Terroir irrigation. alvarez gei santiago

TERROI R I RRI GATI ON - Al var ez Gei , S.

TERROI R I RRI GATI ON - Al var ez Gei , S. i
Author: Alvarez Gei, Santiago Study Leader: Coulon-Leroy, Cécile
PLAN:
MAIN
OBJECTIVES:
MATHERIALS
AND
METHODS:
RESULTS:
CONCLUSION:
1) Qualitative questionnaire: standard personal interviews with no frequency
(subject surveyed once) with a multi-topic research (omnibus research). 18
participants to the 19th GiESCO Meeting (Group of international Experts of
vitivinicultural Systems for CoOperation) held at Gruissan – France were
selected as participants to the questionnaire. 2) Case study: holistic (single)
case study with embedded units. The area of study was the AOC La Clape,
Gruissan – France. 3) Quantitative questionnaire: structured questionnaire
with close-ended questions and multi-topic research (omnibus research). This
questionnaire was created in collaboration with the ESA Angers and INRA
Pech Rouge and was launched for French consumers this last September.
Experts in irrigation and terroir advocate irrigation to maintain / improve the
quality of the grapes. Qualitative irrigation has shown to have the potential to
limit the negative effects of climate change. There is a gap between
producers and researchers regarding the conception of irrigation practice as
an useful tool for dealing with climate change and wine improvement. It exist
compatibility between irrigation and terroir, therefore it seems logical to
define an irrigation respectful to the concept of terroir (irrigation terroir)
An irrigation practice that acts in accordance with the definition of terroir
could be descripted. Different crucial factors emerge from the dialog from
experts and actors for the study case under analysis. Those factors where
identified as requirements for the setting up of this practice.
CATALOGING NOTICE
Promotion: Master International Vintage 2015
Description: Terroir irrigation. Adjusting irrigation practice to climate change while preserving
terroir. 121 pages. Made to the Pech Rouge Experimental Unit (INRA) in association with the
l’École Supérieure d’Agriculture d’Angers, France.
Key words: climatic change, irrigation, Languedoc, qualitative research, quantitative research,
quality, terroir, wine
Issue: How to set up an irrigation practice that respects the concept of terroir?
Approaching the concept of irrigation land. Establishing of hypothesis
relying on expert’s advice. Testing of hypotheses in a defined region.
Understanding consumer reviews. Proposing conditions for establishing a
terroir irrigation.
Characterize the components of an irrigation practice that respects the terroir
concept. Help researchers to understand producer’s approach concerning
irrigation in general. Understand consumer’s approach regarding irrigation
and provide knowledge helping producers to improve the communication of
wines issued from irrigation practices.

TERROI R I RRI GATI ON - Al var ez Gei , S. i i
Auteur: Alvarez Gei, Santiago Patron de Mémoire: Coulon-Leroy, Cécile
PLAN
INDICATIF:
BUTS DE
L'ETUDE:
MATÉRIELS ET
MÉTHODES:
RESULTATS:
CONCLUSION:
1) Questionnaire qualitatif: entretiens personnels standard sans fréquence
(sujets interrogées une fois) avec une recherche multi-sujet (recherche
omnibus). 18 participants de la 19ème réunion GiESCO (Groupe d'experts
internationaux de systèmes vitivinicoles pour la coopération) tenue à
Gruissan - France ont été sélectionnés comme participants du questionnaire.
2) Étude de cas: holistique (seule étude) avec des unités d’études
Independent. La zone d'étude était l'AOC La Clape, Gruissan - France. 3)
Questionnaire quantitatif: questionnaire structuré avec questions fermées et
des recherches multi-sujet (recherche omnibus). Ce questionnaire a été créé
en collaboration avec l'ESA d'Angers et l'INRA Pech Rouge et a été lancé
pour les consommateurs français en septembre 2015.
Des experts en irrigation et terroir préconisent un irrigation pour
maintenir/améliorer la qualité des raisins. Une irrigation qualitative a montre
avoir le potentiel pour limiter les effets négatives du changement climatique.
Il existe un décalage entre producteurs et chercheurs concernant la
conception des pratiques d’irrigation comme utile pour mitigeur le
changement climatique et améliorer la qualité des vins. Il existe un
compatibilité entre irrigation et terroir qui rendre logique définir une
irrigation respectueuse du concept terroir (irrigation terroir)
Une pratique d'irrigation qui agit en conformité avec la définition de terroir
pourrait être décrite. Différents facteurs cruciaux émergent du dialogue avec
des experts et des acteurs. Ces facteurs sont définies et identifiés comme
nécessaires pour la mise en place de cette pratique.
Promotion: Master International Vintage 2015
NOTICE BIBLIOGRAPHIQUE
Signalement du Mémoire: Irrigation terroir, ajustement des pratiques d’irrigation au
changement climatique en préservant le concept terroir. 121 pages. Réalisé pour l’Unité́
Expérimental Pech Rouge (INRA) en association avec l’École Supérieure d’Agriculture
d’Angers, France.Mots clés: changement climatique, irrigation, Languedoc, qualité, recherche qualitative,
recherche quantitatif, terroir, vin
Problématique: Comment mettre en place une pratique d'irrigation qui
respecte la notion de terroir? Approche du concept d’irrigation terroir.
Etablissement des hypothèses à partir des avis des experts. Test des
hypothèses dans une région définie. Compréhension des avis
consommateurs. Proposition des conditions pour établir une irrigation terroir.
Caractériser les composantes d'une pratique de l'irrigation qui soit
respectueux du concept terroir. Aider les chercheurs à comprendre l'approche
du producteur concernant l'irrigation en général. Comprendre l'approche
relative à l'irrigation des consommateurs et fournir des connaissances pour
aider les producteurs à améliorer la communication des vins issus de
pratiques d'irrigation.

TERROI R I RRI GATI ON - Al var ez Gei , S. i i i
INDEX
CATALOGING NOTICE ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
NOTICE BIBLIOGRAPHIQUE ............................................. iError! Bookmark not defined.
TABLES AND FIGURES......................................................................................................vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................................ix
SECTION I
ISSUE..................................................................................................................................1I.
1) Origin of the issue...........................................................................................................1
2) Context and stakes..........................................................................................................2
3) Research question...........................................................................................................4
LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................4II.
1) Environmental factors.....................................................................................................8
a. Geology........................................................................................................................8
b. Pedology......................................................................................................................9
c. Considerations............................................................................................................10
2) Vine functioning parameters.........................................................................................11
a. Climate.......................................................................................................................11
b. Type of planting material ..........................................................................................11
3) Human factor ................................................................................................................14
a. Viticultural practices..................................................................................................14
b. Enology......................................................................................................................15
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................17III.
GENERAL APPROACH ................................................................................................17IV.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: literature review .............................................................................18V.
SECTION II
CHAPTER 1: USE OF A QUALITATIVE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE
IDENTIFICATION OF HYPOTHESIS: AN APPLICATION TO GROUNDED
THEORY METHODS (GTM) IN WINE INDUSTRY. .....................................................23

TERROI R I RRI GATI ON - Al var ez Gei , S. i v
I. ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................23
II. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................23
1) Elements of inquiry ......................................................................................................24
a. Philosophical assumption ..........................................................................................24
b. Strategy of inquiry.....................................................................................................25
c. Method of inquiry ......................................................................................................26
2) Approaches to research.................................................................................................26
3) Design process of research ...........................................................................................27
a. Sample strategy..........................................................................................................27
b. Sample size................................................................................................................27
c. Temporal, spatial and situational influences of inquiry.............................................28
III. METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................................................28
c. Method of inquiry ......................................................................................................29
a. Context (temporal, spatial and situational influences of inquiry)..............................32
b. Sample strategy..........................................................................................................33
c. Sample size ................................................................................................................33
IV. RESULTS .........................................................................................................................34
1) Climatic change ............................................................................................................34
2) Irrigation .......................................................................................................................38
3) Consumer’s point of view.............................................................................................40
V. DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................43
1) Sociological component: climatic change ....................................................................43
2) Technical component: irrigation...................................................................................44
3) Ecconomical component: Consumer’s point of view...................................................44
VI. CONCLUSIONS ..............................................................................................................45
2) Technical component: Irrigation...................................................................................46
3) Economical component: consumer’s point of view......................................................47
VII.BIBLIOGRAPHY: Qualitative questionnaire..............................................................47

