Gender And Gender Roles In Woman Of Willendorf

Gender And Gender Roles In Woman Of Willendorf
Representation of gender and gender roles as seen in Woman of Willendorf Double pieces that have
lasted over thousands of ages to offer scholars with references to human existence during the
Paleolithic period are the Woman of Willendorf figure and the Lion Man of Hohlenstein–Stadel.
Each figure is condensed with amazing features, even though they are not thorough to the level of
realism. The Woman of Willendorf is one of the best instances of the small 'Venuses' that have been
uncovered meaning that her persistence was a part of a ethnic set of views about women and
fertility. The Lion Man, is a more exclusive artifact that recounts to the complex figures that are
recognized from other cultures within which the related mythologies that have been revealed. The
Lion Man has no known mythology that is obtainable in known written history to this day. The two
pieces propose the unknown about the Paleolithic era, recognizing a sagacity of religion and rituals
that were part of the lives of those who lived during that era and enlightening recent scholars on
some aspects of the people during that time. The Woman of Willendorf figure, which was revealed
in Austria and it is so small that it measures about 4.5 inches in height (Haarmann 62). This piece is
between 25,000 and 30,000 years old which makes it amongst one of the initial pieces of art
revealed and an image of fertility. The work was imprinted from limestone with indication that some
method of paint pigment was then added
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Homo Neanderthals Research Paper
Homo neanderthalensis is the closest extinct relative of Homo sapien. They were named for the
Neander valley region in Germany where some of the first Neanderthal remains where discovered.
Lime miners stumbled across the remains in a cave belonging to a bear; the fossils were then given
to a local teacher and amateur naturalist, Prof. Dr. Johann Carl Fuhlrott. (Tattersall) He identified
them as being very old and distinctly different from any other human bones he had seen before.
Fuhlorrt then brought a skullcap and partial skeleton to the Professor of Anatomy at the University
of Bonn, Hermann Schaaffhausen. (Tattersall) They published their findings in 1857 that these
remains belonged to a different people then modern humans.
Neanderthals

Why Did The Diprotodon Become Extinct
Introduction
Megafauna simply means "big animals" and is a term mostly used to describe a particular group of
large land animals which evolved millions of years after the dinosaurs became extinct. These
animals generally have a body mass which is greater than 40 kilograms.
Diptrotodon
The Diprotodon was the largest and the best known of the megafauna.
The Diprotodon co–existed with humans for thousands of years before becoming extinct some
25,000 years ago. It was also the last megafauna to become extinct.
They were widely spread throughout Australia, including the Darling Downs in Queensland,
Wellington Caves in New South Wales. Naracoorte Caves in South Australia and Bacchus Marsh in
Victoria, just to name a few.
It is unlikely that they ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Appearance
The Procoptodon was a huge kangaroo which grew up to 2 metres in height and weighed up to 200
kilograms.
The Procoptodon had a short, flat face and forward facing eyes and an upright posture.
The lower jaw was big and a chin was developed. It had small incisors on the upper and lower jaws
for nipping the vegetation.
It had long and mobile forelimbs with the two middle fingers having long, recurved claws enabling
them to be used like a hook to grasp leafy branches.
It had a single toe on its feet which had a hoof–like claw on the end of it. This may have helped give
the Procoptodon a greater measure of speed. It is believed that the number 2, 3 and 5 toe bones were
so reduced that they were lost and the well developed number 4 toe formed into a single toe.
Habitat
Procoptodon were mainly in arid or semi–arid regions on New South Wales and South Australia.
Many areas were harsh environments being treeless, wind–blown sand dunes. Having been found in
The Lake Menindee area in western New South Wales, it was a somewhat cooler and wetter climate
than what it is today. The surrounding areas had forests, woodland, savannah and plains with
windblown sand dunes on the edges of the lake. Procoptodon have been found in caves in the
Nullarbor Plain in a dry open environment with hard leaved

Terrapene Ornata
Ranging from the Rocky Mountains eastward to the Mississippi River, the ornate box turtle,
Terrapene ornata, is the western counterpart of the common box turtle, a group of species and
subspecies known collectively as Terrapene carolina. Formally described by Swiss–American
biologist Louis Agassiz (1807–1873) in 1857, T. ornata is native to the Great Plains of the United
States as well as northern Mexico. Nearly a full century later, researchers validated the existence of
two subspecies within T. ornata. The first subspecies, the original ornate box turtle described by
Agassiz in 1857, became T. ornata ornata. American herpetologist H. M. Smith and a colleague
named Ramsey described the second species, T. ornata luteola, the desert box turtle ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Subspecies Terrapene ornata ornata (Agassiz, 1857) This prairie subspecies of T. ornata, known as
the ornate box turtle, inhabits open, treeless, sandy plains and grasslands with sparse scrub–brush
vegetation while occasionally entering forested areas primarily in search of water (Ornate box
turtle). T. o. ornata... As a rule, T. o. ornata has a darker background color on its carapace than the
desert box turtle, as well as having fewer yellow markings on each of its scutes. See the photograph
on page 3 for a comparison of the carapacial markings of the two subspecies. Terrapene ornata
luteola (Smith & Ramsey, 1952) This arid–region subspecies of T. ornata, commonly known as the
desert box turtle, is adapted to drier ecosystems than the ornate box turtle. The term luteola derives
from a Latin root word meaning "yellowish." Referring to the overall lighter appearance of the
desert subspecies as compared to the darker ornate subspecies, luteola may also allude to the relative
abundance of yellow patterning on the carapace of the desert box

Prehistoric Cave Art
Nella Shope
Professor Mathew Jacob
Humanistic Traditions 2210
5 September 2015
Tracing Out the Legacy of Prehistoric Human Existence
Looking at cave art today, we see some of our earliest ancestors. Viewing and studying cave art
allows us, today, to look back in time and see how our primitive ancestors perceived the world
("Prehistoric Cave Art").
No one truly knows when cave painting first began, but "one theory links the evolution of Stone Age
art to the arrival of anatomically modern humans in Europe during the period of the Upper
Paleolithic ("Stone Age Cave Painting")." With that theory in mind, cave art pretty much started
around the same time with the movement and relocation of the Neanderthal man ("Stone Age Cave
Painting"), which

