uk or write to the address on page 66. A selection of submitted questions
will appear here every month, and a prize ofVetark products will be awarded to the writer of the Star Question.
Regrettably, replies can only be given through this column, and if you are worried about the health of your animal,
seek veterinary advice without delay.
DO YOU NEED A HELPING HAND OR ADVICE?
Developing lighting systemsHow are UV lamps
designed and tested, to
ensure they are safe –
particularly with regard to
UVC? Are there differences
between those
manufactured in Europe or Asia?
In answering your question, I can only speak with
regard to Arcadia Reptile's procedures of course. In
truth, however, there have been historical and
massive differences between the quality, spectrum
and output of some lamps that have entered the
market. This is largely the result of the lack of
regulation surrounding the manufacture and sale
of UV lamps from China. I think it is fair to say that
there are huge differences, and I urge you to
research this further for yourself, although I will
return to this topic later in my response.
We must always keep in the forefront of our
minds that reptiles are truly solar powered, in every
sense.Yes, we understand that they need an
external source of heat to be able to feed and move
but it goes much deeper than this. Reptiles
(ectotherms) use infrared wavelengths as a means
of warming their bodies, and they rely on UVA to
see the world tetrachromatically (in thousands of
colours) and to help balance their brain chemistry.
Reptiles also require UVB to start and to maintain
the natural vitamin D3 cycle, among other core life
processes. They use the quantity of light (as in
brightness), especially those species with the pineal
eye, to stimulate the brain and of course, to help set
breeding cycles. This dependence on light means
that it is vital that we use this information when
designing and providing light sources for this group
of creatures.
Design criteria
So from the Arcadia Reptile’s point of view, when
designing a lamp, we always start off with the wild
requirements of a species at the forefront of our
process. Who are we to argue with many millions
of years of evolution? We passionately believe in
&
STA
R
★QU
E
ST IO
N
★
the core principles of matching the wild habitat as
closely as possible in vivarium surroundings, and as
such,‘solar re-creation’for each species, taking into
account the size of the enclosure. We also have to
keep the limitations of current technology in mind,
or we will never be able to produce the right lamp
and advise on its correct use.
If an animal has evolved over a vast period of
time to utilise a certain quantity or‘index’of UVB,
then in my mind that is its core requirement. It is at
that level when the core biological processes will
be catered for and we will start to ensure good
digestion, assimilation and biological processes
corresponding to those which take place in the
UVA wavelengths penetrate
further into the skin than
those of UVB.
We can only see in
the visible spectrum,
unlike reptiles.

SUMMER 2015 | 21
Q&A | QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
German expert factories have access to phosphors
that last this long.
In conclusion
As you can see, this is a very laborious and
extremely costly task and one that can take many
years of research, with no ultimate guarantee of
success. The truth is, however, that anyone can
place an order over the Internet for 10,000 reptile
lamps from China and they will be sent that week.
The sad thing is that there are currently no
procedures in place to protect keepers and their
animals from any lapses in quality or output.
This is a very real issue. As an example, I recently
tested a newly branded lamp on sale online that
simply stunned me. This lamp produced an UV
index of over 200 at 30cm (12in). The strongest
figure on earth is around about 11 – perhaps
occasionally up to 13. So as you can see, this lamp
was massively overpowered. It would bypass the
evolved protection against the harmful rays of the
sun that any species will have developed and
would be likely to cause serious biological disease.
Reptile lamps are more expensive that
household lamps. This is due to the exact science
required, combined with the grade and type of rare
earth minerals utilised in their manufacture, plus
the fact that they are made in batches of thousands
rather than in millions. Costs of everything rise, but
as far as this type of lighting is concerned, you really
do get what you pay for in terms of efficacy, safety
and animal welfare.
John Courteney-Smith,
Reptile Products Manager, Arcadia.
wild. Less nutritional disease, longer lives and better
reproductive rates should then follow.
The index is the important measurement, as it
can be used to take a figure from the country of
origin and may then be used to replicate this
energy in vivarium surroundings. UW/cm2 or units
of D3 now make no sense for reptile science at all
and should be ignored.
So we pick a group of species and ascertain their
needs. We look at the colour and spectral peaks of
the sun and use basic biological fact to design
spectral peaks in the general full spectrum output
of a lamp. For instance, we believe that D3
production is maintained better with a slight peak
at 297nm, so all of our lamps have that in a
balanced ratio.
