BIO PSYCHO SOCIAL PATHOLOGY

BIO PSYCHOSOCIAL PATHOLOGY
DR. PALLAVI PATHANIA

Content
• Pathophysiology and psychodynamics of disease causation.
• Life process, homeostatic mechanism, biological and psychosocial dynamics in
causation of disease , life style.
• Common problems: oxygen insufficiency, fluid and electrolyte imbalance,
nutritional problems, hemorrhage and shock, altered body temperature,
unconsciousness sleep pattern, pain, sensory deprivation.
• Treatment aspects: pharmacology and pre-post operative care aspects.
• Cardio pulmonary resuscitation
• End of life care
• Infection prevention and standard safety measures , biomedical waste
management
• Role of nurse – evidence based nursing practice; best practices
• Innovations in nursing.

Pathophysiology and psychodynamics of disease causation.
Pathophysiology/physiopathology)–a pathology with physiology is the
study of the disordered physiological processes.
Pathology is the medical discipline that describes conditions
typically observed during a disease state, whereas physiology is the
biological discipline that describes processes or
mechanisms operating within an organism.
• Causation : It is the action of causing something. [relationship between cause
and effect]

 Subclinical Condition
When not associated with clinical features, the
disease is called a “subclinical condition”.
Like DM.etc
 Carrier
A person with subclinical infectious disease who can
transmit the disease to others is called carrier.
 Disability
The inability to carry out the activities of daily
living like bathing, combing, cooking, dressing is
called disability.
 Handicap
When the disability prevents the individual from
engaging in his vocation, it is called handicap.

 Health
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well being
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
 Disease
Disease is just the opposite of the health “Disease is a condition in
which body health is impaired, a departure from the state of
health, an alteration of human body interrupting the performance
of vital functions”.
 Pathophysiology The term combines pathology and physiology.
Pathology deals with the study of study of structural and
functional changes in physiology deals with the functions of the
human body.

 BIOLOGICALDETERMINANTS
It determines the nature of genes at the moment of conception. Eg. Age, work. [physical, mental]
 BEHAVIORALANDSOCIO-CULTURAL CONDITIONS
It is composed of cultural & behavioral pattern & life long personal habits like
social values, attitudes & activities. E.g. alcohol, smoking, drug use.
 ENVIRONMENT
It includes internal and external environment. Like genetics, social , economic, education
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
It includes income, education, nutrition etc.

 Major importance of Socio-Economic Conditions
 Economic status
 Education
 Occupation
 Political System
 Health Services
 Aging of the Population
 Gender
 Other Factors

PSYCHODYNAMICS / DYNAMIC
PSYCHOLOGY
The term psychodynamics implies that
interrelation of various conscious and unconscious
mental activities as they influence personality,
behavior and attitude.
or
A psychodynamic is defined as human behavior,
either external or internal which can lead to its state
of health or disease.

 Physiological Factors [ physical, mental , social ]
 Germ Theory Of Disease[ presence of germs in air, or factors ]
 Genetic Disorders
Chromosomal Disorders
 Chromosome disorders involve a change in
chromosome number or structure that results in
damage to sensitive genetic mechanism or in
reproductive disorders.
 Trisiomy 21 (Down’s syndrome)
 Monosomy X (Turner’s syndrome)
 Poly somy X (Klinefelter’s syndrome)

 The Triangle has three corners (called vertices):
 Agent, or microbe that causes the
disease.
(The “what” of the Triangle)
Host, or organism harboring
the disease.
(The “who” of the Tri-
angle)
 Environment, or those
external factors that cause or allow disease transmission
(The “where” of the Triangle)
AGENT
ENVIRONMENTHOST

TheAgent—“What”
 Bacteria
Virus
Fungi
The
Protozoa
The Host—“Who”
The Environment—“Where”
 Physical environmental
Biological environmental

 THE Steady State
 The person as a living system has both an internal and an external environment.
There are four concepts for that :
 1.) CONSTANCY: The quality of being faithful and dependable for e.g. shape, size, brightness.
 2.) HOMEOSTASIS: It maintains the internal temperature of body according to environmental
changes.
 a) Physiological Homeostasis: blood glucose, temperature.
 b) Psychological Homeostasis: personal feeling safe, secure
 3.) STRESS
 Types of stressors:
 1. Physical — cold, heat and chemical agent
 2. Physiological — pain and fatigue
 3. Psychosocial — fear
 4. Normal life transition
 5. Others: frustration, war and terrorism, marriage, divorce, retirement etc.
DYNAMIC BALANCE

 It is modification of cell morphology and function to achieve a
new steady but altered state, preserving the viability of cells,
which includes Atrophy, Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, Metaplasia
and Dysplasia.
 ATROPHY ( reabsorption & breakdown of tissues/ growth development)
 HYPERTROPHY
 HYPERPLASIA
 a) Physiologic Hyperplasia
 b) Compensatory-Hyperplasia
 c) Pathologic Hyperplasia
 METAPLASIA
 DYSPLASIA

 1. Normal body substances (lipids, proteins)
 2. Abnormal endogenous products ( metabolism)
 3. Exogenous products (environmental agents)
 CAUSES OF CELLINJURY
 Physical agents, Electricity , Radiation, Chemical,
 Biologic agents , Mechanical forces
 Extremes of temperature
 Injury from nutritional imbalances
 Infectious
 Immunologic agents, Genetic defects,Aging.
 Oxygen Deprivation (Hypoxia, due to restriction of blood “ischemia”),

1. REVERSIBLE CELLINJURY
 Cell swelling Cloudy swelling and hydropic
degeneration, Fatty changes

 It is single cell death in the middle of living tissue due to
activation of internal “suicide” program with characteristic
morphology (cell shrinkage) that does not cause tissue
disruption or inflammation.

 Necrosis is the death of a group of cells within living organism.
 Types of Necrosis
1. Coagulative (most common) necrosis
 The process of Coagulative necrosis, with preservation of the general
tissue architecture, is characteristic of hypoxic death of cells in all
tissues except the brain.
 Infarction is Coagulative necrosis resulting from hypoxia.

2. Liquefactive Necrosis
It’s characteristic of focal bacterial or fungal infections,
due to accumulation of white cells, and hypoxic death
within the central nervous system. Liquefaction
completely digests the dead cells.
3. Caseous Necrosis
The term "Caseous" is derived from the cheesy, white gross
appearance of the central necrotic area. The necrotic focus is
composed of structure less, amorphous granular debris within a
ring of granulomatous inflammation. The tissue architecture is
completely lost.