WORK INTRODUCTION Theoretically, mammoths could be cloned...
WORK INTRODUCTION Theoretically, mammoths could be cloned by recovering, reconstructing
or synthesizing viable mammoth DNA and injecting it into the egg cell of a modern elephant whose
nuclear DNA has been removed; alternatively, mammoth genetic material could be introduced into
an elephant genome in order to create a mammoth–elephant hybrid or chimera. The possibility of
bringing extinct animals back to life has fascinated people for years. While something like Jurassic
Park is unlikely, Pleistocene Park just got one step closer to becoming a reality. One day, mammoths
may walk the Earth again.
The first step is to begin to understand the creature humanity wants to return to the world. A woolly
mammoth, also known as Mammuthus ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If the insertion is successful, then the eggs will be placed in an adult elephant and brought to term.
While it is unclear in how successful this team has been, it is clear that as research in cloning,
reproductive biology, genetics, and the spread of information have increased, so has the likelihood
of successfully cloning a mammoth.
Many of the different benefits and reasons also come from a more ethical and moral code rather than
just for pure science. Resurrecting a mammoth could also undo their extinction, due to prehistoric
humans nearly eleven thousand years ago. Some would argue that humans have a moral obligation
to re–introduce species whose extinction they caused, either directly, as is probably in the case of the
mammoth, or indirectly, as a result of another factor such as global climatic disruption. The value of
bringing back mammoths may come from the need to satisfy intrinsic human curiosity. However,
creating or re–creating different life forms may also be of great instrumental value to humanity, such
as in the blocking the emergence of pathogens, or in helping to ensure the continued existence of life
on the planet.
Over the years, there have been a multitude of organizations that have been working to improve the
life quality if a mammoth were to ever reappear in the world. One of these places, Pleistocene Park,
has a goal to restore

My Homo-Neanderthals Research Paper
If I had the ability to travel back into prehistoric times, I would like our homo–neaderthalensis
ancestors. The reason for this is that they were the first to be recognized as an early human being.
We are all pretty much Neanderthals and I even read that if you can send a swab of the inside of
your cheek to the National Geographic Society's Genographic Project and they will tell you how
much Neanderthal DNA you have. The Neanderthals also made many weapons and were able to
throw spears really well.
Neanderthals roamed the earth 30,000–125,000 years ago and since then there have been over 100
sites with their remains. They liked to live in caves and made many different tool. An impressive
thing was that they were able to hunt big animals

Neanderthal Evolution
The Neanderthal roamed the lands of Europe for tens of thousands of years. But about 30,000 years
ago, they became extinct, vanishing from the earth. (Homo Sapiens Versus Neanderthals). Only
15,000 years before, our ancestor Homo Sapien had expanded from Africa into Europe and Asia.
(Humans Vs. Neanderthals: How Did We Win? : DNews.) There are many different theories on what
happened to Neanderthal, and how their interaction with Homo Sapien changed the Neanderthal
world. The Homo Sapiens were more advanced and adaptable, and they could use the resources
better than the Neanderthal. The Neanderthal also interbred with Homo Sapien who outnumbered
them ten to one. (Humans Vs. Neanderthals: How Did We Win? : DNews.)But eventually the
Neanderthal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Neanderthal lived isolated until about 45,000 years ago they were confronted with a new
species, Homo Sapien. (Human Evolution by The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins
Program.) Before Homo Sapien arrived, the Neanderthal had been living off the land around them,
and now Homo Sapien was also using their resources. The Homo Sapien were more adaptable and
more advanced than the Neanderthal so they could better use the land. For example, the Homo
Sapiens often lived on hilltops or in higher places where they could look out over valley which
would have allowed the Homo Sapien to watch herd movement and plan hunting strategy. (Human
Evolution by The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program) The Neanderthal lived in
lower places and in caves. Because of the Homo Sapien's advancement there wasn't as many
resources left available to the Neanderthal, so they either would have to move or adapt to the new
ways.The Homo Sapien also had more advanced tools like bone needles and knives, and an overall,
more efficient way of living than the Neanderthal.
The Neanderthal were also built much differently from Homo Sapien. The Neanderthal were much
stronger than the Homo Sapien, but the Homo Sapien were built for long distance running while the
Neanderthal who was shorter couldn't run as far. (Humans Vs. Neanderthals: How Did We Win) The
Homo Sapiens were much better adapted for hunting in a warmer climate, and Europe was getting
warmer. This was yet another advantage that the Homo Sapien had over the

Neanderthals Anthropology
The public common conception of Neanderthals is that they were the less intelligent, lumbering
cousins of old modern man who died off because they just were not enough equipped or intelligent
as their cousins. Some people think that for decades after the first discovery of their bone, homo
neanderthalensis was observed as a hairy wanton who tumbled around Ice Age Eurasia on bent
knees, finally to be exchanged by elegant, straight Cro Magnon, the true progenitor of modernistic
Europeans. Wholeheartedly, I disagree with this view. I think archaeological and research evidence
has shown that the Neanderthals lived in a hard, changing environment, and survived then
reproduced for over 250 thousand years despite the hardships they likely faced. Also,

Neanderthal Origin, Behavior, and the Characteristics that...
Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens once coexisted for a period of time in the distant past during
the late Pleistocene era (Benazzi et al. 2011), so there is speculation that they may have shared
various similarities. Whether they occupied the same niche, or used and created tools that resembled
equivalent shape and form, or whether both species lived in groups that paralleled in hierarchy and
social behaviors are questions that many researchers have been trying to answer (Wynn and
Coolidge 2008). At the same time, there have been discoveries that allow us to recognize the
distinctions that set Neanderthals and Homo sapiens apart. During the Pleistocene era, which began
around 1.8 million years ago, the continents had shifted to the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This occurrence has allowed researchers to approximate the date of divergence, track the dispersal
and inhabited regions of these species, as well as being able to identify other findings that enhance
our knowledge of the Neanderthal species as well as our own.
The purpose of this paper includes the examination of the different aspects of this hominid group,
Homo Neanderthalensis, which will cover dispersals, distinguishing anatomical features, language,
and the social behaviors and cultural ways of life. In addition to the first objective, I will
continuously discuss the comparisons as well as the distinctions that are found between
Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. Another important element to be considered is the circulating
question of why Homo sapiens managed to prevail and outlive the Neanderthals, which were the
only hominid species to once coexist with early modern humans.
DISPERSAL
The anatomical traits that are symbolic to Neanderthals had begun to develop in hominid
populations in Europe about 400,000 years ago and approximately 150,000 years ago in western
Asia (Krause et al. 2007). These traits would start to become more prominent through the aid of
early dispersals, which derived from Africa where two geographical routes were possible. One
passage went through Ethiopian and Arabian regions towards South Asia and the second passage
went through North