We use very expensive rare earth minerals or
phosphors in our lamps, so that every percentage
of lamp will project a full spectrum, natural daylight
colour without appearing to be that unpleasant
purple colour seen with some lamps. Purple lamps
are weighted towards the UVA end of the spectrum,
and use older science as a result. We can be more
accurate than that now, thanks to advances in
European technology.
How the design process starts
When designing a lamp, I start by setting out in
detail on paper everything that I expect the lamp to
produce, in terms of its output. This will then be
sent to a world-leading expert in phosphor
technology in Germany. The expert will formulate a
recipe and a group of samples will then be made
by hand. The recipe will be logged into a computer
to be easily replicated by machine.
Next, the sample will be rigorously tested for
safety and performance in extensive facilities in
Germany. If the lamp is accepted, the samples will
be sent to me for more testing at Arcadia Reptile
HQ. After a period of further testing, usually 3-6
months and IF the lamp is performing as intended,
it is sent to an outside and totally independent
expert.
Should the test data that come back from the
independent expert match my own findings, then
the lamps will be sent for further‘live’testing with a
group of further independent reptile experts. This
period can last for a further year. Should the lamp
not pass any stage in the independent analysis and
inspection process however, then it is never seen
on the market. The entire process can take four
years, and in fact, one Arcadia Reptile lamp was
in the design phase for eight years in total!
After this period of time and following any
adjustments that have been made, with the
new lamp having been assessed in terms of its
output and efficacy, combined with evidence
that reptiles have benefited from it, the design
may be placed into production. Each lamp that
is made is tested as it comes out of production, to
make sure that it works and that the outputs are
within a very tight tolerance. Any that fall short are
scrapped and recycled. This is a mechanised and
highly accurate process.
These lamps are the life support systems of our
pets. Without a lamp that replicates the sun
accurately, then nutritional, biological and
neurological disease can occur as we have all seen.
The manufacturing process and product both have
to be right. Many if not most cases of metabolic
bone disease (MBD) are caused by a keeper
providing a quantity of UVB that is not potent
enough to meet the core needs of a species in the
way that it has evolved to use these wavelengths.
The danger of UVC
Turning to UVC wavelengths, however – these are
deadly. UVC is used in hospitals, and in the
pet-keeping field in ponds to destroy cell walls, and
it is quite rightly termed as“germicidal”. Exposure to
UVC, which is not found on earth as it is filtered out
by our atmosphere, will cause dermal and ocular
burns, not to mention blindness, and can lead very
quickly to cancers. It has to be avoided at all costs.
This is why we use expensive crystal glass that
effectively blocks all UVC radiation in the design of
our lamps. It is an expensive process and one where
economies cannot be made. There are plenty of
horror stories to be found online of those poor
keepers who have mistakenly used a pond UVC
lamp instead of a UVB reptile lamp. There have also
been recorded occasions of unregulated cheap
imports from Asia leeching UVC into the enclosure.
The most notorious incident was with a group of
compact lamps, but I have seen plenty of linear
lamps that have been similarly affected.
We only make linear T8 and high output T5
lamps in Germany. This means that the crystal glass
that is used is made to an exact standard, and that
phosphor mixes are exact every time. It also ensures
that we benefit from the attention to detail and
quality that the German manufacturing is
well-known for, around the world.
In addition, carbon dioxide miles are also greatly
reduced and prices are kept low without losing
quality, given the close proximity of our
manufacturer, compared with shipping from a
Chinese manufacturer for example. We are also
more than confident to guarantee the UV potency
of all of our lamps for one whole year; again the
cheaper the phosphor used, then the quicker it will
become less effective. Currently, I have only found
Deadly UVC in sunlight is filtered out by the ozone layer in the
atmosphere.
It will take years to bring a new lamp to market – and not all may
pass the rigorous testing process. Photo courtesy Arcadia Reptile.

sleep, I decided to get my girls insured,”writes.
Lisa.
“Around three weeks after taking out the
policy, one of my dragons ended up egg bound
(after wanting to lay eggs for a week she
suddenly went very black, lethargic and unwell).
The vet’s fees were just under £400 in total.