4. Fat Necrosis
The released fatty acids combine with calcium to
produce grossly visible chalky white areas (fat
saponification).
5. Gangrenous Necrosis
It is ischemic Coagulative necrosis (frequently of a
limb> dry gangrene); when there is superimposed
infection with a Liquefactive component, the
lesion is called "wet gangrene”. Gangrenous tissue
must be removed surgically.

4. Gangrene
It is the death of tissues in your body. It may be caused by a
lack of blood flow to a part of the body or by a bacterial
infection. Blood helps the distribution of nutrients, oxygen and
to the body parts. It also carries toxins and waste materials to
the liver and kidneys to be removed from your body. When
body flow is blocked the body suffers and tissue dies. If they
don’t get the nutrients and oxygen by the blood then health
problems like gangrene can develop.
Types: There are two main types:
 Dry gangrene: This is caused by disease, which affects
the blood circulation.
 Wet gangrene: This is caused by a wound infected with
bacteria.

1. Sympathetic nervous system response:
Its response is rapid and short-lived. Increase
heart rate, Peripheral vasoconstriction, raising
blood pressure, blood glucose is increased,
pupils dilated.
2. Sympathetic-adrenal-medullar response:
 Release of the hormones epinephrine and nor
epinephrine.
 Increase blood glucose increase metabolic rate.
 Mental acuity
 Increased ventilation
 This effect is called “fight-or-flight” response.

 This is the body’s response to perceived threat or
danger.
 During this reaction, certain hormones like adrenalin
and cortisol are released, speeding the heart rate,
slowing digestion, shunting blood flow to major
muscle groups, and changing various other autonomic
nervous functions, giving the body a burst of energy
and strength.
 The fight-or-flight response, also known as the
acute stress response, refers to a psychological
reaction that occurs in the presence of something
that is terrifying, either mentally or physically.

 In response to acute stress, the body's sympathetic
nervous system is activated due to the sudden
release of hormones.
 The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the
adrenal glands triggering the release of
catecholamine's, which include adrenaline and
noradrenalin.
 This results in an increase in heart rate, blood
pressure and breathing rate.
 After the threat is gone, it takes between 20 to 60
minutes for the body to return to its pre-arousal
levels.

Sigmund Freud believed in theory of libido development.
Libido derived from Latin word for wish or desire-as a non
specific sensual drive for bodily gratification.
THE ORALSTAGE
THE ANALSTAGE
THE PHALLIC STAGE ( OEDIPUS COMPLEX) ( ELECTRA
COMPLEX)
THE LATENCYSTAGE
THE GENITAL/PUBERTY STAGE

 It is earliest stage of development .
 The goal is immediate gratification of needs, a sense of security
& ability to trust others.
 Relief from anxiety through oral gratification of needs
&pleasure is obtained through stimulation of mouth as in thumb
sucking.
It consists of two phases:-
1.) Receptive phase-chewing
 2.) Sadistic phase -Biting

 In this stage major tasks are gaining independence & control with
particular focus on excretory function. Gratification is obtained through
holding & expelling feaces.
 The manner in which parents approach the task of toilet training may
have long term effects child in terms of valves and personality
characteristics,
 It consists of two phases:-
 The destructive expulsive phase—child enjoys excretion
 The mastering phase---child enjoys sphincter control

 In this stage the focus of energy shifts to genital area. Children display
considerable sexual interest.
 Discovery of differences between genders results in a heightened
interest in sexuality of self & others.
 This interest may be manifested in sexual self exploratory play.
 Development of Oedipus complex occurs during this stage of
development (desire to eliminate parent of same sex & to possess
parent of opposite sex) guilt feelings result with emergence of
superego during these years.

 It is regarded as phase of sexual latency and the focus
changes to group activities, learning, socialization.
 The preference is homosexuals groups i.e. gang
formation.
 Children of same age show distinct preferences for same
sex relationships even rejecting members of opposite sex.

 It is initiated by puberty and leads to reawaking of sexual
interest that is now conscious, increasing desire to achieve
adult status.
 Sexual arousal occur through memories and sensation from
earlier childhood periods, physical manipulation of
genitals and hormonal secretions.
 Heterosexual interests appear and focus on relationships with
members of opposite sex.

 Id- The id is the part of our mind where the drives are represented. These are
intimately connected with thephysical body and its functions. According to
Freud the Id operates on the pleasure principle. E.g. baby is crying for milk, he
want milk in any condition ,he can compromise.
 Ego-It operates on the reality principle. Ego considers the consequences of our
actions. Ego is based on id as well as of reality. It is set of conscious, intellectual
& self preservation functions. E.g. School going kid want new bag but he know
his father cannot buy, he will compromise.( balance between id & super EGO)
 Superego-Within the ego there is substructure called the superego. It is the
part of the ego, which the identification with our parents and their authority. It
is called perfection principle. It is mainly unconscious. The superego
corresponds closely to the conscience which is a set of positive values and
moral ideals. E.g. a person always obey rules because of strict discipline at
home.( what is right & wrong)

 Mental Health:
Mental health in a narrow sense, it is describe as a health mind. But it can’t be
described without physical, social and spiritual health. Therefore mental is a part
of general health. It requires a balance between the body, mind, spirit and
environment in which a person lives.
Illness and other conditions upset the previously learned
functions of the child for e.g. secure bladder control or revert
babyish eating. This is described as regression.
THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF MENTAL DISORDERS

 Illness:
Illness is a subjective state of the person who feels aware of not being well.
 Meaning Of Illness:
Illness are also individualized to each person, who experience an alternation
in health. So illness is the responses, the person has, to a disease; it is an
abnormal process in which the person’s level of functioning is changed
compared with a previous level.
The response is different for each person, and is influenced by self-
perceptions; other perceptions, the effects of changes and body, structure
and functions, the effects of those changes on roles and relationships and
cultural and spiritual values and beliefs.

 Mental illness occurs when a state of physical, mental, social and
spiritual well-being is disturbed. Personality of a person and use
of various defense mechanism, help the individual to adjust to
various stressful situation of life.
 When the capacity to adjustment of the individual is not able to
adjust to the situation, he may develop maladaptive behaviour
and become mental ill.

