CHAPTER 4Social Perceptions and Managing Diversity©McG.docx

CHAPTER 4
Social Perceptions and Managing Diversity
©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only
for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further
distribution permitted without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
1
Major Questions You Should
Be Able to Answer
4.1 How do I form perceptions of others?
4.2 How can I use awareness of stereotypes to make better
decisions and manage more effectively?
4.3 How do I tend to interpret employee performance?
4.4 How does awareness about the layers of diversity help
organizations effectively manage diversity?
4.5 What is the business rationale for managing diversity?
4.6 What are the most common barriers to implementing
successful diversity programs?
4.7 What are organizations doing to effectively manage
diversity, and what works best?
©McGraw-Hill Education.

Person Perceptions
What is perception?
A cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand
our surroundings
Important as perceptions affect actions and decisions
Perceptions are based on the characteristics of:
The perceiver
The target
The situation
Perception is a cognitive process that enables us to interpret and
understand our surroundings.
Recognition of objects is one of this process’s major functions.
For example, both people and animals recognize familiar
objects in their environments.
People must recognize objects to meaningfully interact with
their environment.
But since organizational behavior’s (OB’s) principal focus is on
people, the following discussion emphasizes social perception
rather than object perception.
3
Model of Person Perception
Jump to Appendix 1 for description

Managerial Implications of Person Perception
Hiring
Implicit cognitions may lead to biased decisions.
Biased decisions are avoided by training, use of structured
interviews, use of multiple interviewers.
Performance appraisals
Faulty perceptions about performance leads to inaccurate
appraisals and erode morale.
Faulty perceptions are reduced by use of objective measures,
training, use of HR analytics for capturing daily performance.
Leadership
Employees’ evaluations of leader effectiveness are influenced
by their schemata of good and poor leaders.
Interviewers make hiring decisions based on their impression of
how an applicant fits the perceived requirements of a job.
Unfortunately, many of these decisions are made on the basis of
implicit cognition.
Implicit cognition represents any thoughts or beliefs that are
automatically activated from memory without our conscious
awareness.
The existence of implicit cognition leads people to make biased
decisions without an understanding that it is occurring.
Managers can be trained to understand and reduce this type of

hidden bias. Bias can be reduced by using structured as opposed
to unstructured interviews, and by relying on evaluations from
multiple interviewers rather than just one or two people. More
and more companies are using virtual interviews as a tool for
reducing problems associated with implicit cognition.
Faulty schemata about good versus poor performance can lead
to inaccurate performance appraisals, which erode morale.
Therefore, managers must accurately identify and communicate
the behavioral characteristics and results they look for in good
performance at the beginning of a review cycle.
Furthermore, because memory for specific instances of
employee performance deteriorates over time, managers need a
mechanism for accurately recalling employee behavior.
Research demonstrates that employees’ evaluations of leader
effectiveness are influenced strongly by their schemata of good
and poor leaders.
5
Test Your OB Knowledge (1 of 5)
Steven wants to be sure there is no implicit cognition creating
bias in his company’s interviewing process. The best course of
action is to
train all interviewers in the interview process.
have more than one interviewer conducting interviews.
conduct the interviews virtually.
use a structured interview approach.
All of the above.

The answer is E. All of the above. All four will reduce bias.
6
What Is a Stereotype?
An individual’s set of beliefs about the characteristics or
attributes of a group
May or may not be accurate
Can lead to poor decisions
Can create barriers for:
Women
Older individuals
People of color
People with disabilities
Stereotypes represent a key component of the perception
process because they are used during encoding.
A stereotype is an individual’s set of beliefs about the
characteristics or attributes of a group.
Stereotypes are not always negative. For example, the belief
that engineers are good at math is certainly part of a stereotype.
Stereotypes may or may not be accurate.
Unfortunately, stereotypes can lead to poor decisions.
Specifically they can create barriers for women, older
individuals, people of color, and people with disabilities, all

while undermining loyalty and job satisfaction.
7
How Stereotypes Are Formed and Maintained
Four steps
Categorization
Inferences
Expectations
Maintenance
Accurate information and motivation are needed to reduce the
use of stereotypes.
Stereotyping is based on the following four-step process:
1. Categorization. We categorize people into groups according
to criteria (such as gender, age, race, and occupation).
2. Inferences. Next, we infer that all people within a particular
category possess the same traits or characteristics
3. Expectations. We form expectations of others and interpret
their behavior according to our stereotypes.
4. Maintenance. We maintain stereotypes by overestimating the
frequency of stereotypic behaviors exhibited by others,
incorrectly explaining expected and unexpected behaviors,
differentiating minority individuals from ourselves.
Research shows that it takes accurate information and
motivation to reduce the use of stereotypes.
8
Stereotypes
Managerial challenges and recommendations