The Extinction Of The Megafauna Essay
Introduction When visiting museums such as the American Museum of Natural History in New York
City we can get a first–hand look at some of the massive creatures like the wooly mammoth that
used to roam our planet some 11,000 years ago. And after viewing the skeletons of such
extraordinary creatures known as the megafauna we may ponder as to what event transpired to
eliminate so many species. What we do know is the late Pleistocene era marked a time of fluctuating
climate that coincided with the migration of people into the New World. During this period
mammals such as the woolly mammoth and mastodons were becoming extinct. However, questions
still remain to determine if it was because of severe climatic change, or possibly the extinctions
occurred from over–hunting by humans, or possibly a combination of both? These are many of the
concerns that have created the foundation for a serious debate among many scholars in the
anthropology and archaeology community. The paragraphs that follow will explain the research and
several of the varying viewpoints regarding the extinction of the megafauna. One theory as proposed
by Paul Martin (1973) argued that modern humans migrated into North America around 12,000
years ago and they were able to use intense hunting methods to force megafauna extinction (p. 969).
However, other scholars such as Grayson, and Meltzer (2002) oppose Martin's theory. Instead, they
argued there was not enough actual evidence to support the idea of

Upper Paleolithic Culture
Humans of the Upper Paleolithic era brought about numerous cultural innovations. In this time
period we see the first art in the form of paintings in caves (Cyraboski). With the spark of creativity,
the roaring fire of the first artistic cultural revolution was born. A wealth of new materials started
making their way into the archeological record. For example, clay, used for pots and figurines, and
bones, which were carved into beads and necklaces for personal adornment. The greatest
culmination of this newly born culture is shown in the burial rites of their dead. This is a brand new
cultural trait born in this era.
But how and why did all of these new innovations come about?
Why do humans create art, what purpose does it serve?
Humans ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(2010, March). The Skeletons of Shanidar Cave. Retrieved October 01, 2016, from
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts–culture/the–skeletons–of–shanidar–cave–7028477/?no–ist
Katzman. (2016, May 7). Ornaments during the Paleolithic: The desire for differentiation. Retrieved
October 01, 2016, from http://www.aggsbach.de/2012/05/adorment/
Kelly, D. (2016, February 21). Early human burials varied widely but most were simple – CU
Denver Today. Retrieved October 01, 2016, from http://www.cudenvertoday.org/early–human–
burials/
Pin Hole. (n.d.). Creswell–crags Retrieved October 01, 2016, from http://www.creswell–
crags.org.uk/Explore/the–creswell–area/the–creswell–gorge–and–caves/pin–hole.aspx
Stanglin, D. (2012, July 29). Pottery found in China cave confirmed as world's oldest. Retrieved
October 01, 2016, from http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2012/06/pottery–
found–in–from–china–cave–confirmed–as–worlds–oldest/1#.V–34PHoijwp
Stow, G. (n.d.). The Digital Bleek and Lloyd. Retrieved October 01, 2016, from
http://lloydbleekcollection.cs.uct.ac.za/
UNESCO (n.d.). The Emergence of Modern Humans: The Pleistocene occupation sites of South
Africa. Retrieved October 01, 2016, from

Neanderthals Video Summary
According to the video, Neanderthals "were not the brutish and unintelligent ape–like creatures of
popular myth, but a strong, intelligence, and highly adaptive species who mastered their
environment" and survived for thousands of years. This is proven throughout the video through the
Neanderthals' development of weapons and tools, how they communicated and played a part in their
clan, and how they mastered their environment to survive for an incredibly long time. One of the
most common myths about Neanderthals is their curiosity of fire, and how they were amazed by it.
This however was proven false throughout the video. The Neanderthals seemed to have tamed fire,
using it to their advantages, like for warmth and for also cooking. The Neanderthals ... Show more
We originally believed that they only communicated with mere grunts and babbling of words, but
the video has shown that they had their own language to communicate with their clan, unique and
special to them. Nowhere in the video did I see or hear them talk to each other with only grunts, but
they had their own language and used hand gestures as well when they hunted. The video also
mentioned, that every member of the clan had to play a part. It said that at girl at the age of eleven,
had not been hunting for long. This tells the viewer that the Neanderthals recognized that everyone
will have to contribute to their clan to survive their environment. I also learned that from the Video,
is that the Neanderthals cared for each other. When a member of the clan, the leader, was killed, all
members of the clan contributed into a "ritual" for their killed leader. Archeologists have found that
a skeleton had animal bones surrounding it, as well as pollen, showing signs of a burial. This shows
me that the Neanderthals had their own form of communication and had a clan based on social
interaction, making them more intelligent and less brutish than what we believed them to

Overkill Hypothesis Essay
Overkill Hypothesis
In the past the world was different, it had different biology. The Pleistocene geologic era, lasting
from around 1.6 million to 11,000 years back, was extremely different compared to the present day.
It had colder climates, and it was dominated by giant mammals which are called megafauna. This
era marks the first utilization of stone tool by man. The late Pleistocene has been link with the
extinction of large mammals, this extinction has been identified as a human–driven process since
Paul Martin saw a contributing link between the extinction of large mammalian species and the
appearance of humans. However, this does not mean that megafauna was not going to become
extinct without human interference. This essay will provide detailed analysis and assessment of the
Overkill hypothesis, which argues that the megafaunal extinction in America and Eurasia was
caused by humans.
In recent years many papers ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With these chief perceptions, Martin made a conclusion that Clovis hunters resulted to these
extinctions. He also argued direct hunting, destroyed the herbivore reliant, whereas the loss of
herbivores resulted to the extinction of such

Cheetahs: Life In The Ice Age
Life in the Ice Age was much different compared our lives now. With giant animals, huge lakes, and
a American Savanna, the two times couldn't be less opposite.
For starters, America resembled an African Savanna. During the Ice Age there were relatives of
many African animals. According to the article Pleistocene Times, these animals included cheetahs,
lions, camels, zebras, and elephants. This article also said that huge mammoths grazed the Colorado
plains. Therefore, America earned the nickname " Cold Serengeti". Scientists also believe that
cheetahs and zebras may have evolved first in North America, then spread to other parts of the world
via land bridges.
Secondly, the Great Salt Lake of Utah is just a small portion of the ancient Lake

