This document entails the first half of the human geography syllabus for CSEC ( excluding economic activities. It looks at population, urbanization and Migration

1. CSEC Geography
Human Geography
Population, Urbanization and Migration
Teacher: O. Johnson
Population facts and Figures
World population passed the 6 billion mark in 1999. Since then growth has continued, reaching
6.7 billion by 2007. Although this appear very rapid, in fact the world growth rate is beginning to
slow down. An approximate way of looking at it is to say that one baby is born somewhere in the
world every seconds and someone dies every two seconds.
Almost 40% of the world’s people live in just two countries: China, the largest, with 1.4 billion,
and India with 1.2 billion. India is currently growing faster than China and is likely to overtake
it. The USA, Russia and Indonesia are the next in population size order. Equally, there are some
very small countries, many of which are island nations, some located in the Caribbean.
Some cities are larger than countries in terms of population. Mexico City and New York are both
close to 19 million, but are outranked by Tokyo at 26 million. The largest Caribbean country is
Dominican Republic with 8 596 000. Jamaica has over 2 million people, Trinidad and Tobago
just over 1 million. Although these are relatively large for the Caribbean, they have fewer people
than most world cities. The British Virgin Islands have only 21 000 people and the Cayman
Islands 41 000.
World population distribution and density
Some definitions
 Population distribution means the way in which people are spread out over an area.
Population distribution is represented by a dot map.
 Population density is the average number of people per unit area. It relates to numbers
of people to the area they occupy and make a living from. Population density is usually

2. expressed as the number of people per square kilometre. Population density is
represented by a shaded map or choropleth map.
Factors that affect population distribution
Physical factors that influence population distribution
Climate
The impact of climate is very important. Unfavourable climate is the main reason behind the
world's empty areas. Half the world is almost uninhabitable because of climate difficulties.
Temperature is an important factor to be considered in climate conditions.It is obvious that
wherever there are extremes of temperature, human life is difficult to sustain, and consequently
such areas are sparsely populated. Areas with such climate include the extremely hot and dry
deserts and the polar regions of the world.
Vast areas are too dry such as the Sahara (a hot desert in North Africa), Atacama (desert in
Chile), Kalahari (desert in Southern Africa) and the Gobi (a desert in Western China) for
habitation. The hot deserts cover about 20 % of the world’s land surface, yet support only 0.4%
of the world’s population. Areas such as the Arctic, Antarctic, vast areas of North America and
Siberia are too cold for human habitation. The soil is frozen for most of the year so it prevents
any infrastructural development and agricultural activity.
Conversely areas with temperatures that are not extreme tend to be more suitable for settlements
and will have higher population densities. In addition the rainfall is reliable and evenly
distributed throughout the year and there is lengthy growing season so these areas are densely
populated. For e.g. the tropics and the temperate zones.
Relief/Topography
The main concentrations of human population are confined to the areas marked with flat
topography. Highland areas with its rugged nature restricts the clustering of human population.

3. When an area is flat or gently sloping or low lying it is easier to construct infrastructure and
communications (road, railways etc). The soils are normally deep and fertile. These areas
encourage high population densities e.g. the plains of Jamaica, plains of North America and
Europe. The Ganges Valley in India, Nile valley in Africa, Hwang Ho Valley and Yangzte
Valley in China are all areas marked with flat topography that have high population densities.
The most populated areas in Jamaica are found on the major plains.
When the terrain is mountainous it restricts settlement and agricultural development. This further
will result in sparsely populated areas. E.g. Andes, Alps, Himalayas, Rockies, Blue Mountains,
John Crow Mountains, Cockpit country
Disadvantages of Highland/Mountainous areas
 Highland area are characterised by steep slopes which makes it difficult to build houses,
roads and railways.
 Soils on highland/mountainous areas are normally thin and is not suitable for farming
Water supply
Areas with regular water supply will tend to attract a large population. Areas where rivers are
situated normally are densely populated areas. Rivers usually attract people because they provide
a water supply, irrigation, transport and for fishing purposes. Ninety-six percent (96%) of
Egypt’s population lives along the Nile on just 4% of the land available in the whole country.
400 million people live in the Ganges River Basin, making it the most populous river basin in the
world
In addition these rivers have rich soils (alluvium- river deposited silt) and will support faming
there will contribute to the high population densities. Many communities in Jamaica have sprung
up close to water sources, Examples include Constant spring, Golden Spring and Black River.
Vegetation
Vegetation can also influenced distribution. Areas such as the Amazon Rainforest in South
America is dense and creates a difficult environment to exploit. These areas tend to be sparsely
populated. The other rainforests across the tropics are sparsely populated due to this reason. In

4. addition to the rainforests of the tropics, the coniferous forests of Northern Europe shows similar
conditions. Areas with less dense and thick forests tend to have higher population densities.
Soils
Similarly, the quality of soils exerts an undeniable influence on the distribution of world
population. Areas which have good quality soils will tend to have a high population densities.
Deep humus filled soils, fertile deltaic and alluvial soils supports dense populations. Most of the
major concentrations of populations in the world are located closed to rivers. The soils close to
rivers are very fertile and hence supports agricultural production. This can support a large
population. Volcanic soils are fertile soils which also support large populations. Some volcanic
regions of the worlds are densely populated due to this reason. The Ganges river in India and the
Nile river in Africa are examples of rivers which supports high population densities
Conversely thin, unproductive or damaged soils cannot produce high yields so fail to support a
large population. For example, The Soils of the Sahel, The leached soils of the rainforest, the
acidic soils of the northern coniferous forest
Resources
Areas with resources often have large populations. Resources attract people to settle and exploit
them so long as they have the technology necessary. Industries usually develop around these
areas with mineral resources. Availability of jobs in these industries will cause this area to
develop rapidly. This will attract other industries and overtime the area will expand rapidly.
Large towns have grown up in inaccessible and extremely inhospitable areas such as deserts,
Polar Regions or in the midst of forests where precious minerals and metals have been found.
Examples are oil reserves in Alaska, Libya and the Middle East. Kalgoorlie, a gold mining town
in the Australian deserts, is a very good example in this regard
All over Northern Canada, where the climate is cold and difficult, towns such a Port Radium and
Grand Rapids have sprung up around mineral deposits or energy sources. In the Caribbean many
settlements have developed around bauxite, oil and other resources.

5. Human factors that affect population distribution
Availability of services
Areas with large number of services tend to have high population densities. Examples of services
include health care services, educational institutions, transportation services, entertainment
services. In less developed countries there are sometimes significant differences between the
availability of services in urban and rural areas. Urban areas tend to have more services than
rural areas. Because of this the urban areas are densely populated. Most of the capital cities in the
Caribbean are located in urban areas. The capital cities sometimes have population three times or
more than the next largest city in most countries in the Caribbean.
Availability of Jobs
Wherever jobs are situated there is a tendency for that area to have a high population density.
This means areas where certain economic activities are concentrated tend to have dense
populations. Large populations have developed around inhospitable areas due to availability of
jobs from the development of mineral resources. In less developed countries the urban areas
usually have more jobs than rural areas. This will result in large population densities in the urban
areas.
Government policy
There have also been cases in which governments have influenced population distribution
patterns. The state may directly or indirectly decide to encourage development in a particular
area or region. In modern times, governments have taken a regional view of resource
development and created urban centres to act as economic nodes.
Brasilia, the capital of Brazil is an excellent example. The capital was transferred from Rio De
Janeiro to a site was nearer to the city centre of the country to redistribute the population. It
became the seat of government and headquarters of major Brazilian companies. Population
growth was explosive. Planned for 500,000, the city is now home to 2 million people.
Similarly India’s Capital which was once Kolkata now moved to Delhi has significantly affect
the population distribution there. Delhi is one of the most densely populated areas in India.

6. Factors that influence population distribution in Jamaica
Dot map of Jamaica
Choropleth map

7. Physical Factors
Relief/Topography
Flat lands are ideal for settlements, construction of infrastructure and for farming. Most
settlements in Jamaica, especially the towns are on the low lying plains on the southern section
of the island. The plains in Jamaica are: Ligunea (Kingston and St Andrew), Pedro plain (St
Elizabeth), Vere plain (Clarendon), Georges plain (Westmoreland), Dorothy plain (St Catherine).
With the exception of Mandeville all parish capitals are on low lying plains or along the narrow
coastal strip around the island. The towns have the largest populations. Kingston, the largest
settlement in Jamaica is on the Ligunea plain at the foot of the Blue Mountains.
Like many other Caribbean territories Jamaica is hilly, with some areas being very high over
(2000m). Settlements was difficult for early settlers as the hills were very difficult to traverse.
Even with today heavy equipment, like excavators and power cranes, some areas are still
difficult to cut roads through. The Blue Mountains, Cockpit Country and John Crown in the east
of the island are not only high but also steep. Settlement in these areas will always be difficult
and so they will have a sparse population. The dolphin head at the western end of the island also
have a sparse population.
Water supply- Water is life- This is a frequently used slogan of the national water commission
of Jamaica, because water is indeed one of the basic essentials for survival for both plants and
animals. Before technology brought us pumping stations and piped water people settled near
river and springs where they had easy access to water.
Many settlements in Jamaica sprang up beside rivers and springs and took the name of the local
water source for example constant spring and Golden Spring in the parish of St Andrew. Others
include Black River, Rock Spring, Ulster Spring, Mason River, Rock River, White river and Mill
Bank along the Rio Grande River. These are some larger settlements but many smaller
settlements are also named after water sources.
Drainage: In theory areas that have good drainage tend to have a dense population whilst areas
that have very poor drainage will deter settlement and have a sparse population. In Jamaica there

8. are areas where the drainage is poor and these areas have low population densities. They include
the Great morass of Westmoreland and Hanover, St Thomas and St Elizabeth (along the black
river)
It is difficult or almost impossible to construct buildings and roads on swampy areas. It is
impossible to cultivate swamp lands. The stagnant water found in these area are ideal breeding
ground sites for mosquitoes and some of them are vectors for diseases.
Natural resources (minerals): Some areas in Jamaica are rich in Bauxite ore. The town of
Mandeville in the hills of Manchester developed as a result of local bauxite mining. Today,
though, bauxite production is significantly reduced, and many of the hotels and apartments in the
town that once housed expatriates are now offices. In other areas where aggregates like
limestone and gypsum are mined, small communities sprang up around the activity- for example
Bull Bay in St Thomas.
Access to the coast: Most Jamaican towns are situated along the coast, especially in the north.
The earliest settlers- the Tainos (formerly called Arawak’s_ were hunter- gatherers and
fishermen and they mostly settled along the coast. Discovery bad and Runaway Bay are old taino
settlements that have grown into large modern settlements. The Europeans also settled along the
coast and developed trading posts. The sea is also a source of revenue for many communities in
Jamaica. There are many fishing communities along the coast of the island and these persons are
directly dependent on the sea as a source of income. Examples include Port Royal on the
palisadoes strip, Old Harbour bay in St Catherine and Alligator Pond in Manchester.
The highest concentration of population are found in coastal areas with about two-thirds of the
world’s population living within 500 km of the sea.
Soils
Fertile soils have the effect of attracting people. There are different soil types in Jamaica but a
very common one due to the numerous rivers is alluvium. A good example is in the Bog Walk
and Linstead Area in St Catherine. This area have fertile alluvium soils which attracted people. It
attracted farming activities such as the cultivation of citrus crops and Sugar Cane. The
development of these activities attracted other types of economic activities to the area. Over time
the area continued to grow and expand.

9. Vegetation
There are areas in Jamaica that are heavily forested and as a result difficult to exploit and
expensive to clear e.g. the Blue Mountains and the Cockpit Country. These areas are sparsely
populated. Areas that have less dense vegetation for e.g. on the plains are densely populated.
Human factors affecting population distribution
Economic Factors
This relates to the availability of jobs. The urban areas provide more job opportunities than rural
areas. This encourage large rural to urban migration. This is most noticeable in Kingston as
many persons from rural area from different parishes go to Kingston to seek jobs. This is also the
case in Montego Bay which is the second largest city in the country. These areas are the densest
in the country.
The recent development of tourism in the north eastern section of the country have resulted in the
creation of jobs. This has resulted in a large influx of migrants from rural areas to this section of
the country due the availability of jobs in the industry.
Social Factors
This relates to the availability of services. Similarly in urban areas there are wider range of
services compare to rural areas. Examples include health care services, educational institutions,
transportation services, entertainment services. Better utilities and infrastructure such as water
supply, electricity are available in the city.
The two most recognized tertiary institutions are in Kingston, The University of the West Indies
and University Technology of Jamaica. After leaving high school many students from rural areas
migrate to Kingston in searching for higher education. Even after leaving school persons stay in
Kingston as the chance of getting a job is higher. This is another reason why Kingston is so
densely populated. There is a similar effect in Montego Bay as there is another University of the
West Indies campus located there alongside the various services that can be found in Kingston.
Because of the wide range of services available in urban areas they will continue to attract
people.

10. Government policies
Government policies also affects population distribution in Jamaica. In 1872 Kingston became
the capital of Jamaica after Spanish town was the capital for 217 years. This created a shift as the
services and population also shift with it as well.
Modern examples include the development of Portmore. Portmore was developed solely to
control the overpopulation problems that was in