This document provides an overview of key concepts in sociological theory, including the scientific method, sociological perspectives, and major theoretical frameworks. It discusses the goals of science, cause and effect relationships, and the scientific method. Three major sociological perspectives are introduced: structural functionalism, which views society as a system of interrelated parts; conflict theory, which argues society is characterized by inequality and conflict over resources; and symbolic interactionism, which focuses on interaction and the social construction of meaning through symbols.

1. Muhammad Saud Kharal
Ph.D. in Social Science
Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya Indonesia
Introduction to SociologyIntroduction to Sociology
Chapter OneChapter One

2. • Goals of scienceGoals of science
• Scientific method of investigationScientific method of investigation
• Sociological TheorySociological Theory
• PerspectivesPerspectives
• Sociological PerspectivesSociological Perspectives
• Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism
• Conflit TheoryConflit Theory
• Symbolic InteractionismSymbolic Interactionism
OutlineOutline

3. Goals of scienceGoals of science
• To explain (cause)To explain (cause)
Why things happenWhy things happen
• To make generalizationsTo make generalizations
Go beyond the individual case and makeGo beyond the individual case and make
statements that apply to a broader group orstatements that apply to a broader group or
situationsituation
• To predict (effect)To predict (effect)
To specify in the light of current knowledge thatTo specify in the light of current knowledge that
will happen in the futurewill happen in the future

4. Goals of scienceGoals of science
• Scientists do not rely on magic,or commonScientists do not rely on magic,or common
beliefs, but, instead, they do systematicbeliefs, but, instead, they do systematic
research.research.

5. Cause and Effect RelationshipCause and Effect Relationship
• Cause and effect refers to the philosophical concept ofCause and effect refers to the philosophical concept of
causality, in which an action or event will produce acausality, in which an action or event will produce a
certain response to the action in the form of anothercertain response to the action in the form of another
event.event.

6. Scientific MethodScientific Method
• The basis of study of any science or subject is itsThe basis of study of any science or subject is its
methods.methods.
• The use ofThe use of objectiveobjective systematicsystematic observations to testobservations to test
theoriestheories..
ObjectiveObjective the state or quality of being true eventhe state or quality of being true even
outside of a subject's individual biases,outside of a subject's individual biases,
interpretations, feelings, and imaginings.interpretations, feelings, and imaginings.
SystematicSystematic presented or formulated as a coherent
body of ideas or principles / marked by thoroughness
and regularity.
TheoryTheory is a systematic and formalized expression of allis a systematic and formalized expression of all
previous observations, and is predictive, logical, andprevious observations, and is predictive, logical, and

7. Scientific MethodScientific Method

8. Scientific MethodScientific Method
i.i. Defining the QuestionDefining the Question
ii.ii. Forming a Hypothesis/HypothesesForming a Hypothesis/Hypotheses
iii.iii. Locating Resources/Gathering Information & MaterialsLocating Resources/Gathering Information & Materials
iv.iv. Planning the Research/Developing Data CollectionPlanning the Research/Developing Data Collection
MethodsMethods
v.v. Collecting DataCollecting Data
vi.vi. Organizing & Analyzing the DataOrganizing & Analyzing the Data
vii.vii. Interpreting the Data & Drawing ConclusionsInterpreting the Data & Drawing Conclusions
viii.viii. Communicating the ResultsCommunicating the Results

9. Sociological TheorySociological Theory
• Theory is the process of linking facts together inTheory is the process of linking facts together in
order to explain something.order to explain something.
• Sociological theories are complex theoreticalSociological theories are complex theoretical
frameworks that sociologists use to explain andframeworks that sociologists use to explain and
analyze variously how social action, socialanalyze variously how social action, social
processes, and social structures work.processes, and social structures work.

10. PerspectivePerspective
• A view or vistaA view or vista
• A way of thinking aboutA way of thinking about
somethingsomething
• A set of assumptions aboutA set of assumptions about
reality that underlies thereality that underlies the
questions we ask and thequestions we ask and the
kinds of answers we arrivekinds of answers we arrive
at as a result.at as a result.