Run In The Light Analysis
In today's society, we feel as though trivial hardships seem like enormous obstacles that prevent us
from prevailing in life. Humans in the twenty–first century believe as though the hindrances we
encounter are far worse than those of our ancestors. In this sense, we become a tad oblivious to our
own history. We have become so accustomed to resources being readily available for us that we
never question how the first Americans, who did not have the kinds of resources we have today,
created a proficient civilization. The Paleoindians, also referred to as the Clovis People were one of
the first inhabitants of the American continents. This historic migration occurred towards the end of
the last Ice Age between 10,000–40,000 years ago. The Paleolithic ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The way Mr. Ware describes his emotions towards the characters, in the beginning, was exactly how
I felt. Runs In the Light is an underestimated individual who we want to see succeed right from the
beginning of this novel. Raven Hunter isn't necessarily evil but as Ware has said he was selfish
compared to his brother. Many of the questions in this review were similar to ones I had while
reading. I agree that this novel has a more modern tone to it as the novel could have incorporated the
time period more. However, I disagree with how Ware said that the pacing of this novel was
excellent. As I read the book, I felt as though the middle portion dragged on and the details could
have been written in a more intriguing manner. This novel had a potential to be really interesting but
in the middle, it dies down losing the reader's attention and focus. Nevertheless, I do agree with
Ware's statement on the characters' names. While I do understand that the authors chose such names
to incorporate a pre–historic impression, the names made the novel incredibly difficult to follow. I
repeatedly got a couple of the supporting character confused. In addition, I agree with Christopher
Ware upon the fact of becoming attached to the characters. Throughout the novel, I was always
rooting for the antagonist and hoping to see a certain group succeed and sympathized with others.
Another review I looked over

Changes Of Climate Change Across Earth
Hominins During the Pleistocene
What is the Pleistocene? According to Understanding Humans: Introduction to Physical
Anthropology and Archaeology, the Pleistocene, or the Ice Age, was a period 1.8 mya– 10,000 ya
marked by drastic fluctuations of climate change across Earth. The Pleistocene alternated between
extreme periods of glaciations and interglacials. During glaciations, temperatures dropped
drastically. In northern continents this drop in temperature led to mass accumulations of ice,
measuring nearly a mile thick; however, these glaciers were not seen everywhere. In Africa,
glaciations led to more arid and dry climates. Interglacials, on the other hand, were periods of
warmer climate. During interglacials, climate would become ... Show more content on
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During both the Early Pleistocene and the Middle Pleistocene, we see a number of hominins that
paved the way to modern human development (Boaz & Ciochon, 2004). One of these hominins is
Homo erectus (Lewis et al., 2013). According to Lewis (2013) while it is probable that they first
developed developed in Africa, it also ". . . seems likely that H. erectus first arose in East Africa and
then very quickly migrated to other continents"; however, it is hard to prove this hypothesis as new
fossils are found (p. 236). While H. erectus characteristics vary across continents, the majority share
the same range in body size, brains, and cranial shape. H. erectus adults had robust bodies weighing
more than 100 lbs. and measuring 5'6" tall. The range in H. erectus brain size is 700 to 1250 cm(^3).
The most distinct characteristic of H. erectus is its cranial shape. The cranium displays a thick
cranial bone, large brow ridges, a pointy nuchal torus at the posterior, low forehead development, a
wide cranium base, and finally a sagittal keel (Lewis et al., 2013). According to The First Humans,
environments during the Early Pleistocene fluctuated, but they tended to be more open and wet than
the Pliocene environments before them. Thus, it was warmer. These open grassland environments
yielded bulky, herding mammals. The First Humans also suggests the anatomy and physiology of H.
erectus allowed for the endurance they needed in order to obtain these mammals for

Women in the Paleolithic Period
Reese Working
History 1110
Women in the Paleolithic Period The Paleolithic era in our worlds history was a difficult time for
everyone, but for women, it became more and more difficult. Hunting and gathering society's were
most prevalent, although, later on the early formation of cities and larger community's began to
emerge. Ones job in the Paleolithic era would most likely consist of gathering food and protecting
the small group he or she belonged to. Just surviving would have been a full time job in many of the
harsh climates people inhabited. In the hunting and gathering community's, social status was equal
or close to equal for men and women. The men would be responsible for hunting and collecting
meat for their family. Men ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With groups of people growing so large it became more dangerous due to other groups encroaching
into their land and vice versa. People formed cities for security on the principle of "safety in
numbers." Living in a city would extremely limit the amount of natural resources available meaning
agriculture was the only solution. Agriculture continued to advance with the invention of a plow.
Plow work is very physically demanding, men began to take over agriculture. Now that

Argumentative Essay On Woolly Mammoth
100,000 years ago, the woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenus) roamed the Earth. The woolly
mammoth is one of the most studied megafauna of the Pleistocene epoch, which spanned from 2.6
million to 11,700 years ago. Most populations of it died out around 10,000 years ago [4], although a
small population survived until around 3.7 thousand years ago on Wrangel Island [6].
The woolly mammoth was one of the many now–extinct megafauna that existed during the
Pleistocene. Others include the cave lion (Panthera spelaea) and the ground sloth (Megalonyx
jeffersonii). The end–Pleistocene extinction event observed the extinction of many of these
megafauna, particularly in North America and Eurasia. By 10,000 years ago, approximately 97
megafauna which had ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although a cause for the end–Pleistocene extinction has yet to be agreed upon, I will be discussing
and evaluating the four most debated theories. These are the overkill hypothesis, the climatic
hypothesis, hyperdisease, and the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis.
The overkill hypothesis is the argument that the humans caused the end–Pleistocene megafaunal
extinction, through over–hunting.
This hypothesis could explain why megafauna in particular faced extinction during the Quaternary
extinction event, as humans assumedly chose larger mammals to hunt as they provided more food.
The climatic hypothesis suggests that the end–Pleistocene extinction of megafauna was a result of
major climatic changes occurring at the end of the Pleistocene.
The timing of the last glacial interval is appropriate for the climatic hypothesis, as the last glacial
interval ended in many places, including North America, between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago. [7].
Similarly, many extinctions occurred in North America around this time, such as that of the
American cave lion (Panthera leo atrox) and the Yukon horse (Equus

North American Migratory Bird Species
North American migratory bird species that forage on air–borne insects, known as aerial insectivores
are experiencing widespread regional declines in population, but the cause remains poorly
understood (Paquette et al., 2014). Climate change as well pesticides which both cause changes in
the abundance of insect prey can be a possible cause (). Agricultural and farming intensification in
addition to other land use developments on the birds over–wintering habitat may also be a
contributing factor to aerial insectivore decline (Fraser et al., 2012). For example,), have shown that
numerous environmental pressures have rapidly decreased the population of many insect species.
This has led to a steep decline in aerial foraging bird populations. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
To begin with, in order to understand mechanisms that influence avian population changes biologists
often seek to explore similar characteristics such as biological and ecological similarities that occur
across entire 'guilds'. A guild in this sense, is a grouping of species sharing a common life–history or
an ecological trait such as a shared niche. There are numerous guilds that could be classified
according to factors such as comparable habitat and food varieties, reproduction and clutch size, as
well as migration and nesting strategies used by the species in question. The guild of 'aerial
insectivores'– consist of birds that feed exclusively on flying insects. These insects include flies,
mayflies, moths, butterflies, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles and other insects Aerial insectivores in
other words, are classified as a dietary guild because of their similarities in allocating food
resources. The guild of aerial insectivores consist of flycatchers, nighthawks, martins, swifts,
swallows, and whip–poor–wills As this research essay is constrained in its nature it is thus
impractical to spotlight the entire guild of aerial insectivores. In this research essay rather, I will be
focusing on one particular species of aerial insectivore: Chrodeiles minor, otherwise known as
common nighthawk, a species that consists of nine subspecies that inhabit Canada (as well as the
United Sates) during the breeding season from May to