1. ORGANIC CONDITIONS
2. HEREDITY
3. SOCIAL PATHOLOGICALCAUSES: social disadvantage, poverty or
debt, experiencing discrimination and stigma.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS (Toxic substances, Psychotropic drugs,
Nutritional factors, Minerals Infective agents, Traumatic factors,
Radiation)
•childhood abuse, trauma, or neglect.
•social isolation or loneliness.
•bereavement (losing someone close to you)
•severe or long-term stress.

INTRODUCTION
 Models of why and how individuals carry out behaviours to promote health and prevent illness are useful in
helping healthcare providers understand health-related behaviours and adapt care to people from diverse
economic and cultural backgrounds.
 This knowledge can be used to overcome barriers to health from disparities in care resulting from such factors
as:
 1. The increasing number of people without health insurance.
 2. Predicted upward trend in minority populations.
 3. Lack of accessible and essential healthcare services for low-income and rural populations.

 The health belief model is concerned with what people
perceive, or believe, to be true about themselves in
relation to their health.
 This model is based on three components of
individual perceptions of threat of a disease:
(1) Perceived susceptibility to a disease,
(2) Perceived seriousness of a disease,
(3) Perceived benefits of action.

1. Perceived susceptibility to a disease:
 It is the belief that one either will or will not
contract a disease. It ranges from being afraid of
contracting a disease to completely denying that
certain behaviours will result in illness.
2. Perceived seriousness of a disease:
 This component is related to how much the person
knows about the disease and can result in a
change in health behaviour.
3. Perceived benefits of action:
 Is concerned with how effective the individual
believes measures will be in preventing illness.

 Cues to action are also modifying factors and are
provided by activities such as:
1. Others' advice,
2. Mass-media campaigns,
3. Literature,
4.Appointment-reminder telephone calls or postcards,
5. Illness of a significant other.

 The health–illness continuum is one way to measure a person's level of health. This model views
health as a constantly changing state, with high-level wellness and death.
 The continuum illustrates the ever-changing state of health person adapts to changes in the internal and
external environments to maintain a state of well-being.
 Health is a common theme in most culture. In fact all communities have their concepts of health as a
part of their culture.
 Health and illness are defined according to the values of society to which a person belongs. When a
person is able to adjust and adapt to his environment he is said to be healthy. A person with good
mental health functions comfortably with society. He is satisfied with himself and achievements.

 Health and disease lie along a continuum and there is no single cut-off point. The lowest point on the
health and disease spectrum is death and highest point corresponds to the WHO definition of positive
Health. It is thus obvious that health fluctuates within a range of optimum wellbeing to various levels
of dysfunction, namely the death.
 The transition from optimum health to ill health is often gradual, and where state ends and the other
begin is a matter of judgment. So the spectral concept of health of an individual is not static. It is a
dynamic phenomenon and a process of continuous change, subject to frequent stable variations.
 That is a person may function at maximum level of health today and diminished level of health
tomorrow.

 It implies that health is a state not to be attained once and for all, but
ever to be renewed. There are degrees or ‘levels of health ‘as there are
degrees or severity of illness. As long as we are alive there is some
degreeof health in us.
 According to R. Dubois views health as adaptation, a function of
adjustment. He believes a utopian state of health can never be so
perfectly adapted to the environment that life will not involve
struggle, failure and suffering. Human can adapt to environment but
each new adaptation procedures new problems that demand new
solutions.

 H. S. Sullivan defines mental or emotional illness as inappropriate interpersonal
behavior or behavior that is inadequate for the social context. Sullivan believes that
each person has some small degree of illness. Physical or emotional even when he or
she feels and looks well.
 The illness may be minor aches, temper flares, inappropriate forgetfulness, or over
use of certain defense mechanisms such as rationalization or forgetfulness. Similarly
the emotionally ill person manifests some degree of health. Some appropriate
thinking and behavior.

Halberd, Dunn (1961) described the model of high
level wellness as functioning to one’s maximum
potential while maintaining balance and
purposeful direction in the environment.
Concept Of High Level Wellness Model
 It can be applied to the individual, family, community, environment and society. Dunn,
model is holistic, allowing the nurse care for the total persons with regards for all
dimensional factors affecting the person’s state of being as he or she strives to reach
maximum potential. For example, intellectual dimension, social dimension,
emotional dimension and spiritual dimension.

(1) Direction in progress forward and upwards towards a higher potential of functioning.
(2) An open-ended and ever-expanding tomorrow with its challenge to live at a fuller potential.
(3) The integration of the whole being of the total individual—body, mind, and spirit—in the
functioning process.

1. Willingness to face inconsistencies in our thinking.
2. Willingness to hear and examine the other fellow's viewpoints with an open mind.
3. Willingness to encourage freedom of expression of those around us.
4. Willingness to adjust our own views.
5. Willingness to make time for unhurried contacts with others when such relationships are
essential.
6. Willingness and determination to give credit and recognition to others when it is due
them.
7. Eagerness and determination to serve others as opportunities arise.
8. Willingness to give freedom to those we love.

EMOTIONAL
PHYSICAL
VOCATIONAL
SPIRITUAL
INTELLECTUAL
SOCIAL

Life processes
Biology is the science that
deals with living things.
Sometimes it is necessary
to make a difference
between organisms that
are alive, and other things
that are not alive.

Characteristics of living things
 Living things react to stimuli.
 Living things interact with
their environment, which includes members
of the same and other species.
 Living things have a metabolism: they take
in food which they convert to the energy
they need.
 Living things reproduce: they give birth to
others of the same species. This is not true
of all individual organisms.
In eusocial organisms, some castes cannot
reproduce. But, since the sterile workers are
all the produce of a single queen, they are
one collective.

Define life process ?
Various functions
carried out by
living beings;
which are
necessary to
maintain and
continue life are
called life
process.
Following are the life
processes in living beings:
 Nutrition
 Respiration
 Transportation of
substances
 Excretion
 Movement
 Reproduction

Nutrition
Let’s go in
detail

The process by which an organism takes
food and utilizes it is called nutrition.
Need of nutrition: Organisms need energy
to perform various activities. The energy is
supplied by the nutrients. Organisms need
various raw materials for growth and
repair. These raw materials are provided by
nutrients.
Nutrients: Materials which provide
nutrition to organisms are called nutrients.
Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are the
main nutrients and are called
macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are
required in small amounts and hence are
called micronutrients.

Types of Nutrition
Autotrophic
Heterotrophic

The mode of nutrition in
which an organism prepares
its own food is called
autotrophic nutrition. Green
plants and blue-green algae
follow the autotrophic mode
of nutrition.