TERROI R I RRI GATI ON - Al var ez Gei , S. v
CHAPTER 2: APPLICATION OF A CASE STUDY METHODOLOGY FOR THE
HYPOTHESIS TESTING: A VITICULTURAL APPROACH. .......................................49
I. ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................49
II. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................49
c. Method of analysis.....................................................................................................51
a. Design the case study: a study protocol.....................................................................52
b. Conduct the case study ..............................................................................................53
c. Analyze case study evidence .....................................................................................53
d. Develop the conclusions, recommendations and implications..................................54
III. METHODOLOGY ..........................................................................................................54
IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................61
1) Legal framework: application of an irrigation practice for AOC wines in France.......62
2) Precision irrigation for vines ........................................................................................63
a. Irrigation methods: a brief description.......................................................................63
b. Decision support methods .........................................................................................63
V. RESULTS .........................................................................................................................67
b. Conduct the case study ..............................................................................................67
VI. DISCUSSION (Analyze case study evidence)................................................................72
2) Technical component: irrigation...................................................................................73
VII.CONCLUSIONS (Develop the conclusions, recommendations and implications) ...74
2) Technical component: irrigaiton...................................................................................75
VIII.BIBLIOGRAPHY: Case study.....................................................................................77

TERROI R I RRI GATI ON - Al var ez Gei , S. vi
CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING A TERROIR IRRIGATION BETWEEN WINE
PROFESSIONALS AND CONSUMERS: DEVELOPMENT OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
FOR CONSUMER RESEARCH INTEGRATING QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITAVIVE METHODS IN THE WINE INDUSTRY............................................81
I. ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................81
II. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................81
1) Social component: climatic change ..............................................................................82
2) Techincal component: irrigation...................................................................................82
3) Economical component: consumer’s point of view......................................................82
III. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Quantitative research.....................................................................84
SECTION III
MAIN CONSIDERATIONS...........................................................................................86I.
1) Sociological component................................................................................................86
2) Technical component....................................................................................................87
3) Economic component ...................................................................................................88
II. FINAL CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................89
ANNEX......................................................................................................................................v
1) Annex A: Internet pre-testing questionnaire: in depth or intensive questionnaire with
close-ended questions.............................................................................................................v
2) Annex B: Semi-structured questionnaire with open-ended questions. Questionnaire
final version (English version) ..............................................................................................xi
3) Annex C: Structured questionnaire with close-ended questions. Quantitative
questionnaire for French consumers (only French version).................................................xv

TERROI R I RRI GATI ON - Al var ez Gei , S. vi i
TABLES AND FIGURES
TABLES
Table 1. Question #3. ………….……………………………………………………………. 37
Table 2. Frequencies and expected frequencies par type of answerer of each question. …….43
Table 3 - Predawn leaf water potential (Ψb) and vine water status: The physiological and
biochemical vine requirements to these thresholds will depend on the cultivar, the
phonological stage and the duration of the water deficit. (1 bar = 0.1 MPa = 100 KPa).........65
Table 4 - Predawn leaf water potential (Ψb) and possible consequences for the vine
functioning: threshold values of predawn leaf water potential (Ψb in Mpa) and possible
consequences on vegetative and berry growth, photosynthesis and berry maturation. It must
be noted that the thresholds values may vary among different grape cultivars. ......................66
Table 5 - Average maximum yield (kg/ha) of irrigated and non-irrigated plots: Different
irrigation practices between AOC Languedoc and AOC La Clape..........................................70
FIGURES
Figure 1 - The vine functioning variables: Relations and components of the vine functioning
variables......................................................................................................................................5
Figure 2 - UTV as functioning variables: Relation and components of the “terroir concept”
from a vine “functioning variables” approach. ..........................................................................7
Figure 3- Framework for research design (Creswell): knowledge claims, strategies of inquiry,
and methods leading to approaches and the design process.....................................................24
Figure 4- Methodology of inquiry: elements of inquiry leading to qualitative approach and the
design process; personal interviews in the 19th
GiESCO Congress.........................................28
Figure 5- Strategy of inquiry: codding. Two utilized levels of codes emerged from the
literature review. ………………..……………………………………………………..……. 30
Figure 6 - Emerging parameters Q#2. ……………………..………………..………………. 35
Figure 7 - Grouped parameters Q#4. ……………………………………..………………… 38
Figure 8 - Not grouped parameters. ……………………………………..………………….. 38
Figure 9- Methodology of inquiry: elements of inquiry leading to qualitative approach and the
design process; personal interviews in the 19th
GiESCO Congress.........................................54
Figure 10- Basic types of designs for case studies: blurred boundary between a case and its
context. A single case study with embedded units was selected for this study........................56

TERROI R I RRI GATI ON - Al var ez Gei , S. vi i i
Figure 11 - Regulatory framework for irrigation according to French regulation: irrigation
periods authorized by law according to the type of product. Source: adapted from CA84
(2009) .......................................................................................................................................63
Figure 12 - Scheme of the pressure chamber: Ψb: predawn leaf water potential (base
potential); Ψl: leaf water potential; Ψs: steam water potential.................................................65
Figure 13 - Irrigation strategies based on the vineyard objectives. Different possible irrigation
strategies to control the water status of the vineyard according to the growing season and the
type of desired product: (A) concentrated musts, grape juice, table wines and young vineyards
training; (B) white wines, light red, fruity wines; (C) quality young wines but balanced with a
predominance of the fruit on the structure, limit values for white wines and (D) quality wines,
concentrated, balanced and suitable for aging. (Ψb: predawn leaf water potential, Ψl: the leaf
water potential, Ψs: steam water potential) (1 bar = 0.1 MPa = 100 KPa)...............................66
Figure 14 – Climate evolution at UEPR. Evolution of total potential evapotranspiration (PET),
precipitation and Drought Index (DI: Tonietto and Carbonneau 2004) at UE INRA Pech
Rouge (France). Data spanning from 1990 to 2014. ...............................................................67
GRAPHICS
Graph 1 - Question #1. ……………………………………..……………………………….. 34
Graph 2 - Question #2.2. …………………………………..………………………….…….. 35
Graph 3 - Question #2.1. …………………………………..……………………….……….. 36
Graph 4 - Question #3. ……………………………………..……………………………….. 37
Graph 5 - Question #4. …………………………………………………………..………….. 39
Graph 6 - Question #5. ……………………………………..……………………………….. 39
Graph 7 - Question #6. ……………………………………………..……………………….. 40
Graph 8 - Question #7. …………………………………………..………………………….. 40
Graph 9 - Question #8.1. …………………………………………………………...……….. 41
Graph 10 - Question #9. …………………………………………………………………….. 42
Graph 11 - Question #10. …………………………………………………………………… 42

TERROI R I RRI GATI ON - Al var ez Gei , S. i x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AB organic farming
AOC Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée
ASW Accessible Soil Water
BTU Terroir Basic Unit
CI Cool night Index
CIVL Conseil Inteprofessionnel des Vins du Languedoc
CIVR Conseil Inteprofessionnel des Vins du Roussillon
CRINAO Regional Committee of the French National Institute for Origin and Quality
CT Crop Transpiration
DI Dryness Index
ELA Exposed Leaf Area
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GiESCO Group of international Experts of vitivinicultural Systems for CoOperation
GTM Grounded Theory Methods
HI Heliothermal Index
INAO French National Institute for Origin and Quality
INRA Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique
LACCAVE Long term impacts to Climate Change in Viticulture and Enology
LAt Leaf Area
MWR Moderately Weathered Rock
OIV International Organization of Vine and Wine
PDO Protected Designations of Origin
PGI Protected Geographical Indications
R Rainfall
RL Red Label
Ru Runoff water
SE Soil Evaporation
SWR Strongly Weathered Rock
TSG Traditional Specialty Guaranteed
UEPR Pech Rouge Experimental Unit
UTV Viticultural Terroir Unit
WWR Weathered Rock