Did humans cause the mass extinction of megafauna during...
Importance of question for archeological research:
Introduction It's hard to say that humans haven't had an impact on their environment. Climate
change, for example, has been a hot issue in the developed world ever since evidence proving the
existence of human–caused global warming was unleashed leading to an onslaught of theories
regarding its potential effect on our future. But what impact did humans have thousands of years ago
when they were first colonizing North America?
The question of what caused the extinction of megafauna during the Late Pleistocene period is one
that archaeologists have struggled to answer for decades, but why should it matter? Discovering
with certainty the cause of megafaunal extinction would ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
S. 969). In order to prove the viability of an overkill theory, Martin constructed a model that would
consider both the expanding population of an invading people and the population of megafauna that
they are hunting throughout their colonization. He determined that even a very large biomass (in this
case the megafauna) of 2.3 X 10^ 8 metric tons could be overkilled within just 1,000 years by a
biomass of no more than 10^6 metric tons of Clovis hunters (Martin P. S. 972). Additionally, Martin
argued that carnivores that Clovis hunters were not hunting such as the saber–tooth tiger would have
become extinct around this time because of the removal of their herbivore prey (Grayson and
Meltzer 586). Based on these ideas, Martin introduced the implications of the overkill hypothesis.
For one, he asserts that in the absence of better material for dating the colonization of Clovis people
in North America, it is reasonable to equate the date of extinction of megafauna with the date of
colonization starting in Beringia and traveling southward (Martin P.S. 972). Martins model also
implies that the diet of the Clovis hunters during the time of megafauna almost entirely consisted of
megafauna. Major problems arise from Martin's theory. Thirty–three large mammal extinctions
occurred around the time of Clovis occupation, yet only two, the mammoth and the mastodon, have
ever been associated with human sustenance, and even those only appear at 14 of 76 early
Palaeoindian

Neanderthal and Early Modern Humans Essay
Neanderthal and Early Modern Humans
The history of life on earth goes back to millions of years. Many species and creatures evolved and
changed through time, leading up to what we know today as, modern man. One of the creatures
most similar to modern man is the Neanderthals; they are sometimes referred to as "early modern
humans."
An article entitled "Early man steered clear of Neanderthal romance" by Michael Hopkin, explains
that there was a discovery that early human ancestors of modern man did not breed with their
"cousins," the Neanderthals, according to DNA that has been studied. "Neanderthals vanished from
Europe between 30,000 and 40,000 years ago, roughly the time that truly modern man made his first
appearance in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There were 24 Neanderthal remains and 40 early modern human remains that were studied. The
bimolecular preservation of DNA of five early humans and four Neanderthals was helpful enough
for the preservation.
"All four Neanderthals yielded the mtDNA sequences similar to those previously determined from
Neanderthal individuals, whereas none of the five early modern humans contained such mtDNA
sequences. In combination with current mtDNA data, this excludes any large genetic contribution by
Neanderthals to early modern humans, but does not rule out the possibility of a smaller
contribution" (Serre, 16 March 2004).
Therefore, early modern humans and Neanderthals could have been around and breeding at the same
time, it is just a small chance.
Between 30,000 and 40,000 years ago, Neanderthals were gone from Europe (where these fossils
were found). Right around that time, the early modern humans were beginning to migrate to parts of
Europe. This brings up the point that it could be possible that Neanderthals and early modern
humans came eye to eye, but no one knows what the reactions and attitudes were like if that were
true. This is a question of the history of life, did they exist simultaneously, and did they interact?
"Despite intense research efforts, no consensus has been reached about the genetic relationship
between early modern humans and archaic human forms such as the Neanderthals" (Serre, 16 March
2004). It is a

Pleistocene Ecosystem
During the Pleistocene many barriers to fish dispersal and recolonization already existed in the
western United States. The Rocky Mountain Range was formed before the Miocene and the Sierras
elevated in the Pliocene, both formidable North–South barriers (Smith 1981). Along with these
significant geographic barriers, the western U.S. has historically had much smaller and more
climatically unpredictable basins compared to the east. These basins held lower populations of fish
which increased the probabilities of extinction and the lack of stability often interrupted speciation
(Smith 1981). Despite these factors, there is still some diversity that arose out of these basins largely
due to the lacustrine environment that was in place during ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
2; Echelle 2008). The three species diverged from one another in the last one million years, with C.
diabolis falling out most recently some 0.5 MYA. The speciation is believed to be allopatric, but
there is still some uncertainty regarding C. diabolis (Duvernell & Turner 1998). The reason for this
uncertainty is that the cavern that C. diabolis currently inhabits, Devil's Hole, only opened to the
surface around 60,000 years ago (Martin et al. 2016). It is possible that there was some degree of
sympatric speciation happening before a colonization event occurred or, because mtDNA was used
to determine divergence times, C. nevadensis could have been polymorphic for mtDNA before the
cavern opened and was subsequently colonized (Echelle 2008). So how did the allopatric speciation
of the Death Valley pupfish occur? Was it the result of dispersal or vicariance? When we examine
figure 2 closely, we see that although the Pleistocene lakes in the Death Valley region were
extensive, they still might not have connected all of the waterways. In addition, this map shows a
summary of the lakes, that is to say that all of them did not exist at the same time (Knott et al. 2008).
Limited connectivity of waterways as well as the late colonization and subsequent speciation of C.
diabolis are potentially evidence against the hypothesis for speciation through vicariance. On the
other hand, pupfish are notoriously very poor dispersers.

A Report On The World
The Glyptodon is one of the best in my opinion of the reinforced armored animals that proceeded
onto the Americas; they are found from the Eocene Epoch to the Pleistocene through Holocene
Epoch. During the Pleistocene, these herbivorous animals reached their great evolutionary changes
due to some forced adaptation. They were large mammmals, reaching in body size from several
hundred kilograms to two hundred kilograms; they were the size of a small volts wagon beetle and
possessed amazing features with no comparison among living animals at that time that made
Glyptodon a peculiar specimen. Some features include having an immobile back bone/spine (that
connects to the neck); hypselodont teeth made of an outside layer of some type of hard cement like
product known as cementum, a tougher outer shell and a unique skull.
Geology
Glyptodon is speculated to have come from South America. Their fossil has been found in Brazil,
Uruguay and Argentina. Glyptodon fossils discovered in Brazil, consist of clavipes (genus type) had
the largest array. Its distribution includes north, northeast, and southeast Brazil. Glyptodon
"reticulatus" another genus fossil has only been discovered in southern Brazil. Glyptodon has also
been other places such as Bolivia, Paraguay and western Uruguay lately have been discovered.
Fossil linked to Glyptodon in northeast Brazil has been connected to Glyptotherium (genus Of
Glyptodon), limiting the circulation of Glyptodon to the southern region of Brazil.