We think we have
forgot something.
I got it !
It is Photosynthesis
Let us discuss about
that

 A process used by plants and
other organisms to
convert light energy, normally
from the Sun, into chemical
energy that can be
later released to fuel the
organisms' activities.
 This chemical energy is stored
in carbohydrate molecules,
such as sugars, which are
synthesized from carbon
dioxide and water – In most
cases, oxygen is also released
as a waste product.
 Photosynthesis maintains

What happens during
Photosynthesis ?
I Know that, go to next slide
to see the answer

Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll, a
green substance found in chloroplasts in some
plant cells and algae
Absorbed light energy is used to convert
carbon dioxide (from the air) and water (from
the soil) into a sugar called glucose
Oxygen is released as a by-product.

Significance of Photosynthesis:
 Photosynthesis is the main way through which the solar
energy is made available for different living beings.
 Green plants are the main producers of food in the
ecosystem. All other organisms directly or indirectly
depend on green plants for food.
 The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining
the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air.

Stomat
a
 A pore, found in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organ
that is used to control gas exchange.
 The pore is bordered by a pair of specialized parenchyma cells
known as guard cells that are responsible for regulating the size
of the opening.
 The term is also used collectively to refer to an entire stomatal
complex, both the pore itself and its accompanying guard cells

Air containing carbon dioxide
and oxygen enters the plant
through these openings and is
used in photosynthesis in the
mesophyll cells (parenchyma
cells with chloroplasts) and
respiration, respectively.
Oxygen produced as a by-
product of photosynthesis
diffuses out to the atmosphere
through these same openings.
Also, water vapor is released
into the atmosphere through
these pores in a process called
transpiration.

Heterotrophic Nutrition
 The mode of nutrition in which an
organism takes food from another
organism is called heterotrophic
nutrition.
 Organisms; other than green plants
and blue-green algae follow
heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
 Heterotrophic nutrition can be
further divided into three types, viz.
saprophytic nutrition, holozoic
nutrition and Parasitic Nutrition

Classification of heterotrophs
Saprophytes
Holozoic
Parasitic

Saprophytes
 In saprophytic nutrition, the
digestion of food takes place before
ingestion of food.
 This type of nutrition is usually seen
in fungi and some other
microorganisms.
 The organism secretes digestive
enzymes on the food and then ingests
the simple substances.
 Saprophytes feed on dead materials
and thus help in decomposition dead
remains of plants and animals.

 Ingestion: Taking in complex organic food through
mouth opening.
 Digestion: Change of complex food into simple form
by action of enzymes.
 Absorption: Passing of simple, soluble nutrients
through blood or lymph.
 Assimilation: Utilization of absorbed food for various
metabolic processes.
 Egestion: Expelling out the undigested food
Steps involved Holozoic nutrition

Types of holozoic nutrition
Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores
Organisms that
feed on plants
Organisms that
feed on other
organisms
Organisms that
feed on both
plants and other
animals

Examples of Holozoic nutrition

Nutrition in
Amoeba
 Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows holozoic mode of
nutrition. The cell membrane of amoeba keeps on protruding into
pseudopodia.
 Amoeba surrounds a food particle with pseudopodia and makes
a food vacuole.
 The food vacuole contains the food particle and water.
 Digestive enzymes are secreted in the food vacuole and digestion
takes place.
 After that, digested food is absorbed from the food vacuole.
 Finally, the food vacuole moves near the cell membrane and
undigested food is expelled out.

Parasitic Nutrition
 Parasitic nutrition is a mode of heterotrophic nutrition
where an organism lives on the body surface or inside the
body of another type of organism (known as a host).
 The parasite obtains nutrition directly from the body of the
host.
 Since these parasites derive their nourishment from their
host, this symbiotic interaction is often described as
harmful to the host.
 Parasites are dependent on their host for survival, since the
host provides nutrition and protection.
 As a result of this dependence, parasites have considerable
modifications to optimize parasitic nutrition and therefore
their survival.

Parasites are divided into two groups:
endoparasites and ectoparasites.
Endoparasites are parasites that live
inside the body of the host.
Ectoparasites are parasites that live
on the outer surface of the host and
generally attach themselves during
feeding.
Due to the different strategies of
endoparasites and ectoparasites they
require different adaptations in order to
acquire nutrients from their host.

Examples of parasitic nutrition
Cuscutta ( endoparasite ) Mosquito ( ectoparasite )

complex animals;
which have a
complex digestive
system. The
human digestive
system is
composed of an
alimentary canal
and some
accessory glands.
Human beings are The alimentary canal is
divided into several
parts, viz. oesophagus,
stomach, small
intestine, large
intestine, rectum and
anus. Salivary gland,
liver and pancreas are
the accessory glands
which lie outside the
alimentary canal.

Let us discuss about the
structure of human
digestive system

Mouth or Buccal Cavity: The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glandsare
also present in the mouth. The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive
the sense of taste. Tongue helps in turning over the food, so that saliva can be
properly mixed in it.
Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so that swallowing
of food becomes easier. There are four types of teeth in human beings. The
incisor teeth are used for cutting the food.The canine teeth are used for tearing
the food and for cracking hard substances. The premolars are used for coarse
grinding of food. The molars are used for fine grinding offood.
Salivary glands secrete saliva. Saliva makes the food slippery which makes it
easy to swallow the food. Saliva also contains the enzyme salivary amylaseor
ptyalin. Salivary amylase digests starch and converts it intosucrose.

 Stomach: Stomach is a bag-like organ. Highly muscular
walls of the stomach help in churning the food. The walls
of stomach secrete hydrochloric acid.
 Hydrochloric acid kills the germs which may be present
in food. Moreover, it makes the medium inside stomach
as acidic.
 The acidic medium is necessary for gastric enzymes to
work. The enzyme pepsin; secreted in stomach; does
partial digestion of protein.
 The mucus; secreted by the walls of the stomach saves
the inner lining of stomach from getting damaged from
hydrochloric acid.

Small Intestine: It is a highly coiled tube-like
structure. The small intestine is longer than the large
intestine but its lumen is smaller than that of the large
intestine. The small intestine is divided into three
parts, viz. duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
Liver: Liver is the largest organ in the human body.
Liver manufactures bile; which gets stored in gall
bladder. From the gall bladder, bile is released as
and when required.
Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach.
It secretes pancreatic juice which contains many
digestive enzymes.