TERROIR IRRIGATION - Alvarez Gei, S. 1
ISSUEI.
1) Origin of the issue
In today’s scenario, restriction in water ability and climate change are two main factors that
seem to compromise the production of quality wines. Water and temperature plays a major
role in regulating the phenology states of the vine and therefore, there is general agreement
that all phenologic stages of vines will be earlier developed in the future (Ollat and Touzard,
2014). This not minor event is expected to have significant repercussion in many aspects,
leading to changes even in geographical distribution of vineyards and in wines typicality. In
this sense, some environments considerate today as no satisfactory for viticulture can, in
future, become favorable to the qualitative development of vines (Coulon-Leroy and al.,
2014). In this context, the provision of water has being detected as an important tool for
limiting the negative effects of climate change (i.e. project LACCAVE; Ollat and Touzard,
2014).
Water supply conditions in vineyard and especially water status, are determining factors for
the function and organization of the wine production systems but, more broadly, on the entire
wine industry. Water availability impacts on physiological performance of vineyards, on
yields, on the grape’s maturation process and, therefore: on wine quality. As a result, the
water supply of vines seem to offers a methodology integrating most of the factors associated
with production and quality: edaphic, climatic, biological and even human factors (Seguin,
1986). Moreover, under the qualitative perspective of the “terroir” concept, many European
geographical indications (PDO, PGI) takes carefully into consideration the complex
interactions between vines and water supply and how this can be oriented by different
agronomic practices, in order to achieve different quality wines.
However, for many people, irrigation might be opposite to the “terroir” concept since it is not
an historical cultural practice in many European regions, continent where this concept was
conceived. In France, this debate took several years of deliberation until the French National
Institute for Origin and Quality (INAO) finally recognized the qualitative potential of
irrigation in 2006. Notwithstanding this recognition, irrigation is still understood as a
quantitative cultivar practice and its compatibility with the AOC production system, and by
this, with the “terroir” concept is still not fully accepted for all actors of the wine industry.
Setting out from this premise, this work pretends to identify the necessary considerations that

need to be contemplated in order to integrate irrigation with the terroir concept for the
production of quality wines.
2) Context and stakes
As an initial approach, it seems necessary to define, firstly, what is understood as “terroir
irrigation”. Broadly, can be state at first glance that it’s an irrigation practice respectful to the
terroir concept. However, for the practical reason of this project, this idea is still vague or
foggy and leads to the following reflections:
The terroir concept and its relation with irrigation
In different parts of the world, generations of people have built up their local identity, have
developed an expertise or know-how and have produced typical products with a specific
landscape that reflects interactions between natural resources and production systems. In
terms of wine as a quality product, this authenticity is highly recognized and consumers
become increasingly interested in quality linked to geographical origin, traditions and
typicality. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) consider in the works of
Vandecandelaere and al. (2010) that this not only represents a heritage to be preserved, but
also has a market value in its own right. In this scenario, an agricultural definition of terroir
seems to be a complete approach for the study and characterization of the link among a
product, a place and the inhabitants.
Since 2010 the general assembly of the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV)
establish by consensus with his members a worldwide definition of terroir (Resolution
OIV/VITI 333/2010, 2010). Notwithstanding this text, is still difficult to determine if a
specific grape production feats into this terroir definition on a scientific basis because many
factors are involved (such us specific soil, topography, climate, landscape characteristics and
biodiversity features) and all of them are in constant interaction. This complexity hinders the
study of terroir. Correspondingly, for Vaudour (2003) there is no specific discipline for the
study of the terroir concept. Instead, she states that there are different knowledge, concepts
and methods from many disciplines. As can be expected, this raises difficulties in the
scientific acceptance of terroir term.
In the light of the above, many authors (Ribérau-Gayon and Peynaud, 1960; Seguin, 1986;
Van Leeuwen and Seguin, 2006) agree that a quality terroir in France is constituted by those
terroirs who permits a complete but quite slow maturation of cultivars and certain regularity
in quality in the various vintages. More specifically, “when the precocity of the grapevine

variety is suited to the local climatic conditions in such a way that full ripeness is reached by
the end of the growing season” (Seguin, 1986: 862). Again, since very high quality wines are
grown in many different conditions, it is impossible to define the ideal factor that would lead
to that specific maturation. There is no ideal clime for fine wines in terms of temperature,
rainfall or solar radiation neither a best possible soil for growing high-quality wines in terms
of pebble, clay or lime content, soil depth or mineral content (Van Leeuwen and Seguin,
2006). It seems that even if the factors of the climate-soil-vine ecosystem (topographical,
morphological and physical characteristics of soil, bioclimatic units, influence of geological
and pedological factors, influence of soil texture and structure and chemical properties and
fertilization of wine-producing soils), certainly have a beating on the character and type of
wines, none of them seems to have a really deciding influence as regards quality (Seguin,
1986). Indeed, each has its own action but acts in synergy with or in opposition to the others.
Nevertheless, Van Leeuwen and Seguin (2006) states that vine water intake conditions are a
key factor in understanding the effect of the terroir on grape quality potential because the
main terroir factors are involved and interact (climate, soil, grapevine). In the light of the
above, a direct causal relationship seems to exist between the terroir concept and irrigation.
Irrigation as qualitative practice
The vine, because of its low ground coverage and its ability to take deep root, is a culture
adapted to drought. Nevertheless, it responds to water deficit in the same general mechanisms
of other cultures. In this respect, in a situation of water sufficiency, excessive vegetative
growth favor a dense canopy where the microclimate becomes unfavorable for the initiation
of primordia inflorescences in latent buds and grape ripening (Lebon and Garcia de Cortazar-
Atauri, 2014). Also, it causes a delay and a lengthening of the grapevine growth cycle,
excessive vigor, an increase in yield and dilution of metabolites (Barbeau, 2008). Conversely,
severe water deficit conditions results in a decrease in photosynthesis, yield reduction, small
berries with a high sking/pulp ratio, a high concentration of certain compounds (tannins,
pigments) and low malic acid content (Barbeau, 2008; Van Leeuwen and Vivin, 2008). If
repeated, severe water deficit provoke massive leaves fall resulting in a carbon deficit and an
incomplete maturation of grapes (Lebon and Garcia de Cortazar-Atauri, 2014). Nonetheless, it
is possible to strike a balance. Many authors agree that the best harvest quality is achieved
with a moderate and regular water supply (Barbeau, 2008; Van Leeuwen and Seguin, 2006;
Ojeda and al., 2004). A slight water stress during the second half of the cycle has proved to be
favorable to the quality (Van Leeuwen and al., 2004; Ojeda and al., 2004). It is noticeable

then that special considerations need to be implemented while adjusting the water ability in
vines for qualitative purpose. On this point, seems important to precise the ideal water supply
according the different terroirs and the attended type of product and quality.
From the last paragraph can be elaborated that irrigation needs to be contextualized since is
not an advisable practice for all the regions. In areas where irrigation is not indispensable (as
in large parts of European vineyards) the monitoring of water status is achieved, to a limited
extent, through the management of soil tillage and vine training system (Ojeda, 2007). In this
case, the water status of the vineyard, compared to useful water reserves of the soil is a major
factor in explaining the concept of variability of the soil. Accordingly, many authors study the
water status by estimating the water stock in the soil by the plant and its renewal (i.e. Riou
and al., 2001; Simonneau and al., 2014).
On the other hand, in areas with low rainfall where irrigation is an essential technique for
growing vines, or in high dry areas like the majority of wine-producing countries of the "new
world", or even in areas with high occasionally dryness drought; it is essential to know
precisely the answers of the vine water status to choose to better irrigation strategies to be
based on production targets (Ojeda, 2007). Accordingly, many authors propose the study of
the precise vine water status (Deloire and al., 2006; Ojeda, 2001; Ojeda and al., 2004; Van
Leeuwen and Vivin, 2008)
Finally, we can conclude that a terroir irrigation practice seems to be only conceived for areas
with low rainfall where irrigation is an essential technique for growing vines.
3) Research question
The elements gathered in the bibliographic research presented led us to formulate our research
question as follows: How to set up an irrigation practice that respects the concept of terroir?
LITERATURE REVIEWII.
For Gérard Barbeau (2008), the quality and typicality of wines can be explained trough the
study of the “functioning variables”: precocity, water intake and vigor potential. These
functioning variables influence the physiological behavior of the vine, and will be the cause
of what he calls “resulting variables” (yield, berry composition at harvest time and quality and
typicality of wines). Thus, the functioning variables are explained by the interaction of the

