Advantages And Disadvantages Of Photovoltaic Basics

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Photovoltaic Basics
Photovoltaic basics
The sun is the main source of energy on earth, providing the planet with radiant energy which is transformed once it reaches every substance on the
planet into a different kind of energy, making the wind blow, the seas flow and all atoms move. The energy in the Wind and sea have been used for
centuries and nowadays thanks to the photovoltaic effect, a part of this vast energy can be harnessed and directly transformed into a more usable way
of energy, electricity.
The photovoltaic effect can be vaguely explained as the creation of electric potential and current once light is absorbed in a semiconductor material. A
semiconductor material, can be doped with other elements in order to force the creation of a certain quantity of free carriers, electrons in n–type and
holes in p–type semiconductors. When put together, this two differently doped materials form the PN–junction where, through the diffusion of carriers,
(i.e. electrons diffuse to the p–type semiconductor and holes to the n–type), an area called depletion zone is generated. Then, absorption of a photons in
a semiconductor, generates more electron–hole pairs increasing the potential in the device and by connecting the separated regions by means of a
conductor, the free carriers can flow through a circuit obtaining ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It can be obtained doing multiple measurements of the power output of the solar cell for various load resistances. By doing so, the Isc and the Voc can
be obtained when the resistance tends to zero and when the resistance tends to infinity respectively. Furthermore, using this method the optimal
operation point known as the maximum power point (mpp) can also be found and consequently the current at the maximum power point (Impp) and
the voltage at the maximum power point (Vmpp). In figure 2.2 an example of an IV curve with its most important features is
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Solar Power And Solar Energy
Solar energy is capable of providing a cleaner energy than most forms of energy generation, and solar energy is able to be generated economically.
Solar energy reduces the amount of harm to the environment from energy generation, by providing a cleaner alternative. Solar energy also provides
jobs for construction and installation of solar powered technologies. The cost of installing solar panels can vary greatly, but its long term benefits
outweigh the costs. Typically a solar panel system is a three kilowatts to eight kilowatts system that cost fifteen thousand to forty thousand dollars to
install, total cost depends on circumstances of installation. However tax credits and incentives help recoup a portion of the cost in the first year, the
savings of electricity cost makes installing the system profitable in under 10 years (Maehlum). Purchasing the system requires a large loan, however
paying the loan can be substantially better than paying utility bills when the investment will eventually be paid for. If the system is large enough to
handle the requirements of the household, the only payment for electricity will be the cost of the loan. Making loan payments instead of paying
utility bills is predictable, and any excess energy will be used as a credit for months were the owner 's energy use may exceed the generated amount.
Within10 years of financing the solar panels, the cost of the solar panels will already made up by the cost savings from not paying for utility

Materials Engineering Of Photovoltaic Cells
Materials Engineering in Photovoltaic cells
In today's world when we think about energy sources, there are 2 classifications they can be split into: renewable and non–renewable sources of energy.
Fossil fuels are the backbone for most of the energy we use today. We need this fuel for almost all of our daily routine, from lighting a fire to
running heavy machinery, but with increase in population there has been an increasing demand of such energy. Fuels like these tend to give
massive amount of energy but also affect the environment by producing harmful gases and residue. With the depletion of the fossil fuels such as
coal and petroleum we needed to switch to alternate form of energy which and there has been an ever greater need for a cleaner and renewable form
of energy. Humans have tried to find many alternative (and renewable) forms of energy such as wind and water but not at a very large scale. With an
abundance of solar energy available to harvest, it is one of the most widely cultivated renewable forms of energy.
Solar cells or photovoltaic are the primary devices that are able to harvest the sun's energy in a form that can be used every day. Semiconductors are
one of the more widely used materials in the solar cells industry; however other materials such as organic photovoltaic, solution–processed solar cells
and dye–sensitized solar cells are also used in the market. To understand the basic principle behind the working of a solar cell, we have to look down
into the

Introduction And Literature Review : New Generation...
1.INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
New generation photovoltaic cells based on organic materials possess the potential for the low cost and large area production on mechanically flexible
substrates. These are lightweight and suitable for the applications such as foldable and portable solar cells. Organic photovoltaics (OPVs) have not
achieved efficiencies comparable to the inorganic solar cells due to poor charge carrier mobility [1]. Recent developments of optimizing the organic
absorbing materials have shown encouraging device performance towards overcoming the challenges associated with commercialization. Using
various fabrication techniques, production speed up to several meters square per second can be achieved. With roll to roll fabrication process, about
105 m2 of a film can be prepared in a day. The production of organic photovoltaic devices can be achieved in large quantity and many times cheaper
than the conventional inorganic photovoltaic technology.
Recently, organic solar cells (OSCs) developed using different fabrication techniques, materials and state of the arts have power conversion efficiency
between 6 – 10% and even greater than this [2–5]. To develop more efficient organic solar cells, various strategies are being used such as bilayer
heterojunction to improve exciton dissociation, bulk hetero junction to minimize exciton recombination, etc.
The performance of the organic solar cell highly depends on the interfaces between the various

Solar Energy : An Reliable Source Of Energy
1.Introduction: Populations have increased and so have the energy demands. Various forms of pollution have increased as countries
industrialized. Electricity generation by industries emits soot mass, sulphate aerosol and water vapor into the atmosphere thus contributing to the
ever increasing pollution. Most counties rely of fossil fuels like oil and natural gas to sustain domestic energy needs. This trend is being reversed
in both China and Saudi Arabia with both embracing solar energy. Solar energy has proved to be the best option for electricity generation and the
best choice to replace the oil . Producing electricity from solar energy is cheaper as compared to conventional power production.Solar energy
ensures both economic and environmental sustainability .However , is it possible for the solar energy to be the most reliable source of energy? ,
And if it is possible what is the best sloar panel?. 2.Literature review : SohZheng Yang states that the solar energy will be a very efficient source of
energy in the future and that because of its benefits economically and also naturally to the environment.He also says he hoped to find other ways to
get benefits of the solar energy(Yang ,2011).On the other hand , according to Nick Gromicko ,solar energy has some drawbacks.One of the main
disadvantages of the solar energy is the clouds because its reduces the power of the solar power to about tenth the amount in a sunny day as The
National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Nanosolar Inc Case Study
Nanosolar Inc. Case Study Analysis Nanosolar is a start–up company and expects to be one of the first manufacturers to produce thin–film solar panels
using copper indium gallium (di)selenide (CIGS) technology. Nanosolar is focused on selling a single type of thin–film Photovoltaic (PV) module
called the "Nanosolar Utility Panel". The utility panel is 50% less energy efficient than c–Si modules, but being 90% less expensive to produce.
Strategic Options: (1) Continue to invest in European and Asian markets. (2) Enter US Utilities and Commercial Market Immediately. (3) Launch an
industrial scale pilot project in the US. And based on the results, decide whether to and when to enter the US Market (recommended). Opportunities The
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Nanosolar's value proposition is its lower cost per watt to purchase and install (see Case page 5). Because thin–film PVs require 43% more roof space
per watt generated, it is more valuable to larger commercial and utility customers than residential customers. Nanosolar's focus should remain on
industrial scale projects that benefit most from its lower installation costs. In order to approach residential market, significant investment is required
to establish installer relationships (eg. In the US). Nanosolar should also focus on production efficiency (see delay of the 2007 Beck's project (Case
page 6.) and hire, train sales staff (has only 1 person in the US and 1 person in Switzerland). Worldwide Solar Market and Incentives By having its
final assembly in Germany, Nanosolar is geographically positioned to meet the needs of developing countries such as India and China while
distributing its panels throughout Europe. Shipping completed modules to the US would require additional cost and put it at a disadvantage compared
to First Solar which has a manufacturing plant in Ohio (Exhibit 9). Incentives (governmental regulations require utilities to purchase renewable
electricity at higher rates), can only help the business to become established in the market, so are important in the short and mid–term only. Because
European incentives diminish over time, in the long term all PV technologies will compete based on price and performance therefore cost