Educate people about stereotypes and how they influence
behavior and decision making.
Create opportunities for diverse employees to meet and work
with others.
Encourage all employees to increase their awareness.
The key managerial challenge is to reduce the extent to which
stereotypes influence decision making and interpersonal
processes throughout the organization.
Three ways that this can be achieved:
Managers should educate people about stereotypes and how they
can influence our behavior and decision making.
Managers should create opportunities for diverse employees to
meet and work together in cooperative groups of equal status.
Managers should encourage all employees to strive to increase
their awareness regarding stereotypes. Awareness helps reduce
the application of stereotypes when making decisions and when
interacting with others.
9
Which of the following statements is NOT accurate?
Stereotypes can lead to poor decisions.
All stereotypes are negative.
Stereotypes are used during the encoding process of perception.
Quality interpersonal contact among mixed groups may reduce
the use of stereotypes.
Some people have negative stereotypes about older individuals.

The answer is B. All stereotypes are negative. Stereotypes can
be positive.
10
Causal Attributions
What are causal attributions?
Suspected or inferred causes of behavior
Important because attributions affects our perceptions of cause
and our choice of action
Attribution theory is based on a simple premise: People infer
causes for observed behavior. Rightly or wrongly, we constantly
formulate cause-and-effect explanations for how we and others
behave.
Formally defined, causal attributions are suspected or inferred
causes of behavior.
Managers need to understand how people formulate these
attributions because the attributions profoundly affect
organizational behavior.
11

Kelley’s Model of Attribution (1 of 2)
Behaviors can be attributed either to internal factors within a
person or external factors in the environment.
We make causal attributions by observing three dimensions of
behavior. These can be high or low.
Consensus
Distinctiveness
Consistency
Behavior can be attributed either to internal factors within a
person (such as ability) or to external factors in the
environment (such as a difficult task).
Kelley hypothesized that people make causal attributions by
observing three dimensions of behavior: consensus,
distinctiveness, and consistency.
These dimensions vary independently, forming various
combinations and leading to differing attributions.
• Consensus compares an individual’s behavior with that of his
or her peers. There is high consensus when one acts like the rest
of the group and low consensus when one acts differently.
• Distinctiveness compares a person’s behavior on one task with
his or her behavior on other tasks. High distinctiveness means
the individual has performed the task in question in a
significantly different manner than he or she has performed
other tasks.
• Consistency judges if the individual’s performance on a given
task is consistent over time. Low consistency is undesirable for

obvious reasons, and implies that a person is unable to perform
a certain task at some standard level. High consistency implies
that a person performs a certain task the same way, with little or
no variation over time.
12
Kelly’s Model of Attribution (2 of 2)
How does consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency lead to
specific attributions?
AttributionConsensus
(People)Distinctiveness
(Tasks)Consistency
(Time)InternalLowLowHighExternalHighHighLow
Kelley theorized that people attribute behavior to either internal
causes (personal factors) or external causes (environmental
factors) depending on the ranking of consensus, distinctiveness,
and consistency.
While other combinations are possible, the two options shown
above have been most frequently studied.
Say all employees are performing poorly (high consensus), on
only one of several tasks (high distinctiveness), and during only
one time period (low consistency). A supervisor will probably
attribute the employees’ poor performance to an external source
such as a temporary distraction or event.
In contrast, if only one employee performs poorly (low
consensus), across several tasks (low distinctiveness), and over

time (high consistency), the supervisor will likely attribute
performance to personal factors.
13
Attributional Tendencies
Fundamental attribution bias
A tendency to attribute another person’s behavior to his or her
personal characteristics, as opposed to situational factors
Self-serving bias
One’s tendency to take more personal responsibility for success
than for failure
The fundamental attribution bias reflects one’s tendency to
attribute another person’s behavior to his or her personal
characteristics, as opposed to situational factors. This bias
causes perceivers to ignore important environmental factors that
often significantly affect behavior. This leads to inaccurate
assessments of performance, which in turn foster inappropriate
responses to poor performance.
The self-serving bias represents one’s tendency to take more
personal responsibility for success than for failure. The self-
serving bias suggests employees will attribute their success to
internal factors (high ability or hard work) and their failures to
uncontrollable external factors (tough job, bad luck,
unproductive coworkers, or an unsympathetic boss). This
tendency plays out in all aspects of life.