11. Sociological PerspectiveSociological Perspective
• An approach to understanding human behavior byAn approach to understanding human behavior by
placing it within its broader social context.placing it within its broader social context.
• Peter L. Berger defined as,Peter L. Berger defined as,
Seeing the general in the particularSeeing the general in the particular

12. Sociological PerspectiveSociological Perspective
• Peter L. Berger also stated,Peter L. Berger also stated,
““things are not what they seem.”things are not what they seem.”
• Sociological perspective can also be described asSociological perspective can also be described as
seeing the strange in the familiar.seeing the strange in the familiar.

13. Sociological PerspectivesSociological Perspectives
• Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism
• Conflict TheoryConflict Theory
• Symbolic InteractionismSymbolic Interactionism

14. Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism
• Dominant perspective in sociology…Dominant perspective in sociology…
• Main proponent of this perspective wasMain proponent of this perspective was TalcottTalcott
Parsons (Parsons (1902 – 1979)
o American Sociologist
o Served at Harvard University
• Defines society as a complex organization of partsDefines society as a complex organization of parts
that function to fulfill the requirements and promotethat function to fulfill the requirements and promote
needs of the whole (individuals).needs of the whole (individuals).

15. Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism
• He was further joined by his studentHe was further joined by his student Robert K.Robert K.
Merton…Merton…
• Society is made up ofSociety is made up of interrelatedinterrelated andand
interdependentinterdependent partsparts..
• PartsParts are social institutions andare social institutions and structuresstructures..
• Each institution has aEach institution has a functionfunction or roleor role to play into play in
keeping society running smoothly.keeping society running smoothly.
• Each institution in its own wayEach institution in its own way promotespromotes
cooperation among members of societycooperation among members of society andand helpshelps
preserve social order.preserve social order.

16. Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism
• Robert MertonRobert Merton stated two types of functions:stated two types of functions:
o Manifest functionsManifest functions
o Latent functionsLatent functions
o DysfunctionsDysfunctions
• Manifest functionsManifest functions are conscious , intended, andare conscious , intended, and
deliberate consequences or outcomes.deliberate consequences or outcomes.
• Latent (hidden) functionsLatent (hidden) functions are unconscious,are unconscious,
unintended, and unexpected consequences orunintended, and unexpected consequences or
outcomes.outcomes.

17. Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism
• DysfunctionDysfunction are any consequences or outcomesare any consequences or outcomes
produced by a part of the social system that lowerproduced by a part of the social system that lower
social integration.social integration.

18. Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism
• Theorists contributed…
o Auguste Comte
o Emile Durkheim
o Herbert Spencer

19. Conflict TheoryConflict Theory
• Proponents:Proponents: Karl Marx (1818-1883)Karl Marx (1818-1883) andand
Max Weber (1864-1920)Max Weber (1864-1920)
• They were of view that society isThey were of view that society is fragmented intofragmented into
groups that compete for social and economicgroups that compete for social and economic
resources.resources.
• Societies as characterized by inequality, which givesSocieties as characterized by inequality, which gives
rise to conflict between therise to conflict between the haves and have nots.haves and have nots.

20. • Groups and individuals advance their own interests,Groups and individuals advance their own interests,
struggling over control of societal resources.struggling over control of societal resources.
Conflict TheoryConflict Theory

21. Symbolic InteractionismSymbolic Interactionism
• Main Theorists :Main Theorists : G. H. Mead (1863-1931) andG. H. Mead (1863-1931) and
C.H. Cooley (1846-1929)C.H. Cooley (1846-1929)
• They concentrate upon this interaction betweenThey concentrate upon this interaction between
individuals and groups.individuals and groups.
• People interact mainly throughPeople interact mainly through symbols,symbols, whichwhich
include signs, gestures, and most importantly,include signs, gestures, and most importantly,
through written and spoken words.through written and spoken words.

22. • A word has no inherent meaning. It is simply a noise,A word has no inherent meaning. It is simply a noise,
but it becomes abut it becomes a wordword when we attach certainwhen we attach certain
meanings to it.meanings to it.
Symbolic InteractionismSymbolic Interactionism

23.  !