Advantage And Disadvantage Of Solar Cell
The electricity Requirements are increasing day by day at a huge alarming rate,due to generation of electricity by conventional methods ,the fossil
fuels are depleted at a rate greater rather than the expected rate , and also due to risk factors involved in power generation using Nuclear Reactors
we are forced to move to newer types of energy generation but also in terms of a clean energy ,Solar energy is one among such in terms of clean
energy which has witnessed a great revolution in energy generation along past two decades. This Module deals with the Organic Solar Cells in other
words Polymer solar cells. It comprises of Introduction to Organic solar cells,its production,cost involved etc. KEYWORDS: Renewable energy,
Organic Solar... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Solar cells are categorized into three major generations , First generation solar cells are based on silicon wafers and have an efficiency of 15–20%, The
major advantage of first generation solar cells is their stability ,However due to heavier production costs ,large amount of energy is involved during
their production that makes their large scale production uneconomic and unaffordable . The second generation Solar cells are based on amorphous
silicon,CIGS,CdTe where typical performance is in the range of 10–15% efficiency,Second generation solar cells does not use silicon wafer and have a
lesser materials consumption which reduces its production costs. The Production of second generation cells invloves vaccum and temperature
processes hence it decreases the efficiency and also it increases the production costs,most of the materials used in second generation are scarce in
nature hence their production costs are very high but less in comparison with first generation solar

Solar Energy Research Papers
In todays economic state, our reliance on sustainable resources is paramount. With more than 7 billion people feeding off of the planets resources, we
must create and innovate different technologies and methods to effectively use Earth's natural resources without creating a carbon footprint. One of
the greatest issues of our time surrounds the environmental impact humans are having on our planet and the major consequences in which we must
deal with in order to save the planet. One technique that this paper will focus on is the use of solar panels to convert light energy from the sun into
electrical energy. Brief History Solar technology can be dated all the way from 7th century B.C. Early uses included using reflective properties to
direct sunlight to create energy (heat) to a specific area. In 1838 French scientist Edmond Becquerel discovered the 'photovoltaic effect' which
involved an electrolytic cell submerged in a solution, that when exposed to light, created energy. This discovery made way for Charles Fritts (1894) to
create the first solar cell, which consists of a coating semiconductor material with a thin layer of gold. This first solar cell was only 1% efficient so
energy production was not viable; put into perspective, today's solar technology is 46% efficient. Solar Technology and How it Relates to Green
Construction There is two ways to convert sun energy into energy we can use: solar photovoltaic and solar thermal. Solar photovoltaic is the direct

Essay on Photovoltaic Cells as Sources of Clean Energy
Photovoltaic – A sources of Clean Energy Abstarct– The aim of this work is a comparison of the merit and demerit of of different generation solar cells
i.e. Single crystal silicon wafers (c–Si), Amorphous silicon (a–Si), Polycrystalline silicon (poly–Si), Cadmium telluride (CdTe), Copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS) alloy, Nanocrystal solar cells, Photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells, Polymer solar cells, Dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC), Hybrid –
inorganic crystals. Solar cells are becoming a mature technology. Solar cell provides clean energy. As it silently generates electricity and produces no
air pollution or hazardous waste. Since there have been rapid advances in the efficiency and reliability of these cells, along with a ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Solar cells, or photovoltaic cells, transform light, usually sunlight, into electric current. Few power–generation technologies are as clean as photovoltaics
(PV). Photovoltaic comes from the words photo meaning light and volt, a measurement of electricity. Sometimes photovoltaic cells are called PV
cells or solar cells for short. As it silently generates electricity, PV produces no air pollution or hazardous waste. It doesn't require liquid or gaseous
fuels to be transported or combusted as sunlight is free and abundant. Because PV systems burn no fuel and have no moving parts, they are clean and
silent, producing no atmospheric emissions or greenhouse gases to cause detrimental effects on our water, air, and soil. Compared with electricity
generated from fossil fuels, each PV–produced kilowatt eliminates up to 830 pounds of nitrogen oxides, 1,500 pounds of sulfur dioxide, and 217,000
pounds of carbon dioxide, every year, according to National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) research. [1] In solar cells when photons of light
fall on the cell, they transfer their energy to the charge carriers. The electric field across the junction separates
II–TREDIIOAL SOLAR CELL PRINCIPAL
A photoelectric effect First observed in 1839 (> 180 years ago) by French physicist A. E. Becquerel, (Becquerel effect : Ag З
Ѓ Acid ЗЃ Pt) when
sunlight was allowed to fall on one of two electrodes placed in an electrolyte. Practical device – In 1954, at the Bell Telephone Laboratories

The Future of Solar Technology
The future of solar technology clearly lies away from the expensive rigid structure of extensive silicon crystalline structures, and towards the
non–silicon based technologies. Governments and private firms must continue to invest the capital needed to fund research and development in these
fields of more flexible and versatile solar cells in order to acheieve higher efficiencies and improve the manufacturing process of these technologies; as
currently they remain in their infancy.
3.4Non Silicon Based Polycrystalline cells
Research into non silicon based solar cells is an exciting stage, with labs all over the world making advances in this field. It has been hypothesized
and proven that other semi conductor materials can be doped to provide the conductive layer necessary for a solar cell to work. Copper oxide was used,
but it was found to not retain the doping agents well; to overcome this a new type of cell called screening–engineered field–effect photovoltaics
(SPFV's) were produced. These require a small electric field to be present in order to keep the p–n junction functioning, this electric field is far less
than the electricity that can be generated from the cell, and the reduced cost of not having to use silicon makes this a more than viable resource.
(Anthony, 2012)
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide cells (CIGS) are another branch of thin film photovoltaics being researched, with laboratory prototypes achieving
efficiencies of approximately 18%. CIGS cells have a huge