“state variables” (type of source rock, granulation, calcium content, cation content) with the
climate of the year, type of planting material, temperature and fertility of soil and
mesoclimate (Figure 1). These relationships have been obtained thanks to the many terroirs
studies developed by the INRA of Angers in France since the early 80’s.
We are going to serve of this model in order to structure the literature review, pointing out the
impact that the different variables, together with irrigation practices, can have in the in the
vine water intake.
Figure 1 - The vine functioning variables: Relations and components of the vine functioning variables.
Source: Barbeau, G. (2008).
At present, many studies have shown the influence of terroir as natural environmental factors
on the composition and the quality of grapes and wines (Carbonneau, 1993; Choné and al.,
2001; Deloire, 2005; Morlat and al., 2001; Seguin, 1986; Van Leeuwen and Seguin, 2006;
Vaudour, 2003). In the light of the above works of Barbeau (2008), we can classify them in
two main groups: models who emphasize in the “static variables” and models focusing the
“functioning parameters”. Among the first ones, a special mention must be made for the
works of Morlat (Morlat, 1989; Morlat and al., 2001) for the study of the physical
environmental factors of terroir in the fields of geology. According to Bodin and Morlat
(2006), the model proposed by Morlat and al. (2001) proved in the Middle Loir Valley that
for every type of parent rock belonging to a given geologic stage, there is potentially a series
of soils at different stages of evolution. Accordingly, the field soil model enables three kinds
of soil type to be distinguished according to the degree of weathering of the parent rock:
Weakly Weathered Rock (WWR), Moderately Weathered Rock (MWR) and Strongly
Weathered Rock (SWR), with a profile depth and clay content increasing sense in the WWR
< MWR < SWR (Bodin and Morlat, 2006). According to the parent rock (geological
component), a pedological and a landscape component, Morlat (1989) regarded a vineyard

area as a set of small natural environments, called Terroir Basic Unit (BTU). Each BTU is
then defined by the three associated components, however, the geological constituent is the
first key for identifying and mapping BTUs (Bodin and Morlat, 2006). This model is relevant
to explain the behavior of the vine, particularly with respect to water stress, vigor, precocity
cycle and physico-chemical composition of the berries (Morlat and al., 2001). In this sense,
the works of Bodin and Morlat (2006) in the Middle Loir Valley showed that soils had a great
importance for the production of wines according to the desired characteristics of the AOC.
However, it is important to emphasize that more than the nature of the source rock, was its
depth that was important to consider (Cadot, 2010). In general lines, the depth to the source
rock determines the soil depth usable by the roots and therefore the water intake and level of
water stress: high, moderate or low.
Conversely, many studies helped to better understand the quality of harvest by bioclimatic
indices (Huglin, 1978; Tonietto, 1999; Winkler and al., 1974). For that matter, they focused
the climatic factors of the “functioning parameters” defined by Barbeau (2008) as key factor
for the study of the wine-terroir link. In this field, a special mention should be made of the
“Geoviticulture MCC System” (Geoviticulture Multicriteria Climatic Classification System)
proposed by Tonietto and Carbonneau (2004). This model allows the characterization of the
viticultural climates and its relation with the plant, grape quality and wine typicality
(including the vintage effect) by the analysis of tree climatic viticultural indices: heliothermal
index (HI), cool night index (CI) and dryness index (DI) (Tonietto, 2007).
On the other hand, many authors agree that the human and collective dimensions are the key
factor of the terroir definition (Bérard and Marchenay, 2006; Bérard and al., 2004; Cadot,
2010; Linck and al., 2006). For Carbonneau (1993), in order to reveal the potential of a grape
variety, viticultural (training system, harvest date, etc.) and enological practices (type of
winemaking, ageing, etc.) are a key factor that need to be study in the terroir definition. In this
sense, he extend the BTU concept of Morlat (1989) [Terroir Basic Unit = « mesoclimate x
soil / substratum » (for a series of years / vintages)] considering the viticultural and enological
technology applied in the plot, leading to the concept of Viticultural Terroir Unit (UTV)
[Viticultural Terroir Unit = « BTU x cultivar x viticultural and enological technology »]. He
rely his theory on the statement that the viticulturist acts on some intrinsic components of the
UTV, such as light, temperature or moisture-related microclimate within the canopy in the
bunch zone (Deloire, 2005). They influence, therefore, the quality of the harvest and the
typicality of the wine in partnership with the winemaker.

Given this background, it seems convenient to extend the already mentioned model of
Barbeau (2008) (Figure 1) with the human factors proposed for Carbonneau (1993) in the
UTV concept. The literature review is then exposed according to the previous consideration
(Figure 2). This approach will enable a complete characterization of the water intake impact
under a terroir approach, adapted within the framework of this study.
Figure 2 - UTV as functioning variables: Relation and components of the “terroir concept” from a vine
“functioning variables” approach. Source: adapted from Carbonneau, A. (1993) and Barbeau, G. (2008)
Nonetheless, since we are interested in deficit water terroirs where irrigation is advisable, the
concept of water intake (a functioning variable) will play a key role. In this sense, the concept
of “water balance”, which is a model to estimate soil water availability, appears important in
order to structure the study of the role that plays the different variables in the vine water
supply. In this regard, Riou and al. (2001), stipulates that for estimating the water balance of a
plot at any given moment (t) we need to calculate the “Accessible Soil Water” (ASW). This
output variable depends on rainfall (R), runoff water (Ru), crop transpiration (CT), and soil
evaporation (SE). The inputs (rainfall, runoff water) are added to this number and the outputs
(crop transpiration, evaporation at soil surface) are subtracted as shown in the following
equation (Riou and al., 2001):
ASW! = ASW!!! + R − CT − SE − Ru (Eq. 1)
Since this model was conceived for the Burgundy region, a non water-shortage terroir, the
effect of irrigation (I) wasn’t considerate. However we can include it as an input variable
leading to the following equivalence:
ASW! = ASW!!! + R + I − CT − SE − Ru (Eq. 2)

In terms of the schema of analysis proposed, each of the already defined variables will play a
specific role in the determination of the water balance. In this sense, the “environmental
factors” will determinate “ASWt-1”, “Ru” and “SE” due to the physical characteristic of the
soils. The “functioning parameters” will determinate the “R” and the “CT” due to the climatic
conditions and variety and rootstock selection. Finally, the “human factors”, understood as
viticultural and enological practices according to the UTV approach, will also impact in the
“CT” due to the planting density and the training system, which in turn determine the leaf
area per hectare and its transpiration rate as well as they will determine “I” (according to the
irrigations strategies). It must be noted that the enological approach in terms of water regime
is going to be approximated by the impact of irrigation in grapes quality as raw material for
the enological process. The winemaking process itself is not studied since it doesn’t affect the
above water balance approximation.
1) Environmental factors
In accordance with Barbeau (2008), the environmental factors are static variables that doesn’t
have a direct role on wine quality. However, soil properties have a profound influence on root
distribution and also control infiltration and water storage (Bodin and Morlat, 2006). In this
sense, in order to determine the useable soil water reserve in soils, two main factors needs to
be considered: the depth of exploitable soil which modulates the size of the water reservoir
and the soil texture (Bruand and al., 1996). In this respect, it seems logical to perform a
geological and a pedological approach of terroirs for the purpose of explaining the influence
of the vine water intake in terroirs and the effects that irrigation can have in the quality of
grapes.
a. Geology
Geology directly impacts on the useable soil water reserve limiting the depth of exploitable
soil for vin roots, which modulates the size of the water reservoir (approached as AWSt in
Eq. 2) available for the plant (Bruand and al., 1996). Consistently, the model elaborated by
Morlat and al. (2001), propose a classification of soils at different stages of evolution
according to the distance to its parent rock or bedrock. As can be expected, conclusions have
been made regarding the distance to the bedrock and the water constraint and soil moisture
(Bodin and Morlat, 2006). In this sense, Bodin and Morlat (2006) proved different
characteristic of soil according their depth for the Middle Loire Valley: clay and silt contents,
free iron / total iron ratio and soil moisture were consistent with the degree of pedological
weathering for the area of analysis, meaning that they increases in the sense Weakly

Weathered Rock (WWR) < Moderately Weathered Rock (MWR) < Strongly Weathered Rock
(SWR). On the contrary, water constraint increase in the opposite direction. Nonetheless, no
direct relationship can be established between soil minerals (except for nitrogen) and wine
quality (as long as severe deficiencies do not interact with normal plant functioning; Van
Leeuwen and al., 2004) (Asselin and al., 2001). Indeed, are the physical and thermodynamic
characteristics of soils (including temperature and humidity) rather than their chemical
characteristics which determines wine quality (Asselin and al., 2001; Seguin, 1986).
In terms of the “functioning variables” of Barbeau (2008), the model of Morlat and al. (2001)
demonstrate for the Middle Loire Valley, that the water intake and precocity of a plot will be
related with soil type according to the degree of weathering of the parent rock (Bodin and
Morlat, 2006). Moreover, Bodin and Morlat (2006) note that the water supply also varies
depending on the type and hardness of bedrocks. However, even if no concrete conclusion
were obtained concerning vigor in the previous study, Coulon-Leroy and al. (2012) comments
that the spatial distribution of the root system has consequences in the vin vigor; the deeper
and denser the root system, the more vigorous is the plant.
b. Pedology
Huggett (2006) reveal that the ideal water balance for vines is provided by bedrock with
medium to high porosity (c. 15-45%), high fracture permeability (> 100 mD) and low matrix
permeability range (c. 1-100 mD). On this evidence, chalk soils together with moderately
cemented, fractured limestone other than chalk, sandstone, conglomerate and deeply
weathered and fractured schist or granite soils provides the ideal water balance for viticulture
due to theirs ideal porosity and permeability (Huggett, 2006). Consequently, the ideal water
balance for a vin can be reached by different types of soils (related to the bedrock) (Huggett,
2006). Therefore, the physical characteristic of a plot are not determinant factors for
qualifying a terroir by themselves (Cadot, 2010; Deloire, 2005; Huggett, 2006; Seguin, 1986;
Van Leeuwen and Seguin, 2006).
However, some relations can be made regarding the soil composition. On the whole, soil
texture varies with the proportions of clay, silt, sand and pebbles. Even if granulation is not
alone sufficient to estimate the water retention property of a soil (Bruand and al., 1996), in
general rule: the more sand and pebbles the more free-draining, the more clay the greater the
water retention (but not necessary the more water availability for the plant) (Huggett, 2006).
Another property of clay-rich soils is that they lose heat faster than stony soils because much
of the heat absorbed by the solar radiation is transferred to water as it evaporates, thus cooling
the soil (Huggett, 2006).