Prehistoric Man Has Endured Misinformation, Stereotypes,...
Prehistoric man has endured misinformation, stereotypes, and a lack of information. The Upper
Paleolithic Epoch started 40,000 years ago and goes on until about 12,000 years ago and glacial ice
was on the move. Periods of extreame cold were cycled with warmer weather. The habitats of
humans and animals was undergoing great and significant changes. Herds of wooly mammoth were
moving about, hunter–gathers were following. Through recent discoveries and expansions on old
theories, prehistoric man began enjoying a renaissance. The Springfield Museum is proud to shed a
new light on ancient man through our exhibit: Prehistoric Man: Addaptor, Innovator, Adventure
Neanderthal
Homo neanderthalensis or Neanderthals existed for approximately 300,000 years and during the
Upper Paleolithic or Pleistocene epoch in Europe and western Asia (Smiley 2016: Unit 1). They
were short, muscular, and their face had a distinctive double brow ridge. They were built to handle
the colder weather due to the glacial era. But temperatures were on the rise, which would create an
issue with the Neanderthal physiology.
Neanderthals engaged in confrontational hunting, which is close up, and a very physical style of
hunting. They would have had to been strong, brave, and have to be very skilled at thrusting spears.
Archaeologists have found evidence of personal adornment: shells with holes which indicates the
use as jewelry, shells with hematite residue, "pencils" made of bone for body paint

Essay On Neanderthals
Although Neanderthals were a branch of the human family tree, they have been seen as a primarily
forgotten species. They were known for a variable diet, hunting, and lacking language and art. It was
also believed that they lacked the capacity of knowledge as modern species. However, due to new
discoveries, we realize that Neanderthals are much closer to the modern human species and more
intelligent than we believe. History has shown that Neanderthals disappeared just after the human
species began to form. It was a simple matter of our intelligence outlasting their strength. This is
where scientists believed Neanderthals had very little brainpower. With limited stone tools and the
absence of art, Neanderthals showed that they were noticeably less advanced than modern humans.
Due to findings in genetics and archaeology, the idea that Neanderthals showed little intelligence
was questioned. The Neanderthals actually made very efficient stone tools that aided them in tasks
such as hunting. The scientists in the documentary found that the technologies of the Neanderthals
were much more complicated than the technology of modern humans as far as producing them. For
example, stone making showed just how complex the technologies of the Neanderthals were. They
were able to make stones that allowed for a specific point of sharpness that ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The way they were able to craft their tools and use their resources around them, showed the
complexity in how they thought and the fact that they did have a high degree of knowledge. Our
attitudes towards Neanderthals correlates with our perceptions of diversity. We have always thought
of Neanderthals as being less intelligent. Today we categorize people of a specific race to some
degree of intelligence or skill. This idea of assumption without evidence is still prevalent among the
modern society to almost any topic you can talk

Pleistocene Epoch Era
When
Both:
Cro–magnon
The Cro–magnon people lived about 100,000 to 10,000 years ago. The average temperature –2
degrees celsius (28.4 degrees Fahrenheit).The temperature sometimes reached lows of –4 or highs of
4 degrees celsius (24.8 or 39.2 degrees Fahrenheit). They lived in the epoch known as the
Pleistocene epoch. The Pleistocene epoch was the first epoch occurred in the Quaternary period and
the sixth epoch in the Cenozoic era.The Cenozoic era occurred during the Phanerozoic eon (the
current eon). This epoch is best known as the "last ice age" and it lasted from 2.2 million to 11,000
years ago. The "last ice age" began its climate decrease at the start of the Pleistocene epoch (2.2
million years ago) and reached its peak about 20,000 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
First of all, we can clear out the obvious , these did not occur at the same time! From this one
statement, we can go more into detail. The Cro–magnon lived in Pleistocene epoch the while we
lived in the Holocene epoch. Another difference is that we are far more advanced in technology. Yet
another difference is the climate. The climate back then was much colder than today's climate. This
is because the Pleistocene epoch was an ice age.
Winner:
Cro–magnon
I chose the Cro–magnon because of the fact that it is easy to adapt in our day and age. I realised that
the time period didn't matter too much because the only things it affected was the climate and
technology. Back 10,000 years ago it was much colder , and the technology wasn't developed very
well compared to what we have now. Currently we basically have all the things they had back then
(and more) , better development it technology and a more even climate. Even if they thought it is hot
here , we have the means to help cool them down (via AC or electric fan).
Loser:
Me (Modern day

The Extinction of Pleistocene Mammals Essay
During the late Pleistocene, a mystery occurred in which large mammals went extinct in North
America while they survived in other parts of the world. Scientists studying the late Pleistocene
extinction provided a plethora of explanations, including overkill by humans, extraterrestrial events,
and climate changes (Faith and Surovell, 2009). However, there was no unified explanation that they
all agreed upon. Taking note of this, J. Tyler Faith and Todd A. Surovell conducted tests to discover
whether the extinction was a single event or a long–term process. Their findings were important to
other scientists in the same field, as they served as a guideline for their explanations of catalysts of
the extinction.
Scientists in this field have ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some scientists have attributed the extinction to an extraterrestrial event. In 2009, another group of
scientists found nanodiamonds in the sediment layer dating back to the Younger Dryas a period of
glacial dewarming. Because these nanodiamonds needed conditions similar to that of cosmic
impacts to form, they concluded that a large group of comets might have impacted the Earth,
causing the Pleistocene extinction (Kennett et. al, 2009). Although the research done on late
Pleistocene extinctions was extensive, the conclusions for these explanatory models contradicted
one another.
Amid these conclusions, Faith and Surovell derived their question from the fact that one cannot
develop explanations for this phenomenon without knowing whether the extinction was a long–term
process or a single event. They hypothesized that the extinction during the North American late
Pleistocene was a single event that occurred between 12,000 and 10,000 radiocarbon years B.P.
(Faith and Surovell, 2009).
In order to test their hypothesis, they created a statistical test. The statistical test used data of the
occurrences of the fossils of extinct Pleistocene mammals in layers of rock and terminal Pleistocene
radiocarbon dates for a given taxon, or taxon dates. These dates were all rated as reliable or of
intermediate reliability. They found a pattern in the data specific to North American Pleistocene
mammals: the last