Solar Panels: A list of Items Related to Solar Energy
Solar Panel
Solar panel is the interconnection of number of solar module to get efficient power.
Solar panel is made up of solar cells. Earlier solar cells are of low efficiency and large in size but now a day very high efficient solar cells are available.
Solar cell prize much higher, it is difficult to afford solar energy.
Solar Cell:
Solar cell is a structure that directly converts solar energy into DC electrical energy. Solar cell acts as battery because it supplies DC energy.
History:
First time solar cell was developed by French Scientist Antoine–Becquerel in 1839.
Becquerel obseved photovoltaic while experementing with electrolyte solution. In 1941 first silicon cell was demonstrated, but research on modren
solar cell was started in 1954.
Solar Cell Output:
Solar cell produces .7 volts, size of solar cell do not effect on the efficiency of solar cell. No matter how much large and small in size. More current will
produce when surface area is large and less current will produce when surface area is small. If we need more battery charging power, we need high
output cells. Solar cells directly produces dc current.
Function Of Series And Parallel Cells:
Series Solar Cells:
Series wiring is when you connect positive terminal of one end to negative terminal of another end . After connecting terminals we will obtain higher
voltage (the sum of voltage from the panels) while the amps stay the same.
Parallel Solar Cells:
Parallel wiring is when you

Brief History Of Of Solar Cells Essay
Brief History of Solar cells
The history of solar cells goes back to the 19th century. Edmond Becquerel was first to notice the effect of light on a certain molecule; in 1839 he
found that two different brass plates immersed in a liquid produced a continuous current when illuminated with sunlight. We now believe that he had
made a coppercuprous oxide thin–film solar cell. (Fraas, 2016) this property is called the photoelectric effect, and could be harnessed. An article
made by the Union of Concerned Scientist said, "The first photovoltaic (PV) cells, made of selenium, were created in the late 1800s. In the 1950s,
scientists at Bell Labs revisited the technology and, using silicon, produced PV cells that could convert four percent of the energy in sunlight directly
to electricity." (How Solar Panels Work, 2015) Nowadays, researchers and scientist are trying to come up with new ways to develop solar cells.
Location
The recommended location to install the solar system is on top of DOW building. The cause to choosing this location is because it is not close to any
trees or building, that will affects the output of the system by shading effect.
Figure 1 these pictures taken by me using Google map for DOW building the left from the sky and right side picture was taken from the side
How Solar cell Works Solar cells are basically a two element that acts as a semiconductor. However, semiconductors have the property of electron
mobility and gap between the energy states

The Burning Of Petroleum Based Fuels
Can you see the light? As the burning of petroleum–based fuels, natural gases, and coal continues, smog will continue to cover the sky. Pollution from
said burning occurs as greenhouse gases and chemicals. Specifically, petroleum–based fuels, natural gases, and coal release energy when heat breaks
the bonds between hydrogens and carbons, generating energy and releasing carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. This energy often originates from
stored energy preserved in organisms that eventually died and lingered in the crust. The byproduct carbon dioxide is the most dominant of the
greenhouse gases, which are gases that absorb and release thermal energy from the Sun. These gases trap thermal energy in the atmosphere while
releasing a small amount into space. Global warming occurs due to the trapping of this heat. Their covering of the sky and Sun reduces the amount of
sunlight that can reach the Earth. In addition, these energy sources are also bulky and inefficient. According to the U.S. Energy Information
Administration (2014), producing even one kilowatt–hour of energy (one kilowatt of electricity expended in one hour), 0.08 gallons of
petroleum–based fuel, 1000 cubic feet of natural gases, and 1.09 pounds of coal ("How much coal, natural gas, or petroleum is used to generate a
kilowatt–hour 1 of electricity?"). Despite the availability of alternative energy sources, most people prefer these "dirty" energy sources.
Solar power shows promise as a potential alternative.

Personal Statement Of Application For Nannomaterials
I am applying for the position of Research Associate to work with you and Professor Yves Chabal. I have applied to the position through the website
of the University of Texas at Dallas as well. Fueled by the revolutionary changes brought by nanomaterials in today's world, especially in
dye–sensitized solar cells, I joined the Department of Chemistry to do research on nanotechnology while preparing to take a Master's degree in Physics
from the same university with a solid foundation in materials science, basic electronics, advanced device electronics, quantum physics, and
computational physics. According to the International Energy Agency's 2015 World Energy Outlook, a complete de
–carbonization of the world's
energy system is needed for a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The following summaries of my research accomplishments, I believe, should be able to support my enthusiastic approach to bring a substantial change
in the research progress in the department of physics and materials science.
I for the first time created a strong covalent amide bond between TiO2 mesoporous films and N719 by chemically modifying TiO2 with
3–aminopropyltrimethoxysilane. The dye–sensitized solar cells thus prepared were stable and more resistant to UV light, thermal stress, acid, and
water when compared to traditional photoanodes. There was a dramatic preservation of the SCN ligand of N719 on the TiO2 surface for up to 6
months, which is not possible in the case of other modified photoanodes with dye attached non–covalently through electrostatic or hydrogen bonding
interactions. (Langmuir, 2013, 29, 13582–13594). I extensively studied the synthesis of nanomaterials, quantum dots such as ZnS, CdS,
electrodeposition of semiconductor oxide materials, preparation methods for different shapes (nanowires, nanotubes, and tree–like structures) and sizes
(3–300 nm) of nanomaterials to accomplish this research work. I did research on molecular linkers to link quantum dots. In addition, I explored the
charge injection dynamics from the excited dye (N719) to TiO2 semiconductor nanoparticles after chemical modification of the TiO2 nanoparticles with
silane linkers using the ultrafast transient absorption