“I didn’t think I would be able to make a claim
as I’d not even paid my first payment of the
policy and it hadn’t even been a month since I’d
taken it out! I messaged ExoticDirect who
advised me to put a claim in so they could look
in to it. So I did.
“The vets sent them their part of the
paperwork last week and I’ve just had a cheque
today from ExoticDirect. I’m in shock!! Really
really happy with the speediness of the service
and I didn’t expect to even be covered yet!! A
massive relief that I’ve found an insurance
company that is trustworthy and reliable. Will
recommend to everyone. Thank you so much.
Betty is doing well after her operation too.”■
ExoticDirect is a registered trademark of Brooks
Braithwaite (Sussex) Ltd, 4 Bridge Road Business
Park, Haywards Heath, West Sussex, RH16 1TX.
Brooks Braithwaite (Sussex) Ltd is authorised and
regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA).
recommend to everyone. Thank you so much.
Betty is doing well after her operation too.”
COMPANYPROFILE: EXOTICDIRECT
O
ne of the best solutions may be to insure
your reptile, particularly as in some cases,
this can offer other significant benefits as
well. ExoticDirect are the leading specialist
reptile insurers in the UK. Their policies are
flexible and can also provide cover if your pet is
stolen or dies, as well as giving protection
against perils arising from the weather, and
veterinary treatment for accidental injury and
illness.
So what are the types of claims that
ExoticDirect receive? There was a payment for
£969 to treat pneumonia in a tortoise last year,
not to mention a claim paid for £594 in the
case of a bearded dragon that was suffering
from hepatic lipidosis, affecting the liver. More
recent claim payments include £108 to treat
skin blisters that appeared on a Burmese
python.
In addition, reproductive problems can be an
issue too, such as with the female monitor that
was afflicted by ovarian problems, notably
follicular stasis. The treatment in this case
resulted in a claim payment of £483 with the
lizard being spayed (neutered), to prevent the
risk of another episode of this potentially
deadly illness arising again in the future.
– specialising in the
insurance of exotic pets
It is all very well budgeting for the regular costs of keeping pet reptiles, but
what can you do to protect yourself from unexpected and high veterinary
bills, in the event of your pet falling ill?
A tortoise
in trouble
It is often forgotten
that tortoises are
vulnerable to
attacks not just by
foxes, but also by
pet dogs. Last year, Jake,
a Horsfield’s tortoise who lives
with his owner Danielle in
Romford, Essex, came off badly in an
encounter of this type.
“Jake suffered significant injury when he
wandered into our neighbour’s garden and was
attacked by their dog,”explains Danielle. “Jake
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A
wide range of different tortoises are
now being kept and bred in UK
collections, of which Horsfield’s
(Agrionemys horsefieldii), Hermann’s
(Testudo hermanni), and the
Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise
(Testudo graeca) are the most common.
Maintaining your tortoise on a healthy,
species-specific diet is very important,
because nutritional deficiencies will lead
to abnormal growth, shell pyramiding
and muscle weakness. Choosing the right
diet, however, is complicated by the fact
that in most cases, there is surprisingly
little or no information on what a
particular species might eat in the wild.
Fortunately however, there is
information on wild diets for several of
our most widely kept tortoises. This article
covers the most significant research
papers that have been published to date,
and makes some suggestions as to how
we can incorporate this wild data into our
captive feeding regimes.
Horsfield’s tortoise
Also known as the steppe, four-toed or
Russian tortoise, this species lives in a
particularly harsh climate, burrowing
underground to escape the worst of the
weather. In Kazakhstan, which forms part
of the species’most northerly distribution,
temperatures may drop as low as -20°C
(-4°F) in winter, and remain below zero on
average through the entire day for five
months of the year.
The average temperatures here are
typically pretty inhospitable for reptiles
for up to nine months annually. Only
during the summer period, from June to
August, is there any respite. Temperatures
in the region at this stage are then likely
to peak around 26°C (79°F), dropping
back to between 11-14 °C (52-57°F).
In the wild, Horsfield’s tortoises have
developed a protective mechanism
against these long winters: they hibernate
over this period. Metabolic processes
slow to a crawl and growth stops during
this state of dormancy. The amount of
time spent in hibernation is extreme for
wild tortoises, and it raises questions as to
whether full hibernation is necessary for
captive individuals. One point is certain
though; these chelonians do need a
period of time in which food is scarce.