14
Managerial Applications and Implications
Managerial tendency to attribute behavior to internal causes
may lead managers to take inappropriate actions.
An employee’s attributions for his or her own performance have
dramatic effects on subsequent motivation, performance, and
personal attitudes.
We tend to disproportionately attribute behavior to internal
causes. This can result in inaccurate evaluations of
performance, leading to reduced employee motivation. No one
likes to be blamed because of factors they perceive to be beyond
their control. The Organizing Framework for Understanding and
Applying OB offers a simple solution for overcoming this
tendency. You must remind yourself that behavior and
performance is a function of both person factors and
environmental characteristics.
Other attributional biases may lead managers to take
inappropriate actions. Such actions could include promotions,
transfers, layoffs, and so forth. This can dampen motivation and
performance.
Attributional training sessions can help. Basic attributional
processes can be explained, and we can be taught to detect and
avoid attributional biases.
An employee’s attributions for his or her own performance have
dramatic effects on subsequent motivation, performance, and
personal attitudes such as self- esteem. For instance, people

tend to give up, develop lower expectations for future success,
and experience decreased self-esteem when they attribute
failure to a lack of ability. Employees are more likely to display
high performance and job satisfaction when they attribute
success to internal factors such as ability and effort.
15
Megan was hurt at work. Megan’s manager concluded that
Megan was careless and clumsy. Megan’s manager may have
committed an error called ________ error.
fundamental attribution
ultimate perception
stereotyping
self-serving bias
internal cognition
The answer is A. Fundamental attribution error. The manager is
assuming it was Megan’s fault.
16
The Four Layers of Diversity
Diversity: the multitude of individual differences and
similarities that exist among people
Personality
Surface-level
Internal characteristics apparent to others (unchangeable)

Deep-level
External influences
Organizational dimensions
Figure 4.3 shows that personality is at the center of the
diversity wheel because it represents a stable set of
characteristics responsible for a person’s identity.
The next layer of diversity includes internal dimensions that are
referred to as surface-level dimensions of diversity. Surface-
level characteristics are those that are quickly apparent to
interactants, such as race, gender, and age. Because these
characteristics are viewed as unchangeable, they strongly
influence our attitudes and expectations and assumptions about
others, which, in turn, influence our behavior.
Figure 4.3 shows that the next layer of diversity comprises
external influences. They represent individual differences that
we have a greater ability to influence or control. Examples
include where you live today, your religious affiliation, whether
you are married and have children, and your work experiences.
These dimensions also exert a significant influence on our
perceptions, behavior, and attitudes.
The final layer of diversity includes organizational dimensions
such as seniority, work location, and job title and function.
Integrating these last two layers results in what is called deep-
level characteristics of diversity. Deep-level characteristics are
those that take time to emerge in interactions, such as attitudes,
opinions, and values. These characteristics are definitely under

our control.
17
Addressing Discrimination
Discrimination occurs when employment decisions about an
individual are due to individual characteristics and attributes
that are not related to the job.
Affirmative Action
Interventions to correct imbalances, injustice, mistakes, or
outright discrimination
Both voluntary and mandatory programs
Not based on quotas
Can lead to stigmas for those expected to benefit from AA
programs
Managing Diversity
Focuses on changing organizational culture and structure
Enable people to perform to potential
Relies on education, enforcement, and exposure
It’s important to understand that affirmative action is not a law
in and of itself. It is an outgrowth of equal employment
opportunity (EEO) legislation. The goal of this legislation is to
outlaw discrimination and to encourage organizations to
proactively prevent discrimination.
Discrimination occurs when employment decisions about an
individual are due to reasons not associated with performance or
are not related to the job. For example, organizations cannot
discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national
origin, sex, age, physical or mental disabilities, or pregnancy.
18

As Jasmine got to know Mary, a co-worker of a different
ethnicity, Jasmine was surprised to learn how much she actually
had in common with Mary such as loving to hike and choice of
religion. Jasmine was experiencing which layer of diversity?
organizational dimensions
personality
surface-level characteristics
deep-level characteristics
internal dimensions
The answer is D. Deep-level characteristics.
19
Building the Business Case for
Managing Diversity
Business rationale for diversity
Managing diversity gives an organization the ability to grow
and maintain a business in an increasingly competitive
marketplace.
The access-and-legitimacy perspective is based on recognition
that the organization’s markets and constituencies are culturally
diverse.

The rationale for managing diversity is more than its legal,
social, or moral dimension. Quite simply, it’s good business.
Managing diversity gives the organization the ability to grow
and maintain a business in an increasingly competitive
marketplace.
An access-and-legitimacy perspective on diversity is based on
recognizing that the organization’s markets and constituencies
are culturally diverse.
It therefore behooves the organization to match the diversity in
parts of its own workforce as a way of gaining access to and
legitimacy with those markets and constituent groups.
One study discovered that customer satisfaction and employee
productivity were higher when the racio-ethnic composition of
customers matched that of store employees.
20
Are Women Breaking the Glass Ceiling?
Advancements
Educational attainment
Seats on board of directors
Leadership positions in education institutions
Women are breaking through but barriers and differences
remain.
Continuing pay gap
Pay gap for female MBA graduates
Gender discrimination
Barriers and Gaps