My Career In Energy Technology
Background
My career in energy technology began in 2012, when I started my master's coursework and research in electrochemistry at the University of Louisville's
Department of Chemistry. Since then, I have developed an extensive skillset, focusing mainly on the development and usage of semiconductor
materials such as titanium oxide (TiO2), tin–oxide (SnO2), birnessite–manganese oxide (b–MnO2), and neodymium oxide (Nd2O3). I have extensively
studied the photophysics and photochemistry of energetic nanomaterials in order to explore the fundamentals of charge transfer dynamics, catalytic
properties, and mechanisms for the conversion of solar energy to electric energy to produce renewable energy. I was trained in scanning probes, surface
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Understanding the basic science behind any new technology is the backbone for further development for commercialization. I chemically linked gold
nanoparticles and a molecular conductor to prepare high efficiency solar cells. Recently, I employed the hybrid structure of rare earth materials and
TiO2 nanoparticles as another strategy in the development of high efficiency solar cells. Rare earth materials are new to the research in solar cells.
The current guidelines for the preparation of solar cells in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Louisville are based directly on my
research. My work on lithium ion batteries, where I prepared mesoporous b–MnO2 as a cathode material, has been heavily cited world–widely and
becoming a guideline for innovative new energy storage devices.
After completing my doctoral degree at the University of Louisville, I turned my focus to the surface chemistry of nanomaterials for preparing
bioconjugates, a continuation of my work on surface chemistry on nanomaterials. In another work during the postdoctoral research period, I was able
to publish a work on dielectrophoresis manipulation of metal nanoparticles to increase substantially the amount of frequency of collisions (by the factor
of 101–103) of the metal nanoparticles with the surface of

The Energy Power Of Natural Resources Essay
Most of the energy to power our homes comes from fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Due to environmental concerns there has been a
considerable drive to move away from these finite resources to renewable forms of energy. Harnessing the power of natural resources has seen
significant developments over the past three decades. The use of solar energy to power our homes has, arguably, seen the most advancement. The sun
is made up of helium and hydrogen atoms and emits radiant energy. Nuclear fusion is the process by which these elements are transformed. Nuclear
fusion is, "the combination of two small atomic nuclei to produce one larger nucleus" (Hill, McCreary pg. 334). In the sun's core four hydrogen atoms
combine to form one helium atom through nuclear fusion. However, the new helium atom has less mass than the beginning hydrogen atoms. The left
over matter is not lost but transformed into radiant energy. The law of conservation of energy states, "Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transformed" (Hill, McCreary pg. 444). The by–product of this transformation of atoms is the left over radiant energy becomes solar energy here on
Earth. So how do we channel the sun's radiant power into useable solar energy? With the use of photovoltaic (PV) cells. PV cells are used to collect
sunlight and convert it into electricity. According to Kathie Zipp with Solar Power World, "A solar panel, or module, is a series of interconnected
silicon cells

Energy Self-Sufficiency in Building through Photovoltaic...
Energy Self–Sufficiency in Building through Photovoltaic Cells ABSTRACT Solar energy is a way to acquire self–sufficiency of many residential
buildings. The different forms of solar cells made from different materials and in different ways are able to increase the efficiency of the solar cells
and allow solar energy to become more widespread. Due to the possibility of a shortage of fossil fuels in the near future, solar power can serve as an
integral component in solving the energy crisis through developing energy self–sufficient buildings. However, after researching many already
published materials, the possibility of allowing the world's buildings to become self–sufficient is not possible unless other solar cells become... Show
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To cause a current to flow through the cells and create an electrical current, the semiconductor incorporates a p–n junction, which is when p–type
silicon is placed next to n–type silicon. The electrons will then flow towards the positive side of the solar cells instead of in random directions (see
figure 1). These semiconductors are usually made out of silicon, which, when in different forms can have efficiency from 16% to 32%. The
efficiency of a photovoltaic cell is measured by the ratio of the amount of solar energy it converts to electrical energy to the total amount of solar
energy that hits the cell (Department of Energy 2004). Figure 1: The Photovoltaic Effect, Converting Light Energy to Electrical Energy Source:
Walker 2004 Photovoltaic Cells 4 The idea of photovoltaic cells is based on Albert Einstein's photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect describes
the effect of certain energies of light on different materials. Photons are able to dislodge electrons from the material when the energy of the photons
exceeds the energy needed to dislodge an electron from the material plus the kinetic energy of electron. However, if the photon does not have enough
energy, the electron is unable to escape and remains in the material. Bell Labs first put these cells to use in

Chapter 1: The Photovaltacic Systems Essays
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Sun is the ultimate source of energy. Life on earth would not exist without the heat and light provided by the Sun.
Harnessing the energy from the sun for hot water and electrical power could provide a renewable, low carbon energy source, and presents an
attractive way of mitigating climate change. PV cell photovoltaic is the direct conversion of light into electricity. It uses materials which absorb
photons of lights and release electrons charges. 1.1 Photovoltaic systems A Photovoltaic system is an arrangement of components designed to supply
usable electric power for a variety of purposes, using the Sun as the power source. All photovoltaic (PV) systems are similar in nature but differ in
details from each... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fig:1.2 Block diagram representation of a grid–connected PV system Grid connected PV systems can be sub–divided into two systems: Decentralized
Grid connected PV systems Centralized Grid connected PV systems 1.1.2.1 Decentralized Grid connected PV systems In these systems, energy
storage is not necessary because solar radiation provides power in the houses and if there is surplus energy it can be injected into the grid (Fig.1.3).In
this case,the inverter must integrate harmoniously with the energy(voltage and frequency) provided by the grid. During night or at any instants when
the PV power is inadequate,the grid can be used as a storage system and will feed the houses. Fig:1.3 Decentralized grid–connected PV systems[2]
1.1.2.2 Central Grid Connected PV Systems It is a central photovoltaic power station and it is installed to systems up to the MW range.With this
system,we can obtain medium or high voltage grid (Fig.1.4) Fig:1.4 Central grid connected PV systems[2] 1.2 Performance Dependents of PV systems
Technology Ambient Conditions 1.2.1 Technology The majority of commercial solar cells are composed mainly of silicon(Si),although there are many
other technologies and types of solar modules currently available and being developed.There are basically three major types

The Solar Powered Glass Invention
One valuable accessory made for uses of sustainability is the solar powered glass invention. Its soul purpose is to sustain energy all around the world.
This way, our natural resources can be preserved for other uses, keeping our environment intact. Also this can help maintain your money by saving
energy. Furthermore, allowing the solar powered glass to maintain the spotlight. The solar powered glass functions by allowing photons, particles of
light, to knock electrons free from atoms, generating a flow of electricity. Solar panels actually compromise smaller units called photovoltaic cells.
Doing this helps sustain our environment in many ways. Using this, the use of electricity can be shortened, reducing our use of resources. In... Show
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It can truly change the world as we know of it today if citizens just took time to install this and expand on its uses. Not only is the solar powered glass
an advantage in modernization toward sustainability, but also a contribution to science and engineering. When the designers created this innovation,
they had to use STEM [Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math] in order to perfect their original plan and distribute it. They had to find the
dimensions, calculate its affect on in and on buildings (biomass) ("Glass"). Also come up with ways to keep any negative results from occurring by
adding special features. A pathetic, weak–minded person wouldn't be able to direct anyone, nor come up with these astonishing plans. This simply
proves that astute individuals tend to have more success, which means the leader of this entire program, must be adroit. For a reference, if you think
about classic glass windows, then in deserts we would need to install power installations of electricity. It all just goes to show how much technology is
constantly improving day by day. We also have glass known as Low–e glass. You may ask yourself what is Low–e glass. Low–e glass is one of the
most popular and versatile glass placed on buildings used today. The technical reason is because of its constantly improving solar and thermal
performance on glass. And one way this performance is achieved is through the use of passive and