Horsfield’s tortoise is prone to becoming
overweight, and therefore over the winter
period, much lower levels of food should
be offered.
Bondarenko and colleagues (2011)
studied Horsfield’s tortoise in its wild
habitat in Uzbekistan, and noted that over
43 plant species from 17 families featured
in the diet of this species. These included
grasses (Bromus tectorum), flowers
Just how much do we know about what tortoises eat in the
wild, as well as when they eat, and how they eat? James
Brereton BSc (Hons) investigates, and explains the
significance of these findings to the care of captive tortoises.
… An unsuitable diet can
contribute to pyramiding,
with the shape of the
scutes on the carapace
(the upper shell)
becoming abnormally
raised, as seen in this
Hermann’s tortoise.
Dietsofwildtortoises
‡ A Horsfield’s tortoise
in a desert area of
Kazakhstan, during a
warm spell. This region
represents a very harsh
environment for any
reptile.

SUMMER 2015 | 25
FEATURE | DIETS OF WILD TORTOISES
†
(Hypecoum parviflorum) and shrubs
(Leptaleum filifolium), and the research
showed that tortoises selectively chose
particular plants. Plants with high
moisture were greatly favoured: in these
desert habitats, water is obviously a
precious commodity.
With full water bowls and (potentially)
regular baths, there is less need for
high-moisture food items in the diet of
Horsfield’s tortoises being kept in
collections. However, these animals do
still favour these food items: just try
feeding your tortoise a stem of sedum or
the showy stonecrop, and you’ll see these
food types are highly palatable to
Horsfield’s tortoises.
Lagarde’s team (2003)
conducted a behavioural
study into Horsfield’s
tortoise in one of the
most extreme desert
climates in the Djeiron
Ecocenter of Bukhara,
Uzbekistan. Using
binoculars, the
researchers were able
to identify the types of
plant favoured by the
tortoises, and compared
this with the availability of
the plants growing in the
region as a whole.
The results unsurprisingly
revealed that wild Horsfield’s tortoises
feed on a range of plants, but they are
definitively selective in their choice of
foods. Interestingly, the Poaceae (or‘true
grasses’) were completely ignored,
despite the fact they made up over 20%
of the plant population in the region.
Allium spp. were also avoided: these are
plants that are closely related to garlic
and onions.
Plants that were eaten included
brassicas - members of the cabbage
family - and Veronica spp., which
represent a genus of delicate flowering
plants that contains over 500 species.
Similar plants can be found in the UK,
such as bird’s eye speedwell (Veronica
chamaedrys) and these may or may not
be of interest to tortoises.
The plant taxa Centaurea made up
nearly 20% of the tortoises’diet in this
study, despite the relative rarity of this
plant in the overall landscape. These are
thistle-like flowering plants.
Ceratocephalus, too, accounted for over
60% of food intake. It appears the
tortoises, therefore, had two stable food
types that naturally form the basis of their
diet, and would then selectively browse
from other plants when
opportunities arose.
Fortunately, we can provide
this type of feeding regime
in captivity. The dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale),
some might argue, would
make a reasonable substitute in the
absence of Ceratocephalus spp. Other
plants can be incorporated, as and when
they become available. Thistles and
pansies, mallow and sedum may all be
incorporated into the diet when available.
This will prevent most nutritional
deficiencies from developing, especially if
combined with suitable supplementation,
and keeps the tortoise accustomed to
trying new foods.
In summary, Horsfield’s tortoise is
unsurprisingly conditioned to select
nutritionally valuable foodstuffs in its wild
habitat. To mirror the range of different
wild plant types, we can offer a number
of similar plants both in the diet and in
outdoor areas where tortoises are kept. It
is also important to remember, as
highlighted previously, that these reptiles
may lie dormant for up to nine months of
the year under extreme conditions.
One method for surviving this drastic
ˆ Bird’s eye speedwell
is characterised in part
by its light blue flowers.
Sedums are easy to
grow, and prove to be
a great favourite of
Horsfield’s tortoises.