• Bile and pancreatic juice go to the duodenum through a
hepato-pancreatic duct.
• Bile breaks down fat into smaller particles. This process is
called emulsification of fat.
• After that, the enzyme lipase digests fat into fatty acids and
glycerol. Trypsin and chymotrypsin are enzymes which digest
protein into amino acids.
• Complex carbohydrates are digested into glucose.
• The inner wall in the ileum is projected into numerous finger-
like structures; called villi.
• Villi increase the surface area inside the ileum so that optimum
absorption can take place. Digested food is absorbed by villi.

Large
Intestine
Large intestine is smaller than
small intestine. Undigested food
goes into the large intestine.
Some water and salt are absorbed
by the walls of the large
intestine. After that, the
undigested food goes to the
rectum; from where it is expelled
out through the anus.

Respiration
Let us
learn about
it

 The process by which a living being
utilizes the food to get energy is called
respiration.
 Respiration is an oxidation reaction in
which carbohydrate is oxidized to
produce energy.
 Mitochondrion is the site of respiration
and the energy released is stored in the
form of ATP(Adenosine
triphosphate).
 ATPis stored in mitochondria and is
released as per need.

Types of respiration
Aerobic Anaerobic
Presence of oxygen Absence of oxygen
Humans and
other animals
Yeast

What is aerobic respiration ?
Give some
examples.

Aerobic
respiration
This type of respiration
happens in the presence
of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is
converted into carbon
dioxide. Energy is
released and water
molecule is also formed
at the end of this
process.

Then what is anaerobic
respiration ?

Anaerobic Respiration
 This type of respiration happens
in the absence of oxygen. Pyruvic
acid is either converted into ethyl
alcohol or lactic acid.
 Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in
case of anaerobic respiration in
microbes; like yeast or bacteria.
 Lactic acid is formed in some
microbes as well as in the muscle
cells.

 For aerobic respiration; organisms need a continuous
supply of oxygen, and carbon dioxide produced
during the process needs to be removed from the
body.
 Different organisms use different methods for intake
of oxygen and expulsion of carbon dioxide.
 Diffusion is the method which is utilized by
unicellular and some simple organisms for this
purpose. In plants also, diffusion is utilized for
exchange of gases.
 In complex animals, respiratory system does the job
of exchange of gases. Gills are the respiratory organs
for fishes.
 Fishes take in oxygen; which is dissolved in water;
through gills. Since availability of oxygen is less in
the aquatic environment so the breathing rate of
aquatic organisms is faster.
 Insects have a system of spiracles and tracheae which
is used for taking in oxygen.

The human
respiratory system is
composed of a pair of
lungs. These are
attached to a system
of tubes which open
on the outside
through the nostrils.

Nostrils: There two nostrils which converge to form a
nasal passage. The inner lining of the nostrils is lined
by hairs and remains wet due to mucus secretion. The
mucus and the hairs help in filtering the dust particles
out from inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up when it
enters the nasal passage.
Pharynx: It is a tube like structure which continues
after the nasal passage.
Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is
also called the voice box.

Trachea:- Thisis composed of
rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous
rings prevent the collapse of
trachea in theabsence of air.
Bronchi :- A pair of bronchi
comes out from the trachea;
with one bronchus going to
each lung.
Bronchioles:- Abronchus
divides into branches and sub-
branches; inside the lung.

Breathing Mechanism:
of lungs is controlled by
the diaphragm and the
intercostalis muscles.
Diaphragm is a membrane
which separates the
thoracic chamber from the
abdominal cavity.
When diaphragm moves
down, the lungs expand
and air is inhaled. When
diaphragm moves up, the
lungs contract and air is
exhaled.

Transportation
Let us Disc
uss
abou
t it

Transportation in
Animals
Circulatory System
The circulatory
system is
responsible for
transport of various
substances in human
beings. It is
composed of the
heart, arteries, veins
and blood capillaries.

The Heart
 Heart is a muscular organ; which is composed of cardiac muscles.
 It is so small that it can fit inside and adult’s fist. The heart is a
pumping organ which pumps the blood.
 The human heart is composed of four chambers, viz. right auricle,
right ventricle, left auricle and left ventricle.

Blood vessels
These are thick-walled
blood
vessels which carry
oxygenated blood
from the heart to
different organs.
Pulmonary arteries
are exceptions
because they carry
deoxygenated blood
Arteries Veins
These are thin-walled
blood
vessels which carry
deoxygenated blood
from different organs
to the heart.
Pulmonary veins are
exceptions because
they carry
oxygenated blood
from lungs to the

Blood
• Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role
of the carrier for various substances in the
body.
• Blood is composed of plasma, blood cells and
platelets.

Blood Plasma: Blood plasma is a pale coloured liquid which is mostly composed of
water. Blood plasma forms the matrix of blood.
Blood Cells: There are two types of blood cells, viz. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) and
White Blood Cells (WBCs).
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): These are of red colour because of the presence of
haemoglobin which is a pigment. Haemoglobin readily combines with oxygen and
carbon dioxide. The transport of oxygen happens through haemoglobin. Some part of
carbon dioxide is also transported through haemoglobin.
White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): These are of pale white colour. They play
important role in the immunity.
Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood coagulation is a
defense mechanism which prevents excess loss of blood; in case of an injury.
Lymph: Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph. Lymph is formed
from the fluid which leaks from blood capillaries and goes to the intercellular spaces
in the tissues. This fluid is collected through lymph vessels and finally returns to the
blood capillaries. Lymph also plays an important role in the immune system

Double
Circulation
 In the human heart, blood passes through the
heart twice in one cardiac cycle. This type of
circulation is called double circulation.
 One complete heart beat in which all the
chambers of the heart contract and relax
once is called cardiac cycle.
 The heart beats about 72 times per minute
in a normal adult. In one cardiac cycle, the
heart pumps out 70 mL blood and thus about
4900 mL blood in a minute.
 Double circulation ensures complete
segregation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood which is necessary for
optimum energy production in warm-
blooded animals.

Transportation in Plants
For transportation in plants, two things
occurs
Transport of water and minerals
Transport of food and other
substances

Plants have tissues to
transport water,
nutrients and minerals.
Xylem transports water
and mineral salts from
the roots up to other
parts of the plant,
while phloem
transports sucrose and

Glossary of transportation in
plants
 Amino acid - The building blocks that make up aprotein
molecule.
 Osmosis - The movement of water molecules across a
partially-permeable membrane from a region of low solute
concentration to a region of high solute concentration
 Translocation - The transport of dissolved material within a
plant.
 Transpiration - The loss of water from leaves by evaporation.
It is much faster when stomata are open than when they are
closed.
 Vascular bundles - Groups of xylem and phloem tissue in a
plant.