The Ecology Of Design / Spring 2014
Melih Afacan
Kyle Moss
The Ecology of Design/Spring 2014
October 22, 2014
Alternate Energy Systems
Introduction
Photovoltaic systems use solar cells in the generation of electricity through conversion of solar optical energy into electrical energy directly. Solar cells
are made out of semi–conductor materials such that they produce electricity when solar radiation is incident on them (Armentrout and Patricia
Armentrout).
Electrical power is generated by use of photovoltaics by converting sunlight into direct current and this is achieved by making use of materials that
are semiconducting and have the properties of photovoltaic effect. Solar panels that have got several number of solar cells are used for photovoltaic
systems. Solar photovoltaic energy is considered as a sustainable and cleaner form of power and has an advantage of making use of a renewable
source which is the sun. The process of obtaining electricity from the sun has the advantage of having no movement of objects and no environmental
emissions, a very clear and known study since for fifty years photovoltaic systems have been in use specialized applications and also for more than
twenty years grid connected systems have been put into us (Armentrout and Patricia Armentrout).
From hydro and wind power solar photovoltaic forms the third most important form of renewable energy source that is used in countries more than 100
considering a global installed capacity. The photovoltaic installations can be achieved in

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Film Coatings
Banerjee et al. [18] observed that the sprayed liquid droplet tends to flatten out into a disk on impact with substrate surface and the geometry of the disk
depends mainly on the momentum and volume of the droplet and also on the substrate temperature.
The thin film formation is a resultant of the following processes:
i) spreading of the sprayed droplets on the surface of the hot substrate into disks ii) pyrolytic reaction between the decomposed reactants iii)
evaporation of the solvent iv) repetition of the proceeding processes with succeeding droplets.
The process parameters such as concentration of the precursor solution, type of solvent, doping material, spray nozzle geometry, flow rate of carrier gas
and solution, velocities of sprayed droplets, nature and temperature of the substrate, kinetics and thermodynamics of the pyrolytic reaction mainly
determine the properties of the spray deposited films.
3.4.2. Advantages of spray pyrolysis technique over other techniques Spray pyrolysis is one of the simple and cost effective techniques suitable for
commercial and mass production of thin film coatings [19]. It is a fast coating process easily applicable for large area depositions at atmospheric
conditions. In addition to the inexpensive and simple experimental arrangement, this method has several ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These include precursor solution atomization, droplet transport and evaporation, spreading on the substrate, drying and decomposition of the precursor
salt. Understanding these processes will help to improve film quality. Thin film deposition using spray pyrolysis can be divided into three main steps:
atomization of the precursor solution, transportation of the resultant aerosol and decomposition of the precursor on the substrate.
a)Atomization of precursor

Solar Energy
Our world has been in existence for billions of years and throughout all those years we have used the sun for basic energy needs. So why not be able
to harness that energy and use it to power things like our homes or our cars? Many scientist have been developing alternate forms of energy called
"Green Energy." Green power is the solution to creating a cleaner, sustainable energy system.Renewable energy––power from the sun, wind, plants, and
moving water––is a natural way to meet our energy needs and protect the environment. Here are some forms of green energy:
В• Wind energy converts the power available in moving air into electricity.Wind power does not produce air emissions, generate solid waste, or use
water.
В• Biomass is energy ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
В• the need for non polluting and silent sources of electricity; eg tourist sites, caravans and campers
В• the need for a convenient and flexible source of small amounts of power; eg calculators, watches, light meters and cameras;
В• the need for renewable and sustainable power, as a means of reducing global warming.
Together, these needs have produced a growing market forphotovoltaics which has stimulated innovation. As the market has grown, the cost of cells
and systems has declined, and new applications have been discovered.
To fully understand how solar power energy is created we need to look at how silicon solar cells are made by using either single crystal wafers,
polycrystalline wafers or thin films.
Single crystal wafers are sliced, (approx. 1/3 to 1/2 of a millimeter thick), from a large single crystal ingot which has been grown at around 1400 В°C,
which is a very expensive process. The silicon must be of a very high purity and have a near perfect crystal structure.
Polycrystalline wafers are made by a casting process in which molten silicon is poured into a mould and allowed to set. Then it is sliced into wafers.
As polycrystalline wafers are made by casting they are significantly cheaper to produce, but not as efficient as monocrystalline cells. The lower
efficiency is due to imperfections in the crystal structure resulting from the casting process.

Almost half the silicon is lost

Solar Cell Processing And Fabrication
Abstract–Solar cells have long been regarded as the most promising choice for the development of cost–effective and reliable energy. This paper
reviews recent progress and challenges in the development of solar cell processing and fabrication. The comparison of various solar technologies and
future scope for this are briefly reviewed. Next, the issues and challenges in light trapping and the nature of textured interface, quality of the
active–layer material and antireflection coatings are detailed.
Index Terms–Fabrication, Solar cell technology, Crystalline silicon
I. INTRODUCTION
As the world is suffering from an ever diminishing stock of fossil fuels and serious pollution being caused by fuels, solar energy has become the most
promising solution to the global energy crisis. Among various methods for generating energy from the sun, solar cells are an effective approach for
converting solar energy into electrical energy for regular use. There is a wide range of research activities around the world that has demonstrated the
efficiency potential of crystalline silicon cells. Most of the research studies has inferred, both theoretically and practically, that thin crystalline silicon
cells can have low manufacturing costs while not compromising on reasonable efficiencies. Many researchers have attempted to study the impact of
wafer thickness on the performance of crystalline silicon cells, and the best efficiencies on wafers with thickness under 200Вµm are typically in the
range

The Generation Of Electricity By Photovoltaic Cells Essay
PHOTOVOLTAICS PIYUSH PIYUSH ID–101317400 ABSTRACT The report covers the generation of electricity by photovoltaic cells. The main
idea of this report is to provide knowledge to the scholar about the photovoltaic power generation and how we can use PV cells for the production
of electricity. In this report there is an explanation of how PV cells can be used for the production of electricity. The report consists of how
concentrating collectors, thin film technology, building integrated systems and flat plate collectors can be used. The material used for the production
of photovoltaic cells are polycrystalline silicon, thin film materials and single crystal. The report consists of manufacturing technology used in the
production of photovoltaic cells and how we can improve the cell efficiency and other monetary aspects of photovoltaic technology. However, the
photovoltaic efficiency and production costs has not reached up to the highest level because of the cost related issues and this technology is not able
to replace the conventional sources of energy such as coal, gas and nuclear powered generating facilities. Photovoltaic power is used in remote
applications such as communications, villages and homes in many developing countries. In many areas the rooftop installation of solar panels is
smaller but it is rapidly increasing at a great pace. As the industrial sciences narrow down the cost gap, more applications are increasing and the use of
photovoltaic panel has increased.