The glass ceiling represents an invisible but absolute barrier or
solid roadblock that prevents women from advancing to higher-
level positions.
Various statistics support the existence of a glass ceiling. The
pay gap between men and women is one example. In 2012, the
median weekly income in full-time management, professional,
and related occupations was $1,328 for men in contrast to $951
for women.
This gap includes MBA graduates. Female graduates from top
MBA programs earned 93 cents for every dollar earned by a
male graduate, and the pay gap tends to increase over time.
A WSJ/NBC national poll revealed that 40 percent of the
women reported experiencing gender discrimination.
Educational attainment: women earned the majority of
bachelor’s and master’s degrees from 2006 through 2012.
Seats on boards of directors of Fortune 500 firms: 9.6% in 1995
and 16.6% in 2013.
Leadership positions in educational institutions: In 2010,
women represented 18.7% of college presidents and 29.9% of
board members.
Federal court appointments: in 2013, 32% and 30% of Federal
Courts of Appeals and U.S. District Court judges, respectively,
were women.
21

Trends in Workforce Diversity (1 of 2)
The Census Bureau predicts that by 2060 57% of the workforce
will consist of minority groups.
However, current minority groups appear to be stalled at their
own glass ceiling.
They make up a smaller percentage in the professional class.
They are involved in more discrimination cases.
They achieve lower earnings.
All told, minority groups will constitute approximately 57
percent of the workforce in 2060, according to the Census
Bureau.
And yet, three additional trends suggest that current-day
minority groups are stalled at their own glass ceiling.
Smaller percentage in the professional class. Latinos and
African Americans have a smaller relative hold on managerial
and professional jobs within their racial groupings.
More discrimination cases. The number of race-based charges of
discrimination that were deemed to show reasonable cause by
the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission increased
from 294 in 1995 to 957 in 2013. Companies paid a total of
$112 million to resolve these claims outside of litigation in
2013.
Lower earnings. Minorities also tend to earn less personal
income than whites. Median weekly earnings in 2010 were
$1,103, $884, $1,275, and $895 for whites, blacks, Asians, and

Latinos, respectively. Interestingly, Asians had the highest
median income.
22
Trends in Workforce Diversity (2 of 2)
Generational Diversity
The population and workforce is getting older.
Four generations of employees are working together (soon to be
five).
Managers need to deal with generational differences in values,
attitudes, and behavior.
America’s population and workforce are getting older, and the
workforce includes greater generational differences than ever
before. We already see four generations of employees working
together, soon to be joined by a fifth. Managers need to deal
effectively with these generational differences in values,
attitudes, and behaviors. Many companies—including IBM,
Lockheed Martin, Ernst & Young, and Aetna—address this issue
by providing training workshops on generational diversity.
23

Big Bucks Bank is located in a city with a growing Latino
population. Jane, the CEO, believes in the access-legitimacy
perspective. Jane will do which of the following?
Hire employees to match the diversity in the population.
Offer Latino food every Friday.
Offer international travel services.
Support the local university’s Spanish department.
All of the above.
The answer is A. Hire employees to match the diversity in the
population.
24
Barriers and Challenges to
Managing Diversity
Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice
Ethnocentrism
Poor career planning
Negative diversity climate
Unsupportive and hostile environment
Lack of political savvy of diverse employees
Difficulty in balancing career and family issues
Fears of reverse discrimination
Diversity not seen as an organizational priority
Outdated appraisal and reward systems
Resistance to change

Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice. This barrier manifests
itself in the belief that differences are viewed as weaknesses. In
turn, this promotes the view that diversity hiring will mean
sacrificing competence and quality.
Ethnocentrism. The ethnocentrism barrier represents the feeling
that one’s cultural rules and norms are superior or more
legitimate than the rules and norms of another culture.
Poor career planning. This barrier is associated with the lack of
opportunities for diverse employees to get the type of work
assignments that qualify them for senior management positions.
A negative diversity climate. We define organizational climate
as employee perceptions about an organization’s formal and
informal policies, practices, and procedures. Diversity climate
is a subcomponent of an organization’s overall climate and is
defined as the employees’ aggregate “perceptions about the
organization’s diversity-related formal structure characteristics
and informal values.”
An unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse
employees. Sexual, racial, and age harassment are common
examples of hostile work environments. Whether perpetrated
against women, men, older individuals, or LGBT people, hostile
environments are demeaning, unethical, and appropriately called
“work environment pollution.”
Lack of political savvy on the part of diverse employees.
Diverse employees may not get promoted because they do not
know how to “play the game” of getting along and getting ahead
in an organization. Research reveals that women and people of