Mid-Pleistocene Analysis
"The Evolution of Cranial Form in Mid–Pleistocene" by Philip Rightmire enlightens his readers
with comprehensive research about the evolution of the cranial in Mid–Pleistocene. Philip
Rightmire conducted a research based on the evolution of the cranial and how it has changed over
time due to brain size increasing. Rightmire explained in great detail the differences between brain
size and face structures and what all of these had to do with modern humans.
There were speculations that hominins might have resembled the Neanderthals, but it was later
realized that the cranial lacked the specialized characters of the later neanderthals. Although the
comparison was inappropriate, they saw similarities between hominids and african individuals.
Rightmire ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
At first, based in the number measurements, the cranium started off smaller than the normal recent
humans. As time passed by the brain matured and this caused the cranial to increase in size. The
bigger brain, the bigger the cranial had to be in order to fit in it. Another major point pointed out was
when he gave us in full detail that the length of the modern human cranium is dependent on the
growing brain. A feature of the Homo Erectus skull is that it is uniquely low, long, and it has a poor
appearance from the relationship to the small brain. The cranial length is influenced by the brain in
extent to humans as previously mentioned. The length is strongly correlated with the basics of the

Why Do Neanderthals Exist
Anthropologists of primeval and present times have been tasked to research on the Neanderthal and
find out the exact time that they lived. They argued that the first humans that had proto–Neanderthal
traits existed as early as 350,000–600,000 years ago (Jordan 114). Later they discovered that "true
Neanderthals" appeared between 200,000 and 250,000 years ago. Nevertheless, the exact date
during which they existed has been disputed by many scientists. According to (Pääbo 76), the first
recognized human fossils were discovered in 1856 a pre–historic site a long Neander Valley in
Germany (hence the name Neanderthal man); this creature is suspected to have a close resemblance
to the modern man, differing in their genetic composition by just 0.12%. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
According to (Lunine 204), modern humans share one gene (FOXP2) with the Neanderthals.
However, the main difference between Neanderthals and modern humans is that they had a more
robust and idiosyncratic morphological traits, especially on the cranium. (Lunine, 234).
Neanderthals had relatively shorter limbs, wider barrel– shaped rib cage, with reduced chin and
relatively longer and enlarged nose. Unlike the modern man who had reduced ribcage and sizeable
nose. They were more masculine than the modern man with particularly strong arms and hands. If a
physical altercation between a Neandertal and a modern man occurred, the Neandertal would have
the ability to completely physically dominate him. Additionally, recent research shows that
Neanderthals could have had better eyesight than modern humans owing to the size of their skull
and larger eye sockets. They had a brain capacity of about 1600cm3 which is bigger than the
modern humans. Neanderthals skeletons were much stronger with robust muscles embodied on it,
and the shafts found on both the legs and the arms were highly modified to absorb stress from
bending and twisting without

Summary and Critique
First Assignment – Summary and Critique
Paul S. Martin, Twilight of the Mammoths: Ice Age Extinctions and the Rewilding of America,
University of California Press, 2005, Prologue and Chapter 2
Summary
The overkill hypothesis stresses the fact that people were the main technicians behind the late
pleistocene extinction of fauna in Northern Eurasia and North and South America. Paul Martin of
the University of Arizona and others see a subsequent and spontaneous connection between the
presence of people and the vanishing of numerous species of large mammals. According to the
overkill hypothesis, the spread of humanity correlates to the extinction of mammals at the same
precise location they migrated to. The humans got to be big game ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The probability regarding the whole idea of climatic change as a main thrust in the ancient
extinctions may have been false. The extinctions of the late Pleistocene happened moderately
quickly, inside of a couple of thousand years. Moreover, there are not very many kill sites in the
archaeological record correlating humans to the lost fauna. Blitzkrieg is a unique instance of faunal
overkill that magnifies speed and intensity of human impact and minimizes time of overlap between
the primary human intruder and the vanishing of local fauna.
"The blitzkrieg model explains the lack of kill sites by reasoning that the extinction of these animals
occurred too rapidly to have left much, if any, evidence. Therefore, the uniqueness of Homo sapiens
in the New World and Australia, coupled with the lack of kill sites in the archaeological record, can
be taken as evidence of blitzkrieg human overkill causing the late Pleistocene extinctions." (Gibbons
Robin)
Critique
The overkill thesis may be after all a bogus clarification of the late pleistocene extinction with
humans as the main driving force behind it, namely due to excessive over–hunting. Two things
which may go against Martin's idea of overkill is the assumption that the animals too small or
environmentally

The Extinction Of The Neanderthals
The question of the coexistence and the potential interaction between the last Neanderthal and the
earliest intrusive populations of anatomically modern humans in Europe has been a topic of debate.
The extinction of the Neanderthals occurred during the latter part of the last glaciation which was
characterized by a rapidly changing climate, cold conditions and corresponding vegetation and
faunal turnover. However, it coincided with the expansion of modern humans out of Africa during
the Late Pleistocene. Thus, it has been an ongoing debate on whether the extinction of the
Neanderthals was due to competition with anatomically modern humans or due to climate change. It
is argued that the inability for the Neanderthals to adapt to climate ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The Neanderthals' survival methods were being compromised by the changing environment as they
were not equipped with the right physique or technology to survive in plain–dominated
environments. The change in climate also helped to boost the expansion of anatomically modern
humans. Eriksson A., et al (2012) used a model that quantified the effects of past climate change on
demography of modern humans takes into consideration past demographic events and estimated the
effect of climate on atomically modern humans (Eriksson A., et al, 2012). The model shows a
positive relationship between climate and the expansion of modern humans. Humans were equipped
with technology that were favored after the environment changed to a plain–dominated one and thus
this change in environment offered opportunities for human ambush hunters (Finlayson, 2004).
They were able to travel longer distances and shoot further, which gave them a greater advantage
when it comes to attacking these plain mammals (Markova A.K, et al, 2002). This relationship
between climate change and anatomically modern humans further restrains the Neanderthals. The
Neanderthals are not only less efficient in sourcing for food due to their inability to adapt their
methods to the changing environment, but are also faced with resource competition from the modern
humans. It is widely acknowledged that the body form of the Neanderthals indicates that they were
biologically adapted for the cold. However, this