Solar Electric Energy Systems
Introduction: The term 'photo' means light and 'voltaic mean electricity. A photovoltaic (PV) cell is also known as solar cell. Even though,
photovoltaic effect was observed in 1839 by the French scientist Edmund Becquerel, it was not fully comprehensible until the development of
quantum theory of light and solid state physics in early to middle 1900s. Since its first commercial use in powering orbital satellites of the US space
programs in the 1950s. While most PV cells in use today are silicon–based, cells made of other semiconductor materials are expected to surpass silicon
PV cells in performance and cost and become viable competitors in the PV marketplace A photovoltaic cell is a semiconductor diode that converts
visible light into direct current. Some Photovoltaic cells are an integral part of solar–electric energy systems, which are becoming increasingly
important as alternative sources of utility power. The first PV cells were made of silicon combined, or doped, with other elements to affect the
behavior of electrons or holes. Having similar characteristics material, such as copper indium– diselenide (CIS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and gallium
arsenide (GaAs), have been developed for alternative use in PV cells. There are two basic types of semiconductor material, called positive (or P type)
and negative (or N type). In a PV cell, flat pieces of these materials are placed together, and the physical boundary between them is called the P–N
junction. The device is

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Solar Power
ABSTRACT
Solar power has a vast potential. The industry is to see large growth in the upcoming future. However, there are technical and cost limitations which
hinder solar power's ability to become a more influential global electricity source. Despite these limitations, solar power is utilized by many. From
homes in the Unites States to developing countries, solar power is making lives and the world a better place. Governments must see the potential of
solar power and push their country's energy needs away from fossil fuels and towards renewable sources, such as solar power.
INTRODUCTION
With the reduction of the dependence on fossil fuels, countries and citizens are looking for a way to fulfill their energy needs. Many turn to solar ...
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FINDINGS
The largest obstacle solar power has to overcome is cost. Solar power has high startup costs. Stated in The Future of Solar Energy, "Currently, the
estimated installed cost per peak watt for a residential PV system is approximately 80% greater than that for a utility–scale plant, with costs for a
typical commercial–scale installation falling somewhere in between." These cost estimates often "include costs for inverters, racking and installation
hardware, design and installation labor, and marketing, as well as various regulatory and п¬Ѓnancing costs" (The Future of Solar Energy). Many do not
want to pay for the upfront costs of instillation of solar energy devices when an alternative energy supplier is already in place. In order to
successfully reduce our carbon emissions, governments must become involved. Federal money must be allotted to the research and development of
solar power for it to become a viable energy source. In doing so solar power will become less privatized and potentially more affordable. There has
been recent growth in the solar energy due to "a 50%–70% drop in reported PV prices (without federal subsidies) per installed peak watt", and a
"current federal tax subsidy for solar generation: a 30% investment tax credit (ITC)" (The Future of Solar Energy). The reduction of PV prices and a
tax credit is a positive aspect for solar power, but the prices are still too high for the masses. The value of a renewable energy source is frequently lost
when

The Need to Renewable Sources of Energy
1.1 INTRODUCTION Energy is vital for human survival and development. Most of today's energy comes fossil fuels and Biomass. However these
types of fuels are deplitable and emit green house gases e.g. CO2which leads to global warming. (See Fig 1.1).On the other hand, renewable energy is
inexhaustible and does not any produce green house gases that can pollute the environment. Therefore there is need to shift to renewable sources of
energy. Figure 1.1: A graph showing energy consumption and development between 1965 and 2010 (https://www.google.com). For example, in Kenya
here is a large geographical imbalance in electricity demand and supply. For instance electrification rates ranges from 15–20% nationally and at rural it
ranges from 5–10%. Electricity only accounts for 10% of the total final energy consumption. 60% of all electricity is consumed by commercial and
industrial sectors. Only 24% is consumed by households. The demand is rapidly increasing and there is need to incorporate renewable energy in the
energy sector in order to make Vision 2030 a reality. Renewable energy is the energy that comes from sources that are continually replenished. This
include: solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, ocean energy, geothermal energy. One of the promising renewable sources of energy is solar energy.
Solar renewable energy has many advantages and these include: Plenty of resource: The sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is abundant
approximately 8000 (120000 TW/Hr) times

Nanotechnology For Enhanced Solar Conversion
Egbo Kingsley O. PhD in Nanostructures for Enhanced Solar Conversion Research Proposal Abstract The possibilities of employing a nanoscale metal
topography that will employ surface plasmon excitation phenomena towards improving the light absorption efficiency of organic solar cells will be
investigated. This goal is achievable by analytically designing and producing optically active nanostructures which are used to excite surface plasmons
at the wavelengths range dictated by the sun in order to support the confinement of light beyond the diffraction limit, thus leading to high weighted
enhancements over a wider range of the solar spectrum. This can be achieved by employing nanostructured materials with unique properties tailored for
the materials characteristics of II–VI nanorod systems across the solar spectrum capable of creating significant enhancements while preventing
unwanted thermal losses. Also external quantum efficiency measurements on the nanostructured cells will be made, this is expected to demonstrate a
substantial photon absorption enhancement across the solar spectrum. Finally, key insights into light absorption and trapping mechanisms in these
plasmon enhanced cells through a combination of three–dimensional finite–difference time–domain simulations, optical absorption, and external
quantum efficiency measurements will be obtained Introduction The increasing population of the world is making demands on the availability of
energy supply and research has

Traditional Solar Cells Advantage And Applications
Traditional solar cells–advantage and applications Solar cells technology, as a clean power source of new generation, has been great developed in the
past 35 years. The market needed for this for the solar cells technology is also greatly increased while module cost is decreased.
However, around 80 percent of all the solar panels sold around the world is traditional solar cells, because of their efficiency for residential use. The
applications for traditional solar cells are still dominant in the area. And here are some main types of traditional solar cells and their applications.
Monocrystalline silicon cells Mono crystalline silicon cell technology is the oldest solar cell technology, but it's still the most popular and efficient
solar cell technology nowadays. The monocrystalline silicon module is made from a single silicon crystal; it is usually complex and huge. And its
color is usually blue or black. As the earliest solar cell technology, it has a lot of advantages that's make it still popular in the area. One of the most
important one is its longevity, some websites indicate that the single crystalline solar panels can last up to 50 years, until 2015, some panels are still
doing their duties after 40 years. Even though the panel will suffer an efficiency drop as time goes by, it is still a very reliable in the long run. Its
efficiency is another big advantage; single crystalline cells can convert the highest amount of

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Solar Panels
Solar panels have become increasingly popular and increasingly common, but there is a huge disadvantage to using them; they require a lot of space.
To power the average US home one would need 600 square feet of space – about 55 square meters – which costs $55,000 – almost в‚¬70,000 –
(Statistic Brain). Now researchers at the Michigan State University believe that they have found a solution to make solar panels more space efficient.
A team of researchers at the Michigan State University has developed solar panels that are transparent. The advantage of this is "that [they] can be
placed directly over a window to harvest the sun's energy" (Mail Online) and still be transparent. Usually the solar cells are blue, but the researchers
managed to use "transparent luminescent solar concentrators (TLSC)" (Extreme Tech) to make the cells transparent. TLSC is made of organic salts,
which absorb "specific non–visible wavelengths of ultraviolet and infrared light" (Extreme Tech). The cell converts these wavelengths into a different
infrared light through a glow. The glow is then guided to the edge of the cell which uses "thin strips of photovoltaic solar cells" (Mail Online) to
convert the light energy into electricity, just like the 'normal' solar panels. The cells appear to be transparent because "[They] do not absorb or emit
light in the visible spectrum" (Mail Online).... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to Extreme Tech the TLSC "currently has an efficiency of around 1%"(Extreme Tech), but scientists estimate that at least 5% efficiency
should be possible. Hailtek GmbH recently managed to achieve "transparency levels of 40% with an efficiency level of over 7%" (Hailtek), which
proves the researcher's estimate. To make the cells cost effective though, one could buy enough to cover a whole building or wall. Despite the lack of
efficiency in the cell, there are several advantages to having a fully transparent solar

Solar Cell And Its Industry
Solar Cell and Its Industry The conversion of the sunlight directly into electricity by using the electronic properties of various suitable materials
appears to be an attractive energy conversion process and more or less an ideal alternative to available conventional energy sources. The solar cell
technology has developed enormously over the last four decades, initially for being used to provide electrical power for spacecrafts and also more
recently for various terrestrial applications. The main reason for this technological development lies in the realization that traditional fossil energy
resources like coal, oil and gas are not just rapidly depleting, but they also contribute to unpredictable and probably irreversible climate changes in
the approaching future through the extreme high emission levels of greenhouse gases (e.g. CO2, CO, SO2 and P2O5) and also due to acidification.
The photo voltaic source of energy that is solar irradiation, has the major advantage of being widely distributed over the world. The solar irradiation
falling on the earth's surface is not a limiting factor and also supersedes our needs by far. Photovoltaic industry has leapfrogged the barriers over the
last three decades from merely being a conceptual industry to a full–fledged commercial industry. Recent major investments and the on hand
manufacturing facilities are only mainly for silicon based technologies, with more than 93% market share, mainly due to its maturity, growth and huge

Engineering Advantage Of Pv Technology
P hotovoltaic(PV) technology is booming, with the pursuit of sustainable energy is continuously increasing in rate of over 30% per year since 1999
[1]. At present, the most commonly PV technology is crystalline silicon cells. This is powerful and stable PV technology. However, its potential of cost
reduction is strongly limited, with the high cost with silicon wafer. Recently thin–film solar cells as a substitute for traditional crystalline silicon cells,
it has up to 21.5 percent of the photoelectric conversion efficiency, while its production cost is only one–third of the crystalline silicon cells or even
one–third [2]. And recently, there are several commonly used solar modules, such as CdTe solar cells, n
–i–p a–Si:H solar cells,... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
II.EXPERIMENTAL PROCESS At first, for CdTe solar cells, required absorber thicknesses were obtained by deposition In this work, their substrates
are Pilkington TEC–15 (SnO2:F/SnO2) glass plates. And before thin film deposition, the glass plate would be cleaned by standard cleaning procedure.
And Darmstadt Integrated System for SOLarcell research(DAISY–SOL) was used to determine the thin film deposition of the CdS and CdTe
individually. And the CdS deposition was double layer structure, the first layer was deposited at high temperature in range of 520 to 540 В°C, while
the second layer was deposited at 250 В°C. And for the CdTe layer, was deposited under vacuum condition, in order to minimize the likelihood of
pinhole formation. And it also formed 2 layers under 490–530 В°C and 350 В°C individually [2]. Dektak profilometer was used to measure the film
thickness. And the thickness is the total thickness of the double layer structure CdTe films. The data samples were modules with thickness ranging
from 0.5 to 3Ојm. Aside from that, the CdCl2 annealing treatment was applied under 385 В°C with saturated CdCl2 in methanol. And for samples with
thickness over 2 Ојm would be activated for 20

Material Properties And Re Application For Cu
Christopher Wheatley
REE337
Fall 2015 Term Paper
Dr. Stefan Stefanoski
Overview of the Material Properties and RE Application for Cu(In,Ga)Se2
Introduction and Historical Notes
I have chosen to review the material properties and applications for the compound semiconductor copper indium gallium selenide as it is used in
photovoltaic cells. A chalcopyrite–based material, the chemical formula is often written as CuIn1–xGaxSe2 (CIGS) to represent the alloy system where
the stoichiometric ratio of the compound can vary from pure CuInSe2 (CIS) to CuGaSe2 (CGS). For the purposes of this document, however, the
entire range of combinations will simply be referred to as CIGS. I selected this material for a few reasons. I am fascinated with ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This document, however, will provide a much more general and top–level view of the material properties.
The first chalcopyrite solar cells were reported by Wagner et al. in 1974 when a 12% efficient cell was created based on single crystal CuInSe2
absorber. [1] Later, Kazmerski et al. demonstrated that a thin filmsolar cell could be created by an evaporation process. [2] Commercial CIGS modules
were not produced, however, for another 20 years. Since that time the material has been continuously studied and improved. Ga was added to stabilize
the p–type conductivity and increase the band gap. It was also discovered that the addition of Na, either through the use of soda–lime glass substrate or
added during the growth process, helps to boost the conductivity of the material and control the film growth and free carrier concentration. [2] As of
2014, the record for CIGS efficiency demonstrated in a laboratory setting was held by researchers at Stuttgart's Centre for Solar Energy and
Hydrogen Research (ZSW), for their achievement of a 21.7% efficient cell. [3] As of May 2015, the Taiwanese company TSMC Solar has reported
the highest efficiency module that is commercially available with a rating of 16.5%. [4]
Synthesis and Crystal Structure

There are a variety of methods for synthesizing the CIGS absorber layer. However, for

Solar Energy Pros And Cons
This research will discuss solar energy in three points which are what solar energy is, solar power systems for houses and how the humans benefited
from it. Solar energy is the light and heat which are coming from the sun, and a human create them for his benefits since ancient time ago. Also, solar
energy is the important kind of green energy. Moreover, humans have used them by using a range of modern technology that is constantly evolving. It
includes harnessing solar energy technologies using thermal energy of the sun either directly heated or within converting mechanical movement or
electric power, or to generate electricity through phenomena Photovoltaic (PV) using the panels of photovoltaic cells' effort. In addition, a human has
used solar energy architectural designs that rely on the exploitation of solar energy process, solar energy is a sustainable energy and is not
implemented also it is a natural source of energy, and can be used to generate other forms of energy. As well, the great contribution is that solar energy
will assure the other energy unsustainable sources such as oil and natural gas. According to Dickon and Matt "Coal, natural gas, and nuclear power,
which today supply two–thirds or more of global power, are not about to disappear. But even at its currently low rates of market penetration, solar
power has begun to shift the economics of electricity. This is the dawn of the solar age" (2015, para.28). Also, it will decrease using other sustainable

The Solar Of Solar Power Essay
Solar Power Innovations Solar Power has been observed as early as the year of 1839 by a French physicist named Alexandre–Edmond Becquerel. He
invented the first photovoltaic cell. Since then his studies and works have been perfected on and continue to change the world in which we live for
the better. Photovoltaic cells have constantly been evolving ever since. In 1883, Charles Fritts built the first solid state photovoltaic cell using
materials such as gold and selenium. With further advances to the system, scientist were able to recreate the cell in a way that could serve as an
alternative power source on the satellite named Vanguard that was flown into space in the year of 1958. In the 1970's there was an oil crisis when
Middle Eastern countries proclaimed a trading ban, encouraging oil companies to buy solar firms. Funded research allowed for first, second and third
generation cells to be constructed. Currently, the cost of solar energy has exponentially decreased with the falling price of silicon, allowing for many
new innovations to take place. Thin solar film is a second generation cell that is being commercially used. The creation of solar thin film allowed us
to reduce cost even further as it is printed in rolls which can be incorporated into things like building materials instead of having to have big bulky
expensive panels. The film is lightweight, flexible and most importantly, affordable. Over the past few years, the thin solar film has become more
efficient

My Career In Energy Technology And Surface Chemistry
Background My career in energy technology and surface chemistry began in 2012, when I started my master's coursework and research in
electrochemistry at the University of Louisville's Department of Chemistry. Since then I have developed an extensive skillset, focusing mainly on the
development and usage of semiconductor materials such as titanium oxide (TiO2), tin–oxide (SnO2), birnessite–manganese oxide (b–MnO2), and
neodymium oxide (Nd2O3). I have extensively studied the photophysics and photochemistry of energetic nanomaterials in order to explore the
fundamentals of charge transfer dynamics, catalytic properties, and mechanisms for the conversion of solar energy to electric energy to produce
renewable electricity. Later in my doctoral... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Understanding the basic science behind any new technology is the backbone for further development for commercialization. I chemically linked gold
nanoparticles and a molecular conductor to prepare high efficiency solar cells. Recently, I employed the hybrid structure of rare earth materials and
TiO2 nanoparticles as another strategy in the development of high efficiency solar cells. Rare earth materials are new to the research in solar cells.
The current guidelines for the preparation of solar cells in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Louisville are based directly on my
research. My work on lithium ion batteries, where I prepared mesoporous b–MnO2 as a cathode material, has been heavily cited world–widely and
becoming a guideline for innovative new energy storage devices. After completing my doctoral degree at the University of Louisville, I turned my
focus to the surface chemistry of nanomaterials for preparing bioconjugates, a continuation of my work on surface chemistry on nanomaterials during
my postdoctoral research. In another work during the postdoctoral research period, I was able to publish a work on dielectrophoresis manipulation of
metal nanoparticles to increase substantially the amount of frequency of collisions (by the factor of 101–103) of the metal nanoparticles with an
ultramicroelectrode (Analytical Chemistry, articles ASAP, 08/07/2017). This technique has the tremendous

Possibilites of Solar Energy
Background Living organisms are dependent on energy. Chemical energy is formed through the conversion of sunlight by organisms such as bacteria
and plants. It is through this process that food is formed for other organisms. Nature only consumes the amount of energy supplied by the sun. A part
of the solar energy consumed by nature (animals, plants and their habitats) is transformed into chemical energy and is sealed off eternally from the
atmosphere, stored as biomass. 80% of our current energy requirements are met by fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Biomass material was
converted into fossil fuels millions of years ago. Due to the time it took to form these fossil fuels, it is not possible to rely on these materials to
continue meeting the needs of consumption. This means that fossil fuels will either become depleted or be too uneconomical to recover. Appropriate
actions must be taken to ensure equilibrium between renewable and non–renewable energy sources as the change of fossil fuels into a usable form
emits carbon dioxide, damaging the climate (Nijhoff 1979:35). Solar radiation, planetary energy and geothermal energy are the three forms of
renewable energy available on earth. Radiation from the sun is the highest source of energy and the obtainability of these sources alters. In a nuclear
fusion process in the sun, hydrogen is transformed into helium. It is in the form of electromagnetic waves that the surface of the sun radiates this
energy. This will

The Sun Is One Of The Most Significant Sources Of...
The Sun is one of the most significant sources of renewable energy. In one hour the Earth receives enough energy from the Sun to meet its needs for
nearly a year. A Photovoltaic (PV) cell is a semiconductor device that directly converts the energy of solar radiation into electric energy. In general, an
element that converts sunlight into electricity is called a PV device. The fundamental PV device is the PV cell, while a set of connected cells form a
panel or module. As an array either a module or a set of modules can be considered cite{Breza2013}. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an
introduction into the photovoltaic solar energy and to present the fundamental knowledges on the behavior and the functioning of the PV devices.
Furthermore, the different PV models are discussed. section{Solar Energy Conversion} The basic element of a photovoltaic system (PV) is solar cells
which convert the sunlight energy directly to direct current by means of the photovoltaic effect. Thus, It is crucial to understand the basic of a PV cell
construction and its relationship with the incidence of the light. subsection{Photovoltaic Cell Construction } In a typical photovoltaic cell, two layers
of doped silicon semiconductor are tightly bonded together cite{Chin2015}– cite{Villalva2009}– cite{Ma2013a}. One layer is modified to have excess
free electrons (a n–layer), while the other layer is treated to have an excess of electron holes or vacancies (a p–layer). When the two dissimilar

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Photovoltaic Basics

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