Root Pressure
The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin.
Water; from soil; enters the root hairs because of
osmosis. Root pressure is responsible for
movement of water up to the base of the stem.
CapillaryAction
A very fine tube is called capillary. Water; orany
liquid; rises in the capillary because of physical
forces and this phenomenon is called capillary
action. Water; in stem; rises up to some height
because of capillary action

Adhesion-cohesion of Water Molecules: Water molecules
make a continuous column in the xylem because of forces of
adhesion and cohesion among the molecules.
Transpiration Pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata
and lenticels; in plants; is called transpiration. Transpiration
through stomata creates vacuum which creates a suction;
called transpiration pull. The transpiration pull sucks the
water column from the xylem tubes and thus water is able to
rise to great heights in even the tallest plants.
Transport of Food: Transport of food in plants happens
because of utilization of energy. Thus, unlike the transport
through xylem; it is a form of active transport. Moreover, the
flow of substances through phloem takes place in both
directions, i.e. it is a two-way traffic in phloem

Excretion
Removal of harmful waste from the body is called
excretion. Many wastes are produced during various
metabolic activities. These need to be removed in
time because their accumulation in the body can be
harmful and even lethal for an organism.

Kidney:
Kidneyisabean-shapedorganwhichliesnearthe
vertebralcolumnintheabdominalcavity.Thekidneyis
composedofmanyfilteringunits;callednephrons.
Nephroniscalledthefunctionalunitofkidney.
Nephron:
Itiscomposedofatangledmessoftubesanda
filteringpart;calledglomerulus.Glomerulusisa
networkofbloodcapillariestowhichrenalarteryis
attached.Thearterywhichtakesbloodtothe
glomerulusiscalledafferentarterioleandtheone
receivingbloodfromtheglomerulusiscalledefferent
arteriole.Glomerulusisenclosedinacapsulelike
portion;calledBowman’scapsule.TheBowman’s
capsuleextendsintoafinetubewhichishighlycoiled.
Tubesfromvariousnephronsconvergeintocollecting
duct;whichfinallygoestotheureter.

Filtration in
Glomerulus
 Filtration happens because of very high pressure
inside the glomerulus. The lumen of efferent
arteriole is smaller than that of afferent arteriole.
 Due to this, the blood entering the glomerulus
experiences very high pressure and due to this, the
waste products are filtered out through the thin
membrane of capillaries in the glomerulus.
 The filtered blood is sent to the systemic
circulation through efferent arteriole and the filtrate
goes to the Bowman’s capsule. That is how urine is
formed inside the kidneys.
 Reabsorption of water and some other filtrates
takes place in the tubular part of the nephron.This
increases the concentration of urine. The human
urine is mainly composed of water and urea.

Excretion in plants
• Plants eliminate some waste through diffusion. During the day, excess
oxygen gas produced by photosynthesis is released through the stomata.
Carbon dioxide produced by respiration is normally used up during
photosynthesis. At night, however, as photosynthesis slows, carbon dioxid
is not used up as fast as it is produced, and it is released as a waste produ

Various functions carried out by living beings; which are
necessary to maintain and continue life are called life
process.
Nutrition -The process by which an organism takes food and
utilizes it is called nutrition.
Respiration - The process by which a living being utilizes the
food to get energy is called respiration.
Transportation – the action of transporting food materials or
other substances
Excretion - Removal of harmful waste from the body is
called excretion

Everyday your body is affected by many
things

Is the way your body keep balance

Introduction
 Homeostasis was defined by Claude Bernard and later by Walter Bradford
Cannon in 1926,1929 and 1932.
 Homeostasis is the property of a system that regulates its internal
environment and tends to maintain a stable, relatively constant condition of
properties.
 All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent
components for the variable being regulated:
 The receptor
 The control center
 The effector

Claude Bernard and Walter Bradford Cannon

Three components of Homeostasis

Positive feedback &
Negative feedback

Definition
 Positive feedback is a mechanism by which an output is
enhanced.
 Positive feedback mechanisms are designed to accelerate
or enhance the output created by a stimulus that has
already been activated.
 Negative feedback mechanisms consist of reducing the
output or activity of any organ or system back to its
normal range of functioning

Body temperature
 Normal body internal temperature is 370C
 Temperatures above this:
denature enzymes and block metabolic pathways
 Temperatures below this:
slow down metabolism and affect the brain
 We need to regulate internal body temperature in order
to provide the optimum conditions for enzyme-catalyzed
reactions to be carried out.

Control of homeostasis
 When your body gets too hot, your
body need cooling down by:
sweating, vasodilation, etc…
 When your body gets too cold, your
also need warming up by:
Shivering, vasoconstriction, etc…

How the body control the water level?
 Maintaining the body fluids at a constant osmolarity therefore involves
regulating the volume of water contained within the body.
 Control of the volume of water excreted by the kidney rests with the
hormone anti-diuretic hormone (ADH also known as vasopressin; diuresis
means water loss, therefore anti-diuretic hormone can be translated as is
anti-water loss hormone).

Controlling water level
 If the level of fluid in the body falls
below normal, the subsequent
increase in osmolarity is detected
by osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus. In response, the
hypothalamus releases ADH and
also makes you thirsty. In
combination, drinking additional
fluid and also recovering the
maximum fluid volume possible
from the urine will restore fluid
volume and osmolarity very
rapidly, usually within minutes or
10's of minutes.

Controlling water level
 If the level of fluid in the body
rises above normal, this will also
change the osmolarity of the
circulating fluids. The fall in
osmolarity is detected by the
hypothalamus, which stops
producing ADH. In the absence of
ADH the kidney allows fluid loss
from the body.

About glucose in the body
 Glucose is a monosaccharide which represents an essential biological energy
source, enabling the generation of ATP following glycolysis
 Although many tissues can also use fats and protein as an energy source, the
brain and red blood cells can only use glucose.
 Glucose is stored in the body, importantly in the liver, as glycogen.