Pleistocene Rewilding Report
One of the biggest ideas that Emma Marris discusses in her book is "Pleistocene rewilding,." This
concept aims to return an area to a state completely untouched by human, between 10,000 and
13,000 years ago. However, I tend to have a lot of problems with this concept.
To start with there has been quite bit of global climate change in the last 13,000; regardless of the
fact that the most notable changes have been caused by anthropogenic factors, natural climate
change would still have played a role in altering and shaping these environments, making them
different than the ones conservationists are trying to recreate.
Another weakness of this concept is that it seems as if current global climate change is not taken
into account. The degrading ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Suckling argues mostly in support of the idea of a "Pleistocene wilderness," yet indirectly, that
nature is and was threatened by people, and had we not damaged the planet as we did, the
environment would likely be in better shape. However, he looks at from a surveying perspective in
that he recognizes that our actions lead to real consequences for nature, and these consequences
cannot be taken for granted, taking account of the current state of the planet. Because of his very
realistic ideas, I think Suckling would be in support of creating areas of "Pleistocene wilderness."
On the other side of the argument Karieva promotes the idea that traditional conservation is outdated
and no longer the way to go with the current state of the environment. When it comes down to it,
Peter Karieva argues for sustainable development to combat the issues of global environmental
degradation, we must meet the development needs of the present without surpassing the needs of the
future. Lastly, the authors of 'New conservation' or surrender to development?, make an argument
that lines up directly with the idea of "Pleistocene wilderness." Their argument is saturated with the
idea of biodiversity and it's importance to our environment and wilderness, a key point in the
creation of places like Oostvaardersplassen. Ultimately, I think these authors are the most supportive
of the

Paleoamerican Americans
For long, scientists have speculated about the connection between Paleoamericans and Native
Americans. Anthropologists were at a lost about why Native Americans did not look like their
ancestors who had traveled to America during the last ice age using the broad landmass, Beringia
which connected North America and Asia. To solve this mystery, anthropologists came up with
different theories to try and explain the differences in physical features. It is the discovery of Naia, a
12,000 to 13,000 year–old skeleton that helps them to make the connection. Naia's Discovery The
skeleton named Naia, which is Greek for water nymph, belongs to a 15–16 year–old girl. She was
discovered and named in 2007 by three Mexican divers Alberto Nava, Alejandro ... Show more
4)? This question was finally answered by Naia, whose connection to both Paleoamericans and
Native Americans suggests that the differences in physical features between the two is a result of
"natural changes that occurred after humans arrived in the Americas" (Rappaport, 2016, para. 8)
rather than different

The Species Of Homo Neanderthalensis Essay
1. Introduction:
The Paleo–species of Homo neanderthalensis have been the subject of debate since their discovery
in 1829. Even in the early beginnings, the scientific research concerning this early hominin species
has been debated, and it was not until 1864 that the first Homo neanderthalensis was recognized as
an early hominin fossil (citation). Fortunately, progress has been made into piecing back together the
history of Homo neanderthalensis. However, there are still significant questions that remain
unanswered; a broad example of one of those questions is what was the contributing factor to their
extinction.
Fortunately, there has been a significant amount of research done which pertained to them not being
able to adapt to the changing climate on the latter half of the Pleistocene or were out competed by
anatomically modern humans either by technology and cultural adaptation or even interbreeding.
These theories could potentially explain their extinction because each one explored a different
aspect of Neanderthal life. L. Dalén et al. theorized low mDNA, or mitochondrial DNA, which is
only passed down through the maternal lineage through generations, was caused by the climate
change in the latter half of the Pleistocene, about 58 thousand years ago, which predated the arrival
of anatomically modern humans. While another theory suggested that, slightly before the extinction
of the Neanderthals globally, anatomically modern humans interbred with Neanderthals on

The Discovery Of Fossilized Hyoid Bones
By 0.6 Mya, H. heidelbergensis appeared. Likely an ancestor of our own species, their fossils have
been found with the remnants of large, butchered animals and hand axes –– suggesting a good
degree of tool usage. It is unknown whether or not they actively hunted the large animals that they
hunted, but the prolifacy of these butchering sites would suggest that Heidelbergensis was able to
have consistent access to these large carcasses. Examination of fossilized hyoid bones in
Heidelbergensis indicates that they were also capable of making the nuanced sounds required for
speech (Martínez I, et. al.). Their easy access to food and fire probably came in handy during the
Kansan glacial period, which lasted from 0.46 to 0.30 Mya. It was during this icy period that the
lineages of Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis finally split from that of H. heidelbergensis
and begin to truly hunt for their food.
As the ice thaws, Homo neanderthalensis and Homo rhodesiensis first appear. Neanderthals were
stockier than modern humans, standing at about 160 cm. They likely possessed a pale complexion
and reddish hair (indicated by sequencing the genetics of the bones of two particularly well
preserved specimens), which allowed them to produce the large amounts of Vitamin D needed to
survive in their primarily northern European habitats (O 'Neil). Rhodesiensis, on the other hand,
likely a human ancestor, showed features consistent with a mix between heidelbergensis and H.
sapiens, including an

The Sixth Extinction Summary
Neanderthals and the Beauty of the Natural World
Chapter 12 of the book The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural Extinction by Elizabeth Kolbert is all
about the differences between Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalenis) and modern humans (Homo
sapiens). Most of the differences were explained clearly and concisely, but one was very
contradictory. Could Neanderthals see beauty? I believe that yes, they could, just perhaps not in the
exact same way that modern humans do. They could see the beauty of nature, the beauty of living
things, like animals flowers, trees, and each other.
On page 256, Kolbert describes a tool that was crafted by a Neanderthal. She tells the reader that it
was "almost perfectly symmetrical and – to the human eye, at least – quite

The Pleistocene Ice Ages
Throughout the Pleistocene ice ages, large areas of the earth were covered by vast ice sheets. Global
sea levels dropped up to 120 metres below present–day coastlines, exposing large areas of land that
were once flooded by shallow seas. These lands became colonised by vegetation, animals, birds and
insects over time. During the Ice Age, the island continent to the south–east of Asia comprised New
Guinea, Australia and Tasmania as a single land mass. Separating this continent from Asia was a
narrow sea about one hundred kilometres wide, over which the first ocean crossings were made
sometime before 60,000 years ago. These ancient mariners became the founding peoples of
Australia. They were faced with a strange land that was vastly different

Neandertals Human Rights Case Study
As a noted lawyer of human rights violations, I have considered the case of the Neandertal tribe. I
believe that we should grant the tribe most of the rights that Homo Sapiens have. I have based my
desicion on evidence to support the fact that Neandertals have reasoning, language, and conscience.
There is no evidence that Neandertals assembled and used a language, but there is evidence that they
have the ability to make sounds, and speak, based on the larynx. This would indicate that the
Neandertals should get freedom of speech. Neanderthals can control fire, which show that they are
thinking and reasoning. This also shows that their brains would be able to process religion, hence
the reason that I suggest that the Neandertals get freedom

Gender And Gender Roles In Woman Of Willendorf

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