color are excluded from organizational networks.
Difficulty in balancing career and family issues. Women still
assume the majority of the responsibilities associated with
raising children.
Fears of reverse discrimination. Some employees believe that
managing diversity is a smoke screen for reverse discrimination.
This belief leads to very strong resistance because people feel
that one person’s gain is another’s loss.
Diversity is not seen as an organizational priority. This leads to
subtle resistance that shows up in the form of complaints and
negative attitudes. Employees may complain about the time,
energy, and resources devoted to diversity that could have been
spent doing “real work.”
The need to revamp the organization’s performance appraisal
and reward system. Performance appraisals and reward systems
must reinforce the need to effectively manage diversity. This
means that success will be based on a new set of criteria.
Resistance to change. Effectively managing diversity entails
significant organizational and personal change.
25
Managing Diversity
Organizations use a variety of generic approaches to
addressing diversity issues.
Include or exclude
Deny
Assimilate
Suppress
Isolate
Tolerate
Build relationships

Foster mutual adaptation
Only fostering mutual adaptation endorses the philosophy
behind managing diversity.
Option 1: Include or exclude
This choice may be an outgrowth of affirmative-action
programs. Its primary goal is to either increase or decrease the
number of diverse people at all levels of the organization.
Option 2: Deny
People using this option deny that differences exist. Denial may
manifest itself in proclamations that all decisions are color-,
gender-, and age-blind and that success is solely determined by
merit and performance.
Option 3: Assimilate
The basic premise behind this alternative is that all diverse
people will learn to fit in or become like the dominant group. It
only takes time and reinforcement for people to see the light.
Option 4: Suppress
Differences are squelched or discouraged when using this
approach. This can be done by telling or reinforcing others to
quit whining and complaining about issues.
Option 5: Isolate
This option maintains the current way of doing things by setting
the diverse person off to the side. In this way the individual is
unable to influence organizational change.

Option 6: Tolerate
Toleration entails acknowledging differences but not valuing or
accepting them. It represents a live-and-let-live approach that
superficially allows organizations to give lip-service to the
issue of managing diversity. Toleration is different from
isolation in that it allows for the inclusion of diverse people.
However, differences are not really valued or accepted when an
organization uses this option.
Option 7: Build relationships
This approach is based on the premise that good relationships
can overcome differences. It addresses diversity by fostering
quality relationships—characterized by acceptance and
understanding—among diverse groups.
Option 8: Foster mutual adaptation
In this option, people are willing to adapt or change their views
for the sake of creating positive relationships with others. This
implies that employees and management alike must be willing
to accept differences, and, most important, agree that everyone
and everything is open for change. Diversity training is one way
to kick start mutual adaptation.
26
Social Perception and Managing Diversity: Putting It All in
Context
Figure 4.5 Organizing Framework for Understanding and
Applying OB
Copyright 2014 Angelo Kinicki and Mel Fugate. All rights
reserved. Reproduction prohibited without permission of the
authors.

27
Appendix 1 Models of Person Perception
Return to slide
Characteristics of the perceiver
Direction of gaze
Needs and goals
Experience with target
Category based knowledge
Gender and emotional status
Cognitive load
Characteristics of the target
Direction of gaze
Facial and body shape characteristics
Nonverbal cues
Appearance or dress
Physical attractiveness
Characteristics of the situation
Context of interaction
Culture and race consistency between perceiver and target
Appendix 2 The Four Layers of Diversity
Return to slide
The four layers of diversity:
Organizational dimensions
Functional level and classification
Work content and field
Division department unit and group
Seniority
Work location

Union affiliation
Management status
External dimensions
Geographic location
Income
Personal habits
Recreational habits
Religion
Educational background
Work experience
…
PED 501—Final Exam Essay Questions
Name:
Instructions: Please read the prompts carefully; after reading
through the prompts, please
choose 4 to respond to. For each prompt please respond in 250
words or more. Check for
spelling and grammar prior to submission. This portion of your
Midterm is worth 50 pts, or
12.5pts per response. Please number your responses in
accordance with the prompts.
1. Fully explain how social class, life chances, social
stratification, and class relations are

associated both in the broader societal context as well as
specifically in the sporting
context.
2. Explain the relationship of sport and media. Discuss the
codependence and how, if so,
each entity embraces one another for its survival. Please
provide examples of how their
interdependence has impacted both institutions.
3. There is an ongoing conversation as to the relevancy of sport
in the educational context.
Please discuss how and where sport fits into the educational
model, both at the K-12 level
and at the collegiate level.
4. Please compare and contrast the international club model
versus the domestic
intercollegiate model. Discuss the pros and cons of whether the
United States should
explore the club model as opposed to the current intercollegiate
model.
5. Discuss the intersection between religion and sport. Please
identify how sport has been,

and/or, is utilized as a tool for religious ideology (both
positively and negatively).
6. Given the current circumstances, please explain what you see
as the lasting impact of
COVID-19 on the institution of sport (both consumption and
patrticipation).
CHAPTER 3
Individual Differences and Emotions
©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only
for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further
distribution permitted without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
1
Major Questions You Should
Be Able to Answer
3.1 How does understanding the relative stability of individual
differences benefit me?
3.2 How do multiple intelligences affect my performance?
3.3 How does my personality affect my performance at school
and work?