Finally, in terms of the “functioning variables”, a straight relationship between the soil
composition and the vine precocity can be mentioned (Asselin and al., 2001; Barbeau, 2008;
Barbeau and al., 2005; Morlat and al., 2001). The soil composition, while impacting in the
water holding capacity, is a major variable in the thermal behavior of the soil. For instance, in
high-clay soils, since water is abundant but not reachable for the plant, there is a big precocity
in terms of the vine cycle (Barbeau, 2008). In this sense, soil composition has an effect on soil
warming and therefore on the early establishment of the leaf area in spring and early summer
(Asselin and al., 2001; Coulon-Leroy and al., 2012; Morlat and al., 2001), which means that
exist a straight relationship with precocity. Consistently, Morlat and al. (2001) precise that the
date of bud break depends on soil temperature at rooting zone in relation with: the water
content, the soil texture and characteristics of the soil surface. Differences in earliness
according to soil texture may exist in absence of other limiting factors (Coulon-Leroy and al.,
2012).
c. Considerations
We can conclude that both, geology and pedology influences in water intake by impacting the
Accessible Soil Water (ASW), runoff water (Ru) and soil evaporation (SE). According to the
UTB method of Morlat and al. (2001), the distance to the bedrock will limit the size of the
water reservoir which will consequently help to determinate the Accessible Soil Water
(ASW). The runoff water (Ru) mainly depends on the topography of soils, defined by Morlat
(1989) as the landscape component. Lastly, in terms of the “environmental factors”, the soil
evaporation (SE) can be understood as a relation with the soil temperature (which depends on
soil composition and granulation, among others).
Regarding the geological aspect of the “environmental factors”, the UTB approach of Morlat
and al. (2001) explain, as above mentioned, that the distance to the bedrock will limit the size
of the water reservoir but as well the depth of exploitable soil for vin roots. This last event is
expected to impact in vine vigor (the deeper and denser the root system, the more vigorous is
the plant).
Finally, concerning soil pedology, the composition and granulation of soils will impact on the
water retention (particularly clay content, which influences positively the water retention) and
the soil temperature. These two variables will impact on the vine precocity by determining the
relation between the soil temperature and the water content at rooting zone. Since vine vigor
depends on the distribution of the root system and the regime of water supply, pedology will
impact as well in vine vigor.

2) Vine functioning parameters
Knowing that the environmental factors are static variables that doesn’t have a direct role on
vine (Figure 2) (Barbeau, 2008), determining the grapevine variety who reaches full ripeness
by the end of the growing season at the local climatic conditions seems to be a priority for a
quality terroir (Seguin, 1986). In this sense, climate and grape variety are two parameters that,
together with the already defined environmental factors, will determinate the functioning
variables characterized for Barbeau (2008).
a. Climate
The climatic conditions of the vintage can influence in grape quality through the amount of
insolation, temperature, or water balance (Van Leeuwen and al., 2004). For Carbonneau and
Casteran (1989), the content of sugar in berries, phenolic compounds and flavors are caused,
among other factors, by the microclimate around grapes, determined by the climatic
conditions of the vintage. It is also well known that high sunlight stimulates berry
anthocyanin accumulation (Van Leeuwen and al., 2004). Therefore, several indices have
being developed to predict whether a particular grape variety can reach full maturity in a
given region or not, helping the choice of grapevine varieties (Huglin, 1978; Winkler and al.,
1974). Another important feature of climate with respect to vine growing is water balance,
which depends on rainfall and potential evapotranspiration (Tonietto and Carbonneau, 2004).
All these variable are included in the “Geoviticulture MCC System” (Geoviticulture
Multicriteria Climatic Classification System) proposed by Tonietto and Carbonneau (2004).
Consistently, wen analyzing the water balance, Van Leeuwen and al. (2015) consider that
climate acts on vine water status through rainfall (R) and reference crop evapotranspiration
(CT).
In terms of the functioning variables of Barbeau (2008), the macroclimate of the area in
relation with the temperature of the air largely explain precocity, having the air temperature
an apparent dominating effect (Coulon-Leroy and al., 2012). Concerning vigor, no relevant
influences could be identified apart from the effects on rain.
b. Type of planting material
The choice of the vegetal material is one main aspect that needs to be carefully considered for
a qualitative production (Van Leeuwen and Seguin, 2006). It exists within the Vitis vinifera L.
varying capacities of response to water stress (Marguerit and al., 2014; Van Leeuwen and
Vivin, 2008). This variability was mainly discussed by Marguerit and al. (2014) in terms of
regulation of water loss by transpiration and the water loss/biomass ratio (water use
efficiency). However links between the physiological responses of the plant and results in

productivity and maturation were not established by the authors, was demonstrated that there
is a variable response among different varieties of Vitis vinifera L. to water stress. This
variability must be studied to choose varieties that will achieve the best results in terms of
production and maturation. For Van Leeuwen and Vivin (2008) the choice of grape variety in
relation to the soil type depends largely on the plot’s precocity, hence, is closely related with
the water regime.
On the other hand, many authors confer great importance to the rootstock in terms of drought
adaptability. For Swanapoel and Southey (1989: 27), since the “above-ground growth of the
grapevine is largely correlated to density, spatial distribution and effectivity of roots”; the
natural rooting pattern of a rootstock is an important factor determining the above-ground
performance of the vine. For Marguerit and al. (2014), the differences between rootstocks are
related to intrinsic genetic characteristics but can also be explained by differences on their
response to water deficit (Marguerit and al. 2011). In this regard, Southey and Archer (1988)
argued that the root architecture dependents on many factors but mainly on the soil
characteristics, whereas root density is essentially based on the rootstock genotype. In
addition, if soil characteristics are not restrictive in terms of depth and coarse elements
content, Swanapoel and Southey (1989) adds that are the genetic characteristics of the
rootstock material that exert the greatest influence on both parameters: root density and
distribution. Nonetheless, Carbonneau (1985) concluded that the mechanisms involved in
drought tolerance induced by the rootstock seem more related to the ability of the root system
to extract as much water from the ground rather than the ability of the root system to explore a
large volume of soil. In this sense, we can classify the rootstocks according to their tolerance
to drought (i.e. rootstock SO4 is more vigorous than rootstock Riparia; Barbeau and al., 2005)
(Carbonneau, 1985)
In general lines, the root system growth depends on the water content in soil (Carbonneau and
al., 2006), natural soil properties such as texture, structure and fertility (Champagnol, 1984),
cultivation practices (such as the conduction system that determines the volume of the aerial
part of the plant in terms of total leaf surface exposed) (Carbonneau and al., 2006), soil
cultivation methods (results on Colombar/143B in the Cape coastal area of South Africa
shown no convincing effect for additions of organic material into soils but a strong positive
effect of depth and efficiency of soil loosening; Saayman, 1982) and plant spacing (fruit mass
ratio with more closely spaced vines augmented grape and wine quality, however planting
distance between two rows at 1,2 meters or less increases competition between the root
system; Southey and Archer, 1988).

