Ethics, Lesson 5_ Elements of Normative Ethical Theories.pdf
Understanding ethical principles
1. Five Categories of EthicalFive Categories of Ethical
TheoriesTheories
1. Ethical Theories based on
Virtue
Aristotle’s Mean/Confucius’
Golden Mean
2. Ethical Theories based on
Duty
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
3. Ethical Theories based on
Utility
Mill’s Principle of Utility
4. Ethical Theories based on
Rights
Rawls’s Veil of Ignorance
5. Ethical Theories based on
Love
Judeo-Christian Persons as
Ends
6. Main IdeasMain Ideas
• Propriety before duty or love
• Character over conduct
• Outer behavior as a reflection of inner
disposition
• Equilibrium and harmony
7. Practical WisdomPractical Wisdom
• Phronesis
• Moral discernment
• Knowledge of the proper
ends (telos) of conduct and
the means of attaining them
• Distinct from both theoretical
knowledge and technical skill
"wisdom to take counsel,
to judge the goods and
evils and all the things in
life that are desirable
and to be avoided, to use
all the available goods
finely, to behave rightly
in society, to observe
due occasions, to
employ both speech and
action with sagacity, to
have expert knowledge
of all things that are
useful”
8. Using Practical WisdomUsing Practical Wisdom
• Applied to “individual facts” by locating
“the mean between two vices, that which
depends on excess and that which depends
on defect”
9. ExceptionsExceptions
• Not all actions or emotions can be justified by a
middle state
• What actions and emotions are intrinsically wicked
whether or not they are practiced with temperance? Do you
agree with the list below?
Adultery
Theft
Murder
Spite
Shamelessness
Envy
10. Summary of Aristotle’sSummary of Aristotle’s
MeanMean
• NOT a weak-minded consensus
• NOT a compromise
• NOT a mathematically equal distance
between two extremes
• Aristotle’s mean involves the correct
quantity, the correct timing, the correct
people, the correct motives, and the correct
manner
12. Main IdeasMain Ideas
• Rooted in virtue
• Virtue as benevolence, kindness,
generosity, and balance (a mean between
two extremes)
• Excellence dependent on character not
social position
13. Equilibrium and HarmonyEquilibrium and Harmony
“Equilibrium (chung) is the great root from
which grow all human actings in the world.
And harmony (yung) is the universal path all
should pursue. Let the states of equilibrium
and harmony exist in perfection, and happy
order will prevail throughout heaven and
earth, and all things will be nourished and
flourish”
14. Applying Confucius’ GoldenApplying Confucius’ Golden
MeanMean
1. Identify all extremes
2. Resolve competing obligations using the
Golden Mean
3. Reject any extremes
4. Choose the middle path
15. Additional LinksAdditional Links
Nicomachean Ethics An online version of Aristotle’s text.
Book II, chapter 6 is a good place to start.
Aristotle Overview This article describes the life, writings,
ethics, and politics of Aristotle.
Aristotle’s “Doctrine of the Mean” A chart illustrating
Aristotle’s concepts of virtue and vice.
Confucius An overview of Confucian beliefs
The Doctrine of the Mean An online version of the article
by Confucius cited by the text
18. Main IdeasMain Ideas
• Ethics are objective
• Any genuine moral obligation can be
universalized
• Categorical = unconditional
• What is right must be done regardless of
circumstances
• Existence of higher truths
• Deontological ethics
19. Higher TruthsHigher Truths
• Noumena
• Superior to reason
• Transcend physical universe
• Innate in human beings
• Apprehended by conscience NOT reason
20. Deontological EthicsDeontological Ethics
• From deon (Greek for duty)
• Rule determines the result
• Rule is the basis of the act
• Rule is good regardless of the act
• Result always calculated within the rules
21. Application of Kant’sApplication of Kant’s
Categorical ImperativeCategorical Imperative
• Moral law is unconditionally binding on all
rational beings.
• Certain actions are always wrong.
• Certain actions are always right.
• Examples
22. Questions to ConsiderQuestions to Consider
• What happens when there is a conflict of
duties? (2 rules that are universalized)
• Is every rule we would universalize a moral
duty?
• Can we truly ignore results in decision-
making?