Circulating levels of glucose
 Circulating levels of glucose are controlled by two enzymes, insulin and
glucagon.
insulin glucagon

High glucose levels
 In response to high glucose levels, pro-insulin is released from pancreatic beta
cells in the islets of Langerhans and is converted to the active form in the blood.
 Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose and storage in the tissues as glycogen
(glycogenesis).
 The uptake of glucose into mammalian cells is facilitated by glucose
transporters (Glut). T
 he individual Glut subtypes differ in their tissue distribution, substrate
specificity, kinetic properties, and intracellular localization, allowing members of
the Glut family to finely regulate whole-body glucose homeostasis

Low glucose level
 In contrast, low glucose levels cause secretion of pancreatic peptide hormone
glucagon from alpha cells.
 Glucagon promotes the conversion of liver glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis)
and release of glucose back into the blood.
 During starvation and intense exercise, glucose can also be generated from
non-carbohydrate precursors (i.e. pyruvate, amino acids and glycerol), in a
process called gluconeogenesis.

Diabetes mellitus
 Disruption of glucose
homeostasis is most
commonly studied in
the field of diabetes
mellitus, a metabolic
syndrome in which
patients do not
produce suffi cient
levels of, or correctly
respond to, insulin.

Summary
 Homeostasis and its three basic components
 Positive feedback and negaive feedback in correcting a false condition
 The way your body keep its temperature constant
 How the body balance water level and salt
 Glucose homeostasis
The way your body keep balance

Contents
162
 Introduction
 Life Style Modifications & Associated Health
Problems
A. Behavioral
B. Material
C. Psychological
 Preventive measures
 Conclusion
 References

INTRODUCTION:
163
Lifestyle includes the behavior and activities that make up your daily life.
This includes:
• the work you do,
• your leisure activities
• the food you eat, and
• your interaction with family, friends, neighbours, co workers and strangers.
 Lifestyle changes are defined as changes that alter various lifestyle-related
behaviors such as diet, physical activity, smoking, alcohol consumption and other
behaviors.
 Lifestyle changes may often relate to other mental and/or physical health
conditions such as various disorders, obesity, asthma, sexually transmitted
diseases, depression, and anxiety.

Lifestyle Modification & Associated Health Problems
Behavioral Material Psychological
164
 Diet
 Smoking
 Consumption ofAlcohol
 DrugAddiction
 Lack of PhysicalActivity
 Environment  Stress
Pollution

DIET
contains all the required amounts
of foods and drinks to supply
nutrition and energy for
maintaining Body Cells, Tissues,
Organs for supporting normal
growth and development.
 A healthy lifestyle involves many choices. Among them
eating healthy and having a balanced diet are required.
 Balanced diet: A diet which
165

PAST AND PRESENT FOODHABITS
167
Older generations consumed healthy foods when compared to
what people consume today.
Diet of people has changed a lot from natural ingredients to
artificial ingredients.
Ancient people food are mostly from their farmland so they
are safe.
The quality of their Seeds, Eggs, Vegetables and meat are
wholly purified, since they are processed by themselves.

CONT…
168
On the contrast, the foods now are directly bought from
Supermarket, hence we will never know it has been
contaminated or not.
To increase profits, the Food producers and manufacturers
produce highly processed and highly profitable foods.
To improvise the taste of foods, additives or flavors are added
which are harmful to the health.
People in the past do not tend to put too much of salt or sugar.
Admittedly sugar and salt are harmful to health.

MODERN DIET
s.
Modern diet is the main reason why people all over
the world are fatter and sicker than ever before.
Few things that are wrong with the modern diet:
Sugar intake has increased.
Consumption of soda and fruit juices.
Calorie intake has increased.
People are eating more processed food
Egg consumption has gone down.
Usage of processed fats and oils.
169

Organic/conve tional foods
ORGANIC /CONVENTIONAL FOODS
organic CONVENTIONAL
Natural fertilizers such as manure or compost
are used
Synthetic or chemical fertilizers often containing
nitrates are used.
Crop rotation is followed Genetically modified crops
Use of traditional methods like tilling ,crop
rotation to kill weeds
Use of herbicides to kill weeds.
Give organic feed to animals and there is also a
usage of herbal treatment live stock healthy
Use of antibiotics ,growth hormones &
medications in animals to prevent diseases and
npromote growth
170

JUNK FOOD:
Junk food is an informal term applied to some
foods that are perceived to have little or no
nutritional value (containing "empty calories"), or
to products with . nutritional value but which also
have ingredients considered unhealthy when
regularly eaten.
Junk foods are typically ready-to-eat convenience
foods containing high levels of saturated fats, salt,
or sugar, and little or no fruit, vegetables, or dietary
fiber; junk foods thus have little or no health
benefits.
Junk food leads to short and long term affects like:
 Lack of energy
 Heart disease
Poor concentration
High cholesterol
171

A healthy diet is one that helps maintain or improve
Health. It is important for the prevention of many
chronic health risks such as: obesity, heart disease ,
diabetes, and cancer. A healthy diet involves consuming
appropriate amounts of all nutrients,and an adequate
amount of water.
 Keys to have a healthy diet
Eat a variety of nutrient-rich foods.
Enjoy plenty of whole grains, fruits and vegetables.
Maintain a healthy weight.
Eat moderate portions.
Eat regular meals.
Reduce, don't eliminate certain foods.
Balance your food choices over time.
172

OBESITY
Obesity is nationally declared as epidemic. It is a term
that means you weigh at least more than 20% more
than what is considered normal for your height.
 Energy in > Energy out.
 Excess calories and lack of physical activity.
Energy imbalance over a long period of time.
 Excess energy is stored in fat cells, which enlarge
or multiply.
 Enlargement of fat cells is known as hypertrophy,
whereas multiplication of fat cells is known as
hyperplasia.
 With time, excess in energy storage lead to obesity.
Energy Balance
Calories in Calories used
(expended)(consumed)
Physical activity
173

CONDITIONS FOUND TO BE ASSOCIATED WITHOBESITY
Diabetes mellitus
Hypertension
Gall bladder disease
Liver disease
Cancer
Coronary artery disease
Cerebrovascular disease
Endocrine changes
Obstructive sleep apnea
Psychosocial function
Osteoarthritis
174

SMOKING
“Smoking is injurious to health” is a quote
found almost everywhere and known by
everyone. But the thing is people are not
stopping it . As it is such a strong addiction
and it is a habit that is very difficult to break.
 The impact of smoking in youth has increased a lot. They think
its fun and cool among friends few smoke by saying it’s a great
stress reliever and relaxant.
 The other smoking implements include pipes, cigars, bidi
,Hookahs, vaporizers and bongs.
175