In terms of the “functioning variables” defined by Barbeau (2008), both: the rootstock itself
(Barbeau and Blin, 2010) and the combination of variety and rootstock, induce strong effects
on the vigor of the vine (Minet and al., 2000). The choice of the rootstock allows
compensating for an excessive or deficient vigor imparted by the soil (Coulon-Leroy and al.,
2012). Another determining factor of vine vigor is the spacing between rows and the spacing
between plants on the row. In low density vineyards (from 2,500 to 3,000 vines/ha), vigor of
plants is maximal because of the lack of competition (Coulon-Leroy and al., 2014). Regarding
precocity, studies in the Loire Valley show that the type of rootstock had no impact on the
early bud or bloom (Barbeau and Blin, 2010), however it can be influenced by the choose of
variety. Finally, concerning water intake, it has being already postulated that rootstock have
different tolerance to draught (Carbonneau, 1985). In terms of varieties selection, Schultz
(2003) proved that different cultivars of the same species have different stomata sensitivities
to drought and may thus act as isohydric or anisohydric plants depending on their genetic
background. This last statement clearly proof that vine varieties selection impact in water
consumption.
c. Considerations
We can conclude that both, climate and vegetal material influences in the water balance by
impacting in the Accessible Soil Water (ASW), the crop transpiration (CT) and rainwater (R).
In terms of the “functioning parameters”, the Accessible Soil Water (ASW) can be understood
as a relation with both: the rootstock and the vine variety, since together they will impact in
the water consumption. Concerning crop transpiration (CT), it has been postulated that
climate will directly impact in the leaf evapotranspiration. Lastly, as can be expected, the
amount of rainwater (R) of the climate of the year will increase the water balance.
Regarding climate and it relations with the functioning variables, there is an agreement that it
largely influence precocity. However, no relevant influences could be identified concerning
vigor apart from the effects on rain.
Finally, with reference to the planting material, it can be pointed out that both: rootstock and
vine variety will impact in vigor. In this sense, the choice of the rootstock should be made in
order to compensate an excessive or deficient vigor imparted by the soil. Apropos precocity,
studies in the Middle Loire Valley seem to indicate that the type of rootstock doesn’t have an
impact on the early bud or bloom; however planted variety does bloom (Barbeau and Blin,
2010).

3) Human factor
Human factor is a determining parameter in terroir since no vineyard exists without mankind
intervention. Moreover, mankind also played an essential role in the evolution through
selection of grapevine varieties (none of the currently cultivated varieties of Vitis vinifera L.
existed in nature) and vineyards locations among other formative characteristic (Van
Leeuwen and Seguin, 2006).
On the other hand, knowing that in general any imbalance (i.e. deficiencies in nitrogen or
potassium, excessive clumping of vegetation in the bunch zone, water stress, insufficient
preparation of the soil, disruption of soil biology and poor control of bio-aggressors) is
unfavorable for the expression of terroir (Deloire and al., 2008), viticultural and oenological
practices are implemented in order to positively influence in wine quality. Accordingly, in
terms of “human factor”, the influence of man in the quality of wines can be then
approximately by viticultural and enological practices based on the UTV model of
Carbonneau (1993) (Figure 2).
a. Viticultural practices
Temperature and water status of vine are the main factors controlling vegetative growth
(Carbonneau and al., 2006). However, Carbonneau and al. (2006) highlight other factors that
influence the growth of primary and secondary outbreaks: the conducting system, the growth
period, the total leaf area (LAt) or exposed leaf area (ELA) and grape production (yield per
m2 or hectare) and the fertilization. All these factors will impact on water consumption and,
theretofore, will be determining factors for water balance during the vegetative cycle.
In terms of water regime, viticultural practices directly impacts in the determination of the
canopy transpiration (CT) mainly by determining the training system. For Carbonneau and
Casteran (1989), the training system is a key parameter since it strongly determines the
microclimate around leaves and, whit it; the water regime, the photosynthesis, the plant
growth, the bud fertility, and the growth and maturity of berries. There are various training
systems (Carbonneau, 1989), each of whom will have different influences in the
ecophysiological variables by impacting the following parameters: leaves microclimate,
leave-fruit microclimatic balance, leave-root balance, sap flow in the perennial parts,
competition among fruits and vigor control (Carbonneau and Casteran, 1989). According to
Carbonneau and Casteran (1989), we can classify them in terms of it exposed leaf area (ELA)
since is a production and/or quality decisive factor. Moreover, the ELA concept is largely
related to canopy transpiration (CT) ratio and, therefore, to the determinations of the water
balance.

Concerning the functioning variables of Barbeau (2008) we can say that the viticultural
practices has impact in both vigor and precocity. As far as vigor, the training system seems to
be one of the main determining viticultural practices. In this sense, a maximal exposed leaf
area (ELA) is an essential guarantee for obtaining an optimum microclimate of grapes for
moderate vigor branches (Carbonneau and Casteran, 1989). Another viticultural practice
impacting in vigor is intercrop, who decrease vigor by reducing water availability for the vine
(Coulon-Leroy and al., 2012). Concerning precocity, the effect of viticultural practices seems
to be less influential (Coulon-Leroy and al., 2012). However, a special mention must be done
to pruning since the pruning date can significantly alter the earliness in the budburst (Martin
and Dunn, 2000).
b. Enology
The quality of a wine depends on the quality of the grape as it raw material. Grape quality can
be measured by analyzing the content of sugar in berries, the organic acids, the phenolic
compounds in red grapes and the flavors for white grapes (Barbeau, 2008). In this sense, the
vine water status and the microclimate of leaves and bunches of grapes (determined by the
viticultural practices) are a qualitative factors who need to be controlled since they directly
impacts in the biochemical composition of the berry (Carbonneau and al., 2006).
In today’s scenario, restriction in water ability and climate change are two main factors that
seem to compromise the quality of wines. In this sense, irrigation arise like an answer to
circumvent serious problems in yield decreasing and in harvest quality (Ojeda, 2008). In
terms of water balance, irrigation directly increases the water available for the plant (Eq. 2)
and it’s then important to determine when and how much water irrigates. In this sense, Ojeda
(2007, 2008) propose different irrigation strategies that can be adopted based in an optimal
vine water status in relation to the vegetative cycle and the water stress intensity.
The effect of drought on the vine depends on the duration and on the timing of its appearance
(Bray, 2001). Water stress that occurs before the veraison or that is higher after veraison has a
strong negative effect on the composition of the grapes, while a moderate water stress after
veraison has a positive effect (Barbeau, 2008; Deloire and al., 2006, 2006; Ojeda, 2008;
Ojeda and Saurin, 2014; Van Leeuwen and Seguin, 2006). This further event can be explained
by the fact that berry size is very impacted for the water regime during the bloom-veraison
period, and the effect of drought is irreversible owning to a decrease in berry cell volume
(Ojeda and al., 2001). In contrast, from veraison to ripening, berry size is much less
influenced by the water regime and can regain their size if water restrictions are removed
some time before harvest (Ojeda and al., 2001).

In order to understand the influence of vine water status on the phenolic composition of
grapes to be able then to implement an irrigation strategy, Carbonneau and al. (2006) advise
that it is important to analyze the different compounds separately and to distinguish between
biosynthesis (quantity expressed per berry) and concentration (amount expressed per kg of
grapes). Hence, we can mention a direct and always positive effect on phenol concentration
by the reduction on berry size, and a positive or negative action on the biosynthesis depending
on the phenol type studied, the period of application and intensity of the water stress (Ojeda
and al., 2004). Accordingly, Roby and al. (2004) found that water deficits increased the
amount and concentrations of skin tannin and anthocyanin per berry independently of the role
of water status in berry size by comparing berries of similar size.
Finally, in terms of irrigation as a functioning variable, it can be pointed out that both
precocity and vigor are affected by irrigation practices. For Barbeau (2008), vine vigor
depends on the distribution of the root system and the regime of water supply. In this sense, a
non-limiting water supply leads to a higher vigor and a prolonged vegetative growth over time
(Coulon-Leroy and al., 2012). Concerning precocity, as already mentioned, Morlat and al.
(2001) precise that the date of bud break depends on the soil temperature at the rooting zone
in relation with the water content. As can be expected, a limited water supply will increase the
soil temperature leading to earliness in the cycle (precocity).
c. Considerations
We can conclude that the human factors influence the water balance by impacting in the crop
transpiration (CT) and by determining the irrigation (I) strategies (when needed). In terms of
the “functioning parameters”, the crop transpiration (CT) can be understood as a relation with
the leaf exposed area (ELA), which depends on the planting distance and the training system,
among others. About irrigation (I), can be stated that the amount of added water to the
climate-soil-vine ecosystem will be determined by the irrigation strategy, directly impacting
in the grapes quality as wine raw material.
Regarding the viticultural practices and it relations with the functioning variables there is an
agreement that it largely influence vigor, mainly by the selection of the training system.
Intercrops also reduce the available water for the plant. Apropos precocity, a relevant
influence of pruning can be mentioned, who seems to increase earliness in the cycle.
Finally, by analyzing irrigation in terms of the functioning variable, it can be pointed out that
both precocity and vigor are affected by the irrigation practices. In this sense, a non-limiting
water supply leads to a higher vigor and a prolonged vegetative growth over time. Contrary, a
limited water supply will increase the soil temperature leading to earliness in the cycle
(precocity).

