1. Ch. 1: The Sociological Perspective
Society
• a body of individuals living as members of a community
Examples:
1. Poverty hurts society as a whole.
2. We need to do more to help the poorer members of our society.
3. the values of Western society
4. She was introduced to society at a formal reception.
5. The club's members are drawn from the ranks of high society.
Sociology
• The scientific study of social interaction and social organization
Sociological Perspective
• Encourages us to examine aspects of our social environment in ways that delve beneath
the surface. As we look beyond the outer appearances of our social world, we encounter
new levels of reality.
Sociological Imagination
• The essence of the sociological imagination is the ability to see our private experiences
and personal difficulties as entwined with the structural arrangements of our society
and the times in which we live.
Social Location
• How our gender, race, education, income, location, and ethnicity impact our ideas,
behavior, and who we become.
Scientific Method
• Fundamental to the scientific investigation and acquisition of new knowledge based upon
physical evidence.
• Science manages new assertions about our world with theories — hypotheses and
observations. Predictions from these theories are tested by experiment.
• If a prediction turns out correct, the theory survives, but if a prediction fails, the theory
fails.
• Any theory which is strong enough to make verifiable predictions can then be tested
scientifically in this way. These are the underlying methods of scientific practice.

2. • With them scientists determine which theories, hypotheses and observations are true.
• The scientific method is essentially an extremely cautious means of building a
supportable, evidenced understanding of our world.
Microsociology
• The detailed study of what people say, do, and think moment by moment as they go about
their daily lives.
Macrosociology
• Focuses upon large-scale and long-term social processes of organizations, institutions,
and broad social patterns.
Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
Contemporary sociologists acknowledge three general theoretical perspectives, or ways of
looking at how various social phenomena are related to one another.
3 Major Theoretical Perspectives:
1. Symbolic Interactionism
2. Functionalism
3. Conflict
Functionalism
• Can be referred to as structural-functional
• Can be referred to as functionalist-perspective
• Views society as a system
• Identifies the structural characteristics and functions and dysfunctions of institutions
• Distinguish between manifest functions and latent functions
• Typically assume that most members of society share a consensus regarding their core
beliefs and values
• Ideal society lives in balance with healthy parts which equate to a healthy whole
Conflict
• Draws much of its inspiration from the work of Karl Marx

3. • Argues that the structure of society and the nature of social relationships are the result of
past and ongoing conflicts
Symbolic Interactionism
• Contends that society is possible because humans have the ability to communicate with
one another by means of symbols
• We act toward people, objects, and events on the basis of the meanings we ascribe to
them
• Consequently, we experience the world as constructed reality
Conducting Research
Sociology is a social (vs. hard) science:
• Science assumes that every action results from a cause----that is, cause-and-effect
relationships prevail in the universe.
• These causes and effects can be observed and measured, and sociologists look for
correlations among variables as a way of doing so.
p. 20, Figure 1.6
• This is the ideal Research Model, it contains 8 steps.
• However, keep in mind that in reality, some steps may be omitted or some may end up
being combined.
The 8 Steps in the Research Model:
1. Select a topic:
• What do you want to know more about?
2. Define the problem:
• Narrow the topic; focus on a specific area.
3. Review available literature:
• Find what is already published and utilize that information.
4. Formulate a hypothesis:
• A hypothesis predicts a relationship between or among variables, which are factors
that change (vary) from one person or situation to another.

4. • A hypothesis needs operational definitions, or precise ways to measure the
variables.
5. Choose a research model:
• More on these below.
• *Always be certain to choose the best method for your particular study.
6. Collect data:
• Data gathered must always be valid----operational definitions must always measure
what they are intended to measure.
• Data must also always be reliable----anyone doing the same tests you are doing
should get the same results as you.
7. Analyze results:
• If able, this is the point where hypothesis should be tested.
8. Share results:
• Write report and share finding with scientific community.
• Note whether hypothesis was proven or disproven and how findings of this study fit
with already published research.
Research Methods
The type of research method (or research design) chosen generally depends on the type of
information desired for the project. Each option has both plusses and minuses and it is therefore
always very important to determine which method is the best for each particular task.
Surveys
• Selecting a sample: the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a
population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results
back to the population from which they were chosen
• A survey can be anything from a short paper-and-pencil feedback form to an intensive
one-on-one in-depth interview
• Surveys can be divided into two broad categories: the questionnaire and the interview
• Ask neutral, unbiased questions
• Decided ahead of time upon open-ended or closed-ended questions (see p. 24. Table 1.4)
• Establish rapport with participants

5. Participant Observation (Fieldwork)
• Researcher participates in research setting while observing what takes place that setting
• Can be either covert or overt, although in practice, the researcher will often move
between these two roles
• Goal is to experience events in the manner in which the subjects under study also
experience these events
• While observing and experiencing as a participant, the sociologist must retain a level of
objectivity in order to understand, analyze, and explain the social world being studied.
Case Studies
• An in-depth study of one person
• Researcher focuses on single event, situation, or individual in attempt to understand
dynamics of relationships, power, or thought processes that motivate people
• Nearly every aspect of the subject’s life/history is analyzed to seek patterns/causes for
behavior--the hope is that info gained from studying one case can be generalized to many
others
• Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize
results to larger population
Secondary Analysis
• Researchers use data that others have collected
• They analyze second-hand data collected previously by other researchers
Documents
• Written sources are used for research
• Books, newspapers, bank records, immigration records, police reports, court records, etc.
Experiments
• Research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable(s) under very
controlled conditions and examines whether changes occur in a second variable(s).
• The manipulated variable is called the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. This is the
presumed "cause."
• The variable that is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent
variable is called the DEPENDENT VARIABLE. This is the presumed "effect."
• See p. 28, Figure 1.7
Unobtrusive Measures
• Observing behavior of people who are unaware they are being watched
• Can be touchy, however, because secretly recording can often be illegal
• One-way mirrors, undisclosed note-taking, phone-tapping

6. Ethics and Values in Sociological Research
Protecting the Subjects
• Protect sources
Misleading the Subjects
• Be honest regarding study and everyone’s role
Values and Controversy
• Researchers need to be aware of values and bias in research and take corrective measures
• Informed consent
• Voluntary participation
• Risk of harm
• Confidentiality
• Anonymity