3.4 How do self-evaluations affect my performance at work?
3.5 What is emotional intelligence and how does it help me?
3.6 How can understanding emotions make me more effective
at work?
2
How Does Who I Am Affect My Performance?
We all differ along a vast number of personal attributes.
How we differ has been shown to influence how we approach
each of the following:
Work
Solving problems
Conflict
Interactions with co-workers
3
The Differences Matter
Which individual differences do you think managers can
influence?

4
Maria is a manager for Greens and Grits. Maria would like to
improve job satisfaction for her employees. She can accomplish
this by implementing different policies dealing with
personality.
intelligence.
cognitive ability.
emotions and attitudes.
All of the above.
The answer is D. Emotions and attitudes, as these are relatively
flexible.
5
Intelligence:
There Is More to the Story Than IQ (1 of 2)
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (MI)
Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Musical

Bodily-kinesthetic
Spatial
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalist
Howard Gardner, a professor at Harvard’s Graduate School of
Education, investigated this issue for years and summarized his
findings in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of
Multiple Intelligences.
The eight different intelligences he identified include not only
mental abilities, but social and physical abilities and skills as
well.
6
Intelligence:
There Is More to the Story than IQ (2 of 2)
We also have practical intelligence
The ability to solve everyday problems by utilizing knowledge
gained from experience in order to purposefully adapt to, shape,
and select environments
We all have strengths and weakness, so knowledge of our
intelligences may help in
Choosing a career or selecting the best candidate
Development of ourselves or others

Practical intelligence is the ability to solve everyday problems
by utilizing knowledge gained from experience in order to
purposefully adapt to, shape, and select environments.
It involves changing oneself to suit the environment
(adaptation), changing the environment to suit one’s needs or
desires, (shaping), or finding a new environment within which
to work (selection). One uses these skills to:
Manage oneself
Manage others
Manage tasks
7
George does not score particularly well on standard IQ tests yet
he has a unique ability to deal with complex interpersonal
situations. What would explain this phenomenon?
practical intelligence
multiple intelligences
reasoning ability
emotions and attitude
gender.

The answer is B. Multiple intelligences, as multiple
intelligences addresses interpersonal and intrapersonal
intelligence.
8
The Big 5 Personality Dimensions
The combination of stable physical, behavioral, and mental
characteristics that give individuals their unique identities
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional stability
Openness to experience
Comprised of five dimensions
What is Personality?
Personality is defined as the combination of stable physical,
behavioral, and mental characteristics that give individuals their
unique identities.
These characteristics or traits—including how one looks, thinks,
acts, and feels—are the product of interacting genetic and
environmental influences and are stable over time and across
situations and cultures.
Personality is a person input in the organizing framework.
9

What Does It Mean to Have a
Proactive Personality?
You’re someone who is relatively unconstrained by situational
forces and who affects environmental change.
You’re someone who identifies opportunities and acts on them.
The many benefits
Increased job performance
Higher job satisfaction
Higher affective commitment
Entrepreneurial
10
Personality and Performance (1 of 2)
The strongest effects result when when both you and your
manager have proactive personalities.
Conscientiousness has the overall strongest effect on job
performance.
Extroversion has a smaller positive effect on job performance.
Those higher on agreeableness are more likely to seek new
opportunities.

11
Personality and Performance (2 of 2)
The problem with workplace personality tests
Pre- and post-hire personality testing is fairly common
However, most personality test are not valid predictors of job
performance, and here’s why
Test takers do not describe themselves accurately (faking).
Tests are bought off the shelf and given by untrained
employees.
Personality tests are meant to measure personality, not what
individual differences are needed to perform a particular job.
Despite their widespread use, a panel of industrial-
organizational psychologists concluded that the typical
personality test is not a valid predictor of job performance.
One reason might be that many test-takers don’t describe
themselves accurately but instead try to guess what answers the
employer is looking for.
Another reason for the dismal results is that such tests are

typically bought off the shelf and often given indiscriminately
by people who aren’t trained or qualified.
While rigorous research shows that personality actually is
related to performance, the effects are small. Moreover, and
more importantly perhaps, the fact is that personality tests are
designed to measure personality, not what individual
differences are needed to perform at a high level in a particular
job.
This means that managers need different and better ways to
measure personality if they want to select employees based on
performance-conducive personality traits.
12
Martha would like to hire employees who will be strong
performers in her organization. Which of the Big Five
personality dimensions should she try to make sure the new
employees score high on?
extraversion
agreeableness
conscientiousness
emotional stability
openness to experience
The answer is C. Conscientousness. Those scoring high on
conscientiousness have a strong sense of purpose, obligation,