SUMMARYIII.
In the previous pages, the origin of the issue and the context where firstly developed in an
effort to identify properly the issue itself. As a result, the latter was postulated as following:
How to set up an irrigation practice that respects the concept of terroir?
Secondly, as it was already noted, it was necessary to specify what the reader should
understand for “terroir irrigation” since is the very core of this work. Knowing that there is
not an unmistakable and precise definition of terroir who could technically differentiate into a
“terroir” and a “no terroir” irrigation, it was fundamental to develop a short of criteria (or at
least provide clarifications) in order to be able to do this distinction. The reader will note that
no definition of “terroir irrigation” is proposed in this work. This last was considerate very
presumptuous for the objectives of this project. However, a great effort was put in analyzing
and presenting useful information that could serve at the purpose of differentiating between
common irrigation and terroir irrigation. In this sense, the point II Literature review should be
understood as a background of information to bear in mind while discussing an irrigation
method. All this information was presented in an innovative way following the UTV model of
Carbonneau (1993) and considering the vine functioning variables of Barbeau (2008). This
way, links between the components of a “terroir” (according to the UTV model) and the
influence of water uptake are descripted. Hopefully, those links will serve as knowledge to
properly identifying an irrigation method that respects the concept of terroir.
Finally, different interesting conclusion could be elaborated from this method of literature
review. Certainly, they have a role in answering the issue of this project. Those conclusions
are provided at the end of this work in Section III.
GENERAL APPROACHIV.
The present work is divided in tree sections. In this firs section the issue and its context are
given as just descripted.
In Section II, the methodology of work, the results and the conclusions are presented in order
to answer to the previous issue. However, since the starting point of this work is a personal
proposal and not a sponsor’s initiative, it was necessary to implement new working methods.
As a result, the second section is structured in three different chapters. Chapter 1 and
Chapter 2 develop two particular methodologies (both under a qualitative approach), present

and discuss particular results and finally draw conclusion. Particularly, Chapter 1 has great
importance since it provides the hypothesis of this work. In this chapter, a qualitative
questionnaire was conducted for a selected group of experts in matters of terroir and
irrigation. By using the grounded theory method, opinions of experts were analyzed in order to
construct six different hypotheses. In a second instance, using a case study methodology those
hypotheses were tested in Chapter 2. Finally, there is Chapter 3. This last one can be
understood as the result of the two previous chapters. In this chapter, a qualitative
questionnaire created in collaboration with the ESA Angers and INRA Pech Rouge is
presented and discussed. It is interesting to point out that this last questionnaire was already
launched for French consumers this last September and results are going to be presented in a
review next year.
Finally, Section III gathers the conclusion of the two prior sections. Conclusions are expected
to help researchers and producers in understanding the consumers approach concerning
irrigation and to improve the communication of wines issued from irrigation practices.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: literature reviewV.
Asselin, C., Barbeau, G., and Morlat, R. (2001). Approche de la composante climatique à
diverses échelles dans le zonage viticole. Bull. OIV 74, 301–318.
Barbeau, G. (2008). Influence du fonctionnement de la vigne sur la qualité du vin. (Logrono,
Spain),.
Barbeau, G., and Blin, A. (2010). Influence du porte-greffe sur le comportement agronomique
de la vigne (var. Cabernet franc) en moyenne vallée de la Loire (INRA, UE 1117 UVV
Unité Expérimentale Vigne et Vin. Centre de Recherche Angers-Nantes).
Barbeau, G., Goulet, E., Ramillon, D., Rioux, D., Blin, A., Marsault, J., and Panneau, J.P.
(2005). Effets de l’interaction porte-greffe / enherbement sur le comportement
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QUALITATIVE
QUESTIONNAIRE
CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 1 : QUALITATIVE QUESTIONAIRE - Alvarez Gei, S. 23
CHAPTER 1: USE OF A QUALITATIVE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE
IDENTIFICATION OF HYPOTHESIS: AN APPLICATION TO
GROUNDED THEORY METHODS (GTM) IN WINE INDUSTRY.
I. ABSTRACT
Irrigation is basically a social practice since human beings develop it. In this sense, it is
important to understand it from a sociological point of view. To meet this commitment, a
qualitative questionnaire was implemented: standard personal interviews with no frequency
(subject surveyed once) with a multi-topic research (omnibus research). 18 participants to the
19th
GiESCO Meeting (Group of international Experts of vitivinicultural Systems for
CoOperation) held at Gruissan – France were selected as participants to the questionnaire.
The objective of the questionnaire was to establish the hypothesis to answer the issue: how to
set up an irrigation practice that respects the concept of terroir?. Consistently, results were
interpreted in order to construct hypothesis according to the grounded theory methods (GTM).
Key words: constructivism, grounded theory methods (GTM), irrigation, qualitative research
and questionnaire.
II. INTRODUCTION
In the last section, the definition of terroir was discussed within the framework of this work.
From this analysis, it was possible to have an idea of how the different variables of the vine
functioning interact with the components of this definition. As a result, the links between the
components of a “terroir” (according to the UTV model) and the influence of water uptake are
descripted. However, the issue basically aims to provide understanding about the setting up of
this practice. In this sense, there is a big social component that escapes from the literature
review and needs to be contemplated.
In this context, seems necessary to develop the issue from a sociological approach, providing
further elements that can serve as tools in answering the issue. For that purpose, it is
necessary to design a research proposal that allows constructing qualitative hypothesis. It
seems then primordial to define what a research proposal is and specially, how to construct it.
Once these aspects are clear, a methodology of work must be chosen before being capable to

look for results and formulate any conclusion. The further paragraphs will develop this last
idea.
Concerning the approaches to research, there is one particular author who has earned his name
for his methodology: John W. Creswell. According to Creswell's (2008) model, the three
elements of inquiry (knowledge claims, strategies, and methods) combine to form different
approaches to research (Figure 3). These approaches, in turn, are translated into processes in
the design of research. For the author, the preliminary steps in designing a research proposal
are: to assess the knowledge claims brought to the study, to consider the strategy of inquiry
that will be used, and to identify specific methods. On the word of Creswell (2008: 6), “by
using these three elements a researcher can identify if an inquiry approach is either the
quantitative, qualitative, or a mixed method”. The present chapter is going to be presented
according to the described methodology of inquiry developed by Creswell's (2008)
(Figure 3).
Figure 3- Framework for research design (Creswell): knowledge claims, strategies of inquiry, and
methods leading to approaches and the design process. Source: (Creswell, 2008).
1) Elements of inquiry
a. Philosophical assumption
The theoretical framework of a research project relates to the philosophical basis on which the
research takes place, and forms the link between the theoretical aspects and practical
components of the investigation undertaken (Mertens, 1998). As Mertens (1998: 7) indicated,
the theoretical framework, therefore, “have implications for every decision made in the
research process”.
Regarding the current research project, the perspective adopted is social constructivism.
Consequently, the inquiry pretends to develop subjective meanings based on respondent’s

observation concerning theirs experiences-meanings on the field of irrigation for the
production of qualitative wines. These meanings are varied and multiple, leading the
researcher to look for the complexity of views rather than narrowing meanings into a few
categories or ideas.
Constructionism is centered on the idea that “truth, or meaning, comes into existence in and
out of our engagement with realities in our world” (Crotty, 1998: 61). In this sense, Crotty
(1998) states that, from the constructionist view, meaning is not simply found; it is actively
constructed by humans beings through their consciousness as they engage with the world
(meaning is not discovered but “constructed”). In this regard, since irrigation is basically a
social practice developed by human beings, if there were no humans beings there would be no
meaning, legitimizing the use of a constructivist approach. In this approach, researchers
recognize that their own background shapes their interpretation, and they “position
themselves in the research to acknowledge how their interpretation flows from their own
personal, cultural, and historical experiences” (Creswell, 2008a: 9).
b. Strategy of inquiry
It’s attempted to derive a general, abstract theory of the irrigation process for the production
of qualitative wine, grounded in the views of participants in a study. In this sense, grounded
theory seems to be the most appropriate strategy of inquiry for this qualitative research study.
For Charmaz (2006: 2), grounded theory methods (GTM) consist of “systematic, yet flexible
guidelines for collecting and analyzing qualitative data to construct theories grounded in the
data themselves”. Thus, grounded theory is a qualitative research design in which the inquirer
generates a general explanation (a theory) of a process, action, or interaction shaped by the
views of a large number of participants (Creswell, 2008). To accomplish it, participants in the
study would all have experienced the process, and the development of the theory might help
to explain practice or provide a framework for further research (Creswell, 2008).
The interest in using this method rely on it main strength. Muller (2014: 25) define it as “the
ability to make sense of diverse phenomena, to construct an account of those phenomena that
is strongly grounded in the data, to develop that account through an iterative and principled
series of challenges and modifications, and to communicate the end result to others in a way
that is convincing and valuable to their own research and understanding”.
A recurring problem in grounded theory is what weight to give the research literature. Some
approaches (i.e. Glaser and Strauss, 1967) took a firm stand for naïve investigations; that is to
say, postpone reading the research literature in order to remain open to the data. On the other
hand, Muller and Kogan (2010) believe that we can’t know if our project or problem is novel