†
the showy stonecrop, and you’ll see these
food types are highly palatable to
conducted a behavioural
this with the availability of
the plants growing in the
The results unsurprisingly
revealed that wild Horsfield’s tortoises
types that naturally form the basis of their
diet, and would then selectively browse
from other plants when
opportunities arose.
Fortunately, we can provide
this type of feeding regime
in captivity. The dandelion
(Taraxacum officinale
some might argue, would

variation in Testudo graeca. This is
reflected in their potential size too, as
Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoises
may grow up to 7kg (15lb) in weight.
These tortoises have a wide distribution,
spanning parts of North Africa, Asia and
southern Europe.
Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoises
may be found in habitats ranging from
light forest to arid scrublands, and this
may be one reason why so many different
subspecies exist. In these arid
environments, availability of food plants
during the winter and high summer is
minimal.
A study by Mouden et al (2006) looked
into the feeding ecology of this species in
Morocco. Ruminants, such as sheep,
grazed the study zone very heavily, so
there were concerns that there would not
be enough food available for the
tortoises.
lifestyle is to eat large amounts of food
when in an active state, and this may be a
reason why Horsfield’s tortoises appear
naturally more inclined to overeat than
other species. Obesity can be prevented
by offering lower quantities of food
during the autumn and winter months,
and by weighing these tortoises on a
weekly or monthly basis.
Hermann’s tortoise
The Hermann’s tortoise ranges widely
through Europe, and can be found in
parts of France, Spain, Sardinia and Italy,
to name a few places. These tortoises,
therefore, are adapted to a much warmer
climate than Horsfield’s tortoise.
Nevertheless, Hermann’s tortoises still
undergo a dormant period during
the winter months, though
comparatively for a much
reduced period of time, and
they may be less active at
the height of summer as
well.
This species is described
as Near Threatened (NT) by
the IUCN, and this may be
due in part to mass
collection of these tortoises
as pets in the past and for the
food industry, set alongside
changes in land use and the
spread of agriculture that represent
current threats. A number of ecological
surveys have covered the Hermann’s
tortoise in different parts of its range.
Often, the aspects of feeding and foraging
ecology are covered only briefly; the
papers are largely concerned with
population survival and viability.
One of the earliest studies, by Meek and
Inskeep (1981) in the former Yugoslavia,
did devote a few paragraphs to feeding
and feeding behaviours. Apparently,
roughly 58% of the diet of Yugoslav
Hermann’s tortoises was made up of
plants from the families Leguminosae and
Ranunculaceae. In short, this consisted
largely of clovers, beans and lupins. Meek
mentions that other plants were also
occasionally taken: these included
buttercups (7%), and species of grasses,
along with unidentified plants (3%). The
tortoises seemed to have two distinct
feeding periods: at 11:00 and 15:00.
What do these old, but still useful
observations tell us about captive
nutrition for Hermann’s tortoises? We can
use the observations of wild food plants
to find other suitable plant varieties for
our pets, and plant items such as clover in
pens where they are housed outdoors. We
can potentially replicate the normal
feeding patterns of our tortoises by
offering them foraging opportunities in
the morning and afternoon, and
somewhere to rest during the midday
period.
Mediterranean Spur-thighed
tortoise
With over 20 recognised subspecies, there
is a considerable amount of genetic
‡ Greater knapweed
(Centaurea scabiosa) is
a plant that Horsfield’s
tortoises will eat
readily.
Nevertheless, Hermann’s tortoises still
undergo a dormant period during
as pets in the past and for the
spread of agriculture that represent
current threats. A number of ecological
† Scatter a pack of
cornflower seeds
(Centaurea cyanus) in a
tortoise paddock early
in the year, to provide
feeding opportunities
for Horsfield’s tortoises
later on. These seeds
grow very easily, but
the young plants must
not be allowed to dry
out. Although typically
blue, some strains have
pink and even white
flowers.
A Hermann’s tortoise (T. h. boettgeri)
photographed in Turkey’s Antalya Province.
Notice how dry the vegetation is at this
stage, leaving little to eat until the rains
return and trigger fresh growth.
‡ A wild Hermann’s tortoise in its natural habitat in the Balkans – part of former
Yugoslavia. Note the wide choice of plants on offer here, compared with the landscape
where Horsfield’s tortoises are to be found.

Reptile keeping summer 2015

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