EFFECTS OF SMOKING
• Short term effects
 Every puff of cigarette contains a
mixture of nicotine and carbon
monoxide and each time you
smoke it increases your
temporarily effects like
 Heart rate
 Blood pressure
 Injures heart and blood vessels
• Long term effects
 Loss of appetite
 Yellowing of teeth
 Yellowing of facial hair
 Halitosis(bad breath)
 Lung cancer
 Other cancers of throat and
mouth
 Low sperm count
176

ALCOHOL
 Alcohol consumption has a major impact on
todays health mostly affecting the youth.
 Many young people struggle with drinking.
Alcohol is a part of young people’s lives now.
 Partying, drinking socially with other young
people, is considered cool. The media creates a
lot of images of young people drinking and
promotes drinking as being fun and popular.
 50% of automobile accidents, violence, suicide,
and sexual involvement. Are due to
consumption of alcohol.
177

Effects of alcohol on body
 Short term effects
a. Heavy sweating
b. Blurry vision
c. Nausea and vomiting
d. Slower Heart rate/breathing rate
e. Increased Blood pressure
f. Anxiety/restlessness
g. Mental confusion
178

DRUGS
1. Drug addiction is a disorder and is now commonly seen
in youth and can cause serious long term consequences
including problems with physical and mental health.
2. As our lifestyle is getting change the present youth are
often more experimental and willing to try anything their
friends are doing.
3. Drugs are essentially poisons . The amount taken
determines the effect.
4. A small amount acts as a stimulant(speeds you up).a
greater amount acts as a sedative(slows you down).An
even larger amount can kill.
Types of drugs:
Marijuana ,cocaine, heroin ,opium , ecstasy , LSD.
179

HOW DRUG ADDICTIONHAPPENS??
Experimental Use: “I heard about it.” “I want to find
out how it feels.” “I want to try it out”.
Social Use: Strictly for social use with friends. Will
drink or use other drugs with friends.
Regular Use: Continual access to supply. Ritualized.
Routine. Every night at dinner or almost every time
hanging out with friends.
Problem Use: Begin having problems with school,
work, and/or family resulting from use. Problems with
competence or with meeting challenges.
Chemical Dependency : Chemical controls the person
rather than the person controlling the chemical . And the
person will be in love with drug getting addicted to it.
 Weakens the immune
system
 Nausea , vomiting
 Abdominal pain
 Decrease in liver
function
 Heart
• infection of heart
lining valves
 Central nervous
system
• Addiction
• Dependence
Effects of drug addiction
180

LACK OF PHYSICALACTIVITY(SEDENTARY
LIFESTYLE)
of change Today’s society is undergoing rapid change, and the speed of this process
seems to be increasing. One of the major social changes is the gradual change over
from daily lives that contained high levels of physical effort to lives that are
increasingly sedentary.
 A sedentary lifestyle is a type of lifestyle with no regular or irregular physical
activity . Sedentary activities include sitting , reading , watching television, playing
video games and computer use for much of the day with little or no physical
exercise.
 Sedentary due to:
 Increased use of technologies.
 Increased use of automobiles.
181

PHYSICALACTIVITY
Benefits of physical activity.
 Helping to low blood pressure.
 Reducing the chance of developing diabetes.
 If you already have diabetes , physical activity can help you to
control it.
 It helps you to lose weight (if you are over weight).
 Makes you feel energetic.
 Helps you to relieve stress.
 Lowers the risk of osteoporosis.
182

POLLUTION
 Pollution is one of the greatest problem the world is facing today. And it is
increasing with every passing year causing damage to the earth and the human
health affecting their lives.
The industrial revolution ,technological
advancement and modern transportation
have seriously depleted oxygen levels on the
earth . Shortage of oxygen levels In body could
be the starting point for loss of immune system.
Hazardous wastes have properties( toxicity
persistence, flammability) which increase the
health affects .
183

EFFECTS OF POLLLUTION
SOIL
POLLUTION
NOISE
POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION WATER POLLUTION
ASTHMA GASTRICPROBLEMS CHOLERA DEAFNESS
COPD(CHRONIC
OBSTRUCTIVE
PULMONARY
DISEASE)
HEPATITISA LIVERAND
KIDNEY
DISEASES
LACK OF
CONCENTRATION
LUNG CANCER LEPTOSPIROSIS MALARIA HEART DISEASES
Pollution affects are indeed many and wide ranging.
Levels of pollution are causing a lot of effects on human and animal
health as well as the environment..
Infection by micro organisms(bacteria , fungi , virus& protozoa),
Also occurs through contamination of water , air & soil.
Few effects are listed below:
184

STRESS
 Modern life is full of hassles , deadlines , frustrations and
demand.
 Work can be a stress place weather it is in office , a factory or
school . For many people ,stress is so common it has become a
way of life.
 Too much stress is bad it leads to serious health problems.
 Stress-disrupts nearly every system in our body.it can raise
blood pressure , suppress the immune system , increase risk of
heart attack and stroke contributing to infertility and speed up
the aging process.
185

EFFECTS OF STRESS
 Health problems
caused by stress:
 Heart diseases
 Digestive problems
 Sleep problems
 Depression
 Auto immune diseases
186

PREVENTIVE MEASURES
187
Diet-A balanced healthy diet should be taken avoiding junk
foods.
 Smoking- Do not smoke. If you do smoke, stop. If you
cannot stop don’t smoke in the presence of others.
Alcohol- Do not start .if already started gradually decrease .
Limit alcohol to 2 units a day for men and 1 unit a day for
women.
Drugs- Never think about drugs. If you do so communicate
with the family members. For addiction resistance you may
visit at addiction treatment recovery center.

Cont…
188
 Physical activity : physical activity should be a part of our daily
life. Activities like walking , skipping , running , swimming etc.
Pollution : As an individual its every ones responsibility
not to pollute the environment . And keep them clean.
 Stress
 Relaxation time
 Exercise regularly
Eat healthy diet
Get plenty of sleep

CONCLUSION:
 As already discussed, staying healthy has the best impact on
 our body . And it plays an important role in our daily lifeactivities.
 It is said that “your body shows reflection of your lifestyle”. So eat healthy
add more of fruits and vegetables. Never consume alcohol, smoking, drugs
these habits just harm our bodies and it cost’s our lives.
So make a habit of doing activities
physically to burn the calories inside
body . Avoiding stress by accepting to
the situations.
29

BIO PSYCHO SOCIAL PATHOLOGY

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BIO PSYCHO SOCIAL PATHOLOGY