unless we have read extensively in the research literature, which can lead inexperienced users
of grounded theory procedures to adopt an unrealistic idea about their work.
c. Method of inquiry
As already stated, the goal of research is to rely as much as possible on the participant’s views
of the situation being studied. The questions become broad and general so that the participants
can construct the meaning of a situation. In this sense, many authors (Chi-Shiou, 2013;
Creswell, 2008a, 2008b; Crotty, 1998) agree that qualitative researchers tend to use open-
ended questions so that participants can express their views. Charmaz (2006: 28) states that
intensive qualitative interviewing fits grounded theory methods (GTM) particularly well since
“both are potentially open-ended yet directed, shaped yet emergent and paced yet
unrestricted”.
For its part, Mason (2002) identifies three types of qualitative interviews: in depth or
intensive, semi-structured and loosely structured or unstructured. Each typically involving an
“interactional exchange of dialogue”, having a relatively informal style, being “thematic,
topic-centered, biographical or narrative” and operating from the premise that, as knowledge
is situated and contextual, the purpose of the interview is to “ensure that the relevant context
are brought to into focus so that situated knowledge can be produced” (Mason, 2002: 28).
Concerning this chapter, open-ended questions were used, knowing that the more open-ended
the questioning, the better, as the researcher listens carefully to what people say or do in their
life setting (Creswell, 2008).
2) Approaches to research
A first distinction into two approaches for the research design should be briefly stated:
quantitative and qualitative approaches. Accordingly, Marshall (1996) describes the aim of
the quantitative approach as the intention of testing pre-determined hypotheses and produce
generalizable results whereas qualitative studies aim to provide illumination and
understanding of complex psychosocial issues. In that regard, Creswell (2008) states that the
choice between quantitative and qualitative research methods should be determined by the
research question and not by the preference of the researcher.
Concerning this chapter, the intrinsic interest is to find meaning or multiple realities reflect
concerning quality irrigation for the production of AOC wines. In this sense, there is no
interest in the generalizability of results, which leads us to a qualitative approach.

3) Design process of research
a. Sample strategy
For Marshall (1996), probabilistic sampling is neither productive nor efficient for qualitative
studies, therefore, an alternative strategies must be used. Between the three broad categories
of naturalistic sampling techniques - convenience, judgment and theoretical sampling -
described for many authors (Creswell, 2008a; Marshall, 1996; Salamanca and Martín-Crespo,
2007; Serbia, 2007), judgment sample seems to be the most adequate option.
Judgment sample, also known as purposeful sample, is the most common sampling technique
for qualitative researches (Marshall, 1996). According to this sampling method, the researcher
actively selects the most productive sample to answer the research question (Salamanca and
Martín-Crespo, 2007). This is more an intellectual strategy than the simple demographic
stratification of epidemiological studies where age, gender and social class are be important
variables (Marshall, 1996).
For Migiro and Oseko (2010), it may be advantageous to study a broad range of subjects
(maximum variation sample), outliers (deviant sample), subjects who have specific
experiences (critical case sample) or subjects with special expertise (key informant sample).
Subjects may be able to recommend useful potential candidates for study (snowball sample).
During the data interpretation, it is important to consider subjects who support emerging
explanations and, perhaps more importantly, subjects who disagree (confirming and
disconfirming samples) (Migiro and Oseko, 2010).
b. Sample size
Sampling for qualitative research is an area of considerable confusion for researchers. For
Marshall (1996), an appropriate sample size for a qualitative study is one that adequately
answers the research question. In this sense, the author considers that for simple questions or
very detailed studies, this might be in single figures; for complex questions large samples and
a variety of sampling techniques might be necessary. For Creswell (2008), a sample size for a
qualitative research conducted with a grounded theory methods (GTM) may involve 20 to 30
interviews or 50 to 60 interviews depending to the research question.
On the other hand, (Salamanca and Martín-Crespo, 2007) states that there are no firmly
established criteria or rules regarding sample size, yet it must be determinate based on the
information needs. In accordance with Salamanca and Martín-Crespo, Charmaz (2006) relies
on data saturation; that is to say, when new categories, themes or explanations stop emerging
from the data. For Charmaz (2006), a study of 25 interviews may suffice for certain small

projects but invites skepticism when the author's claims are about, say, human nature or
contradict established research. However, data saturation can be sometimes problematic to
proclaim (claiming saturation can affect the credibility of the study). In this sense, Dey (1999)
challenges the notion of saturation since he considered incongruent with a procedure that
“stops short of coding all of the data” and relies on the researcher's conjecture that the
properties of the category are saturated. Finally, Charmaz (2006) agree with Dey (1999) last
statement and advise to be open to what is happening in the field and be willing to grapple
with it.
c. Temporal, spatial and situational influences of inquiry
In the field of sociology, it is important to recognize that the essence of the qualitative
approach is that it is naturalistic: “studying real people in natural settings rather than in
artificial isolation” (Marshall, 1996: 524). Sampling, therefore, has to take account not only of
the individual's characteristics but also temporal, spatial and situational influences; that is to
say, the context of the study (Marshall, 1996; Salamanca and Martín-Crespo, 2007). Within
the framework of this work, is important to consider if the aforementioned characteristic
would produce changes in data. For Marshall (1996), there is no correct answer to this
questions just as there is no perfect way to sample. However, he states that the influence that
these factors might have on the trustworthiness of the results should be acknowledged.
III. METHODOLOGY
Above, the applied methodology for the present research project is displayed according to the
concepts explored in II Introduction of this chapter. (Figure 4)
Figure 4- Methodology of inquiry: elements of inquiry leading to qualitative approach and the design
process; personal interviews in the 19th
GiESCO Congress. Source: adapted from J. W. Creswell (2008).

1) Elements of inquiry
a. Philosophical assumption
As stated in II Introduction, the current research project adopts a social constructivism
perspective. In this sense, the goal of research is to rely as much as possible on the
participant's views of irrigation practice for qualitative production of AOC wines.
Accordingly, questions stated become broad and general so that participants construct the
meaning of a situation, a meaning typically forged in discussions or interactions with other
persons.
b. Strategy of inquiry
Regarding the methodology for the application of the grounded theory, we are following the
approach of Charmaz (2006). As a result, the iterative procedure begins with the selection of
the most appropriate data-gathering method. The data collected is then “coded” consistent
with the methodology descripted by Charmaz (2006); ideas or hunches that become apparent
during this process are noted in the form of memos. Theoretical sampling is used to obtain
further selective data to refine and fill out major codes or categories emerging from data. The
iterations continue until theoretical saturation, when no more properties of the category appear
during data collection. Finally, the researcher conducts a literature review and evaluates upon
the research process and products. (Charmaz, 2006)
Coding is structured according to the described parameters in the literature review (Figure 2).
Hence, two levels of codes (grouping #1 and grouping #2) were utilized (Figure 5).
c. Method of inquiry
Pre-testing questionnaire: in depth or intensive questionnaire with close-ended questions.
For this project, as has already been mentioned, an open-ended questions (Charmaz, 2006)
was utilized. However, a first in depth or intensive questionnaire (Mason, 2002) with close-
ended questions (Charmaz, 2006) was implemented for testing and adjusting questions and
approaches. This first questionnaire was launched by internet to a different public (students
from the International Master of Science, Vine, Wine and Terroir management), utilizing a
convenience sample (Marshall, 1996) of a similar sample size (13 respondents). According to
Marshall (1996), this is the least rigorous sample technique, involving the selection of the
most accessible subjects. Even if results may outcome in poor quality data, benefits in time,
effort and money (Salamanca and Martín-Crespo, 2007) justified the sampling method . The
first results of this Internet intensive questionnaire (see Annex A) where interpreted and
presented to the project study leader; Cécile Coulon-LeRoy and the company coach; Hernán

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