and persistence and generally perform better.
13
Core Self-Evaluations and Your Performance
Core self-evaluations (CSEs)
A broad personality trait comprised of four narrow and positive
individual traits
Generalized self-efficacy
Self esteem
Locus of control
Emotional stability
A narrow concepts perspective enables you to more precisely
describe individuals.
People with high core self-evaluations see themselves as
capable and effective.
Core self-evaluations (CSEs) represent a broad personality trait
comprised of four narrower and positive individual traits
Generalized self-efficacy
Self-esteem
Locus of control
Emotional stability
CSEs have desirable effects on outcomes such as increased job
performance, job and life satisfaction, motivation,

organizational citizenship behaviors, and better adjustment to
international assignments.
14
How Self-Efficacy Works
Self-efficacy is a belief about your chances of successfully
accomplishing a specific task.
Jump to Appendix 2 for descripton
Self-Esteem and Your Performance
Self-esteem is a general belief about your self-worth.
It is relatively stable across your lifetime but it can be
improved.
Best to apply yourself to areas or goals that are important to
you.
Why? In those areas your motivation will likely be highest and
presumably you’ll work the hardest
Self-esteem is your general belief about your own self-worth.
Personal achievements and praise tend to bolster one’s self-

esteem, while prolonged unemployment and destructive
feedback tend to erode it.
Self-esteem is measured by having people indicate their
agreement or disagreement with both positive and negative
statements about themselves.
Those who agree with the positive statements and disagree with
the negative statements have high self-esteem. They see
themselves as worthwhile, capable, and accepted. People with
low self-esteem view themselves in negative terms. They do not
feel good about themselves and are hampered by self-doubts.
16
Locus of Control and My Performance (1 of 2)
Locus of Control describes how much personal responsibility
someone takes for their behavior and its consequences.
I make things happen.
I can determine my future.
I accept personal responsibility for failures.
Things happen to me.
I blame others for failures.
I can’t control the future.
External Locus of Control
Internal Locus of Control
Locus of control is a relatively stable personality characteristic
that describes how much personal responsibility you take for
your behavior and its consequences.
People tend to attribute the causes of their behavior primarily to

either themselves or environmental factors.
17
Locus of Control and My Performance (2 of 2)
In the workplace
Higher motivation
Higher expectations
Exert more effort when given difficult tasks
More anxious
Earn less, receive smaller raises
Less motivated by incentives
External Locus of Control
Internal Locus of Control
Locus of control is a relatively stable personality characteristic
that describes how much personal responsibility you take for
your behavior and its consequences.
People tend to attribute the causes of their behavior primarily to
either themselves or environmental factors.
18
Emotional Stability and My Performance
Linked to
Relaxed
Secure
Unworried
Less likely to experience negative emotions under pressure
Higher job performance

More organizational citizenship behaviors
Few counter-productive work behaviors
People High in Emotional Stability Tend to be:
What is Emotional Stability?
Individuals with high levels of emotional stability tend to be
relaxed, secure, unworried, and less likely to experience
negative emotions under pressure.
In contrast, if you have low levels of emotional stability you are
prone to anxiety and tend to view the world negatively.
How is this knowledge useful at work?
Employees with high levels of emotional stability have been
found to
Have higher job performance, perform more organizational
citizenship behaviors: OCBs—going above and beyond one’s
job responsibilities.
Exhibit fewer counterproductive work behaviors: CWBs—
undermining your own or others’ work.
19
Joe was terminated from his job and believed the reason was his
boss did not like him and his hard work was not appreciated.
Joe likely has
high emotional stability.
an internal locus of control.
low self-efficacy.
an external locus of control.
low self-esteem.

The answer is D. An external locus of control. Joe is blaming
his termination on his boss instead of himself.
20
The Value of Being Emotionally Intelligent
Emotional intelligence (EI)
The ability to monitor one’s own emotions and those of others,
to discriminate among them, and to use this information to
guide one’s thinking and actions
Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor your own
emotions and those of others, to discriminate among them, and
to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.
21
Key Components of Emotional Intelligence
Personal Competence
Self-awareness
Self-management
Social Competence
Social awareness
Relationship management
Benefits/Drawbacks of EI