• Do we really want to make reason the final,
sole authority in determining right and
wrong?
23. Additional LinksAdditional Links
Critique of Practical Reason The online version of Kant’s writings
on epistemology and ethics.
Kant’s Argument for the Categorical Imperative An outline of
Kant’s reasoning for the categorical imperative
Immanuel Kant and the Categorical Imperative A critical evaluation
of Kant’s categorical imperative
Kant’s Four Examples of How to Apply the Categorical Imperative
Kant’s own application from his work, Fundamental Principles of
the Metaphysic of Morals
25. Mill’s Principle of UtilityMill’s Principle of Utility
“Seek the greatest
happiness for the
greatest number”
26. Main IdeasMain Ideas
• Consider what course will yield the best
consequences for the welfare of human
beings
• Ethical choice produces the greatest balance
of good over evil
• Good end must be promoted, bad end must
be restrained
27. The Good EndThe Good End
• Happiness or pleasure
• To Mill, preventing pain and promoting
pleasure are the only desirable ends.
• Pluralistic utilitarians argue that other
values besides happiness possess intrinsic
worth (friendship, knowledge, health).
– Rightness or wrongness assessed according to
total value ultimately produced
28. Application of the PrincipleApplication of the Principle
of Utilityof Utility
1. Calculate the consequences of various
options. How much benefit and how
much harm would result in the lives of
everyone affected, including ourselves?
2. Choose the alternative that both
A. Produces the greatest possible balance of
good over evil
B. Distributes this balance as widely as possible
29. Two Types ofTwo Types of
UtilitarianismUtilitarianism
1. Act Utilitarianism: Greatest good in a
specific case
Will a particular action in a particular
situation result in a balance of good over
evil?
2. Rule Utilitarianism: Greatest good for
general welfare
Will a general rule result in a balance of
good over evil?
30. Questions to ConsiderQuestions to Consider
• How do we account for the long term
consequences of a decision that are not
always able to be forseen?
• What if the majority rejects basic standards
of decency?
• What problems are generated by defining
the public good as the sum total of all
private goods?
31. Additional LinksAdditional Links
John Stuart Mill A description of Mill’s life and
writings.
What Utilitarianism Is John Stuart Mill’s explanation of
the principle of utility from his book, Utilitarianism.
A Millian Critique of Library Censorship A discussion
of utilitarian arguments in favor of and against
censorship.
Intellectual Property, Innovation, and Social Progress
Intellectual property is evaluated from the perspective
of utilitarianism.
33. Rawls’s Veil of IgnoranceRawls’s Veil of Ignorance
“Justice emerges when
negotiating without social
differentiations”
34. Rawls’s Veil of IgnoranceRawls’s Veil of Ignorance
Fairness =
Justice
(sometimes
means
quantity)
Justice
Helps
determine
what is
“right” in
any given
situation
Same reward
given to
everyone for
same work
No arbitrary
distinctions can
determine who
receives what; or
what is “right” in
any situation
(although inherent
ones may)
SO, we set up the
“veil” to help
eliminate these
distinctions
This
means
It functions like a Barrier: keeps out race, class,
gender, group interests, sexual orientation, age,
occupations, etc. -- puts players on equal playing
field -- decisions based on “fairness”
This is the
veil....we step
behind it to make
decisions - the
other side is “real
life”
Helps us iron out a
“social contract’
that by definition is
just
Gives the “little
guy” a leg up
Who you are, what
you have shouldn’t
determine what you
now should get
35. Main IdeasMain Ideas
• Fairness fundamental to justice
• Egalitarian perspective
• Fairness as quantitative in basic cases
• Elimination of arbitrary distinction
• Emphasizes the morally appropriate action,
not the action that benefits the most people
36. Veil of IgnoranceVeil of Ignorance
• Roles and social differentiations eliminated
• Race, class, gender, and other personality
features suspended behind the veil
• Equality behind the veil intended to protect
the weaker party and minimize risks
37. Two PrinciplesTwo Principles
1. Maximal system of equal basic liberty
2. All social goods other than liberty may be
distributed unequally only if distribution
favors the least advantaged side
38. Additional LinksAdditional Links
John Rawls A biographical sketch of Rawls along with a
discussion of his major works.
John Rawls and the Social Contract An evaluation of Rawls’s
theory of justice as fairness.
The Antipolitical Philosophy of John Rawls This article
considers whether Rawls’s idea of justice is applicable in the
modern world.
A Just Man Michael Sandel’s article, referred to in the above
link, discussed Rawls’s contributions.
40. Judeo Christian Persons asJudeo Christian Persons as
EndsEnds
“Love your neighbor as yourself”
“What is the Will of Heaven like? The
answer is – To love all men
everywhere alike”
41. Main IdeasMain Ideas
• All moral obligations derived from the
command to love God and humankind
• Love for neighbor as normative
• Regard for others as personal, not legalistic
(as with Rawls’s contract)
• Humans made in the image of God and with
unconditional value apart regardless of
circumstances
42. Agape LoveAgape Love
• Unselfishness, other-regarding care
• Much more than friendship, charity, or
benevolence
• To love is to accept a person as he or she is
with unalterable commitment and
permanent loyalty
• People are never given instrumental value
43. ConcernsConcerns
• Failure of adherents to practice agape love
• Love vs. justice
• Reason as distinct from discernment
• Whether agape is universal or had
continuity with other alternatives
44. AdvantagesAdvantages
• Practical, gives help to those who need it
• Avoids discrimination without denying
distinctions
• Does not presume to assign value to an
individual
46. Main IdeasMain Ideas
• Ethics rooted in relationships
• Emphasizes nurturing and caring for people,
not avoiding harm to others
• Roles of the one-caring and the cared-for
• Three dimensions: engrossment,
motivational displacement, and reciprocity
47. Additional LinksAdditional Links
Agape in Feminist Ethics This article describes several different
approaches to other-regard, contrasting Protestant and feminist
appraisals of agape.
Can Agape Be Universalized? The test of universalizability is
applied to agape.
Care Ethics and Virtue Ethics A critical evaluation of Noddings’
care ethics.
Longing for the Sacred in Schools: A Conversation with Nel
Noddings Nel Noddings defends the place of spirituality in
public education.
48. To Whom Is Moral DutyTo Whom Is Moral Duty
Owed?Owed?
Who Ought to Decide?Who Ought to Decide?
49. Five Categories ofFive Categories of
ObligationObligation
1. Duty to ourselves
2. Duty to clients / subscribers / supporters
3. Duty to our organization or firm
4. Duty to professional colleagues
5. Duty to society
50. LoyaltiesLoyalties
• Duty to society is critical
• Ethical decision-making must be marked by
a sincere sense of social responsibility and a
genuine concern for the citizenry
• In the Potter Box the loyalty component
necessitates the acknowledgment of the
implications of a decision for institutions
and social groups before an ethical decision
is made.
51. AccountabilityAccountability
• Are parents alone accountable for the programs
their children watch, or do advertisers and networks
carry responsibility also?
• Can producers of entertainment dismiss their
responsibility for quality programming by arguing
that they merely give the public what it wants
• Requiring accountability across the board preferable
to giving absolute authority to one person or group.
52. IndividualsIndividuals
• The individual is the authentic moral agent.
• Though corporations are real, they are not
concrete enough to be assigned praise or
blame in any real sense.
• Ultimately it is the individual who will be
held responsible.
53. Corporate ObligationCorporate Obligation
• Corporate obligation still meaningful
• Ultimate responsibility rests with individuals but
must be distributed among the individuals
constituting a corporation.
• Broad attacks on entire media systems are not
helpful. Ethics is fundamentally concerned with
individual choices.
Editor's Notes
“ Moral virtue is a fixed quality of the will, consisting essentially in a middle state, as determined by the standard that a person of practical wisdom would apply” Nichomachean Ethics , Book II, chapter 6
Aristotle explains his application of practical wisdom (quoted above) in Nichomachean Ethics , ed. McKEon (1107A), p. 340
From Four Books , vol. I, I.4, I.5
What is right for one is right for all. Even if a life could be saved by telling a lie, lying would still be wrong!
Always wrong: cheating, stealing, dishonesty Always right: benevolence, truthtelling Examples Deception by advertisers to sell products NOT justifiable under any circumstance Violent pornography universally unacceptable.