Better social relationships
Greater well-being
Increased satisfaction
No clear link to improved job performance
Research remains unclear
Referred to by some as EI (used in this book) and others as EQ,
emotional intelligence is a mixture of personality and emotions
and has four key components
1. Self-awareness
2. Self-management
3. Social awareness
4. Relationship management
The first two constitute personal competence and the second
two feed into social competence.
EI has been linked to better social relationships, well-being, and
satisfaction across ages and contexts, including work.
Considered together, the results of EI research are mixed. To
date, the research just isn’t clear.
22
Emotions and Performance
What are emotions?
Emotions are complex, relatively brief responses aimed at a
particular person, information, experience, or event.
Emotions can change our psychological and physiological
states.
There are both positive and negative emotions plus past versus

future emotions.
Emotions are complex, relatively brief responses aimed at a
particular target, such as a person, information, experience,
event, or nonevent. They also can change psychological and
physiological states.
Importantly, researchers draw a distinction between felt and
displayed emotions. For example, if your boss screams at you
when she’s angry you might feel threatened or fearful (felt
emotion). You might keep your feelings to yourself or begin to
cry (either response is the displayed emotion). The boss might
feel alarmed (felt emotion) by your tears but could react
constructively (displayed emotion) by asking if you’d like to
talk about the situation when you feel calmer.
Emotions also motivate your behavior and are an important
means for communicating with others.
23
Managing Emotions at Work
Anger
People are angry about what happened or did not happen in
the past.
Anger is a “backward-looking” or retrospective emotion.
Fear
People are afraid of things that might happen in the future.
Fear is a “forward-looking” or prospective emotion.
Knowing this, managers can guide their own actions as to how

they communicate with employees knowing their reactions to
events.
But, organizations have emotion display norms, or rules that
dictate which types of emotions are expected and appropriate
for their members to show.
24
Liu has a goal to work hard and eventually apply for a
promotion at the Great Grain Company. Liu is most likely to
exhibit positive emotions if
the emotions are congruent with his goal.
he has emotional intelligence.
the emotions are incongruent with his goal.
he feels inadequate.
he had a bad experience being promoted at his former company.
The answer is A. The emotions are congruent with his goal. The

emotions are positive if they are congruent (or consistent) with
his goal.
25
Jessica would like to be a best-selling author. She studied OB
and knows this will take at least 10,000 hours of deliberate
practice. Jessica should do all of the following EXCEPT
identify aspects of performance that need improvement.
get a coach to receive feedback.
study other writers and their works.
take breaks to maintain concentration.
only practice as long as it remains fun.
The answer is E. Only practice as long as it remains fun.
Deliberate practice requires us to focus on things we are not
good at doing. It would be more fun to repeat behaviors or
activities at which we excel.
26
Individual Differences: Putting
It All in Context
Figure 3.6 Organizing Framework for Understanding and
Applying OB
Copyright 2014 Angelo Kinicki and Mel Fugate. All rights
reserved. Reproduction prohibited without permission of the
authors.

27
Appendix 1 The Differences Matter
Return to slide
Organizational, Internal Context
Important individual differences at work, moving from
relatively fixed to relatively flexible:
Intelligence
Cognitive abilities
Personality
Core self-evaluations
Self-efficacy
Self-esteem
Locus of control
Emotional stability
Attitudes
Emotions
Individual level work outcomes would be job performance, job
satisfaction, turnover, organizational citizenship behaviors, and
counterproductive work behaviors.
Appendix 2 How Self-Efficacy Works
Return to slide
The graphic outlines how self-efficacy works:
Sources of self-efficacy beliefs
Prior experience
Behavior models
Persuasion from others

Assessment of physical and emotional state
Feedback, self-efficacy beliefs
High: “I know I can do this job.”
Low: “I don’t think I can get the job done.”
Behavioral patterns under the high feedback: Be active, select
best opportunities. Manage the situation, avoid or neutralize
obstacles. Set goals, establish standards. Plan, prepare, practice.
Try hard, preserve. Creatively solve problems. Learn from
setbacks. Visualize success. Limit stress. This behavior can lead
to success.
Behavioral patterns under the low self-efficacy: Be passive.
Avoid difficult tasks. Develop weak aspirations and low
commitment. Focus on personal deficiencies. Don’t even try,
make a weak effort. Quit or become discouraged because of
setbacks. Blame setbacks on lack of ability or bad luck. Worry,
experience stress, become depressed. Think of excuses for
failing. This behavior leads to failure.
Appendix 3 Organizing Framework for Understanding and
Applying OB
Return to slide
The graphic shows the relationship between the three categories
Inputs, Process, and Outcomes.
Inputs
Person Factors
Intelligences
Personality
Proactive personality
Core self-evaluation
Self-efficacy
Locus of control
Self-esteem

Emotional intelligence
Situation Factors
Leads to
Processes
Individual Level
Emotions
Group/Team Level
Group/team dynamics
Organizational Level
Leads to
Outcomes
Individual Level
Task performance
Work attitudes
Well-being/flourishing
Turnover
Career outcomes
Group/Team Level
Group/team performance
Group satisfaction
Organizational Level
Financial performance
Survival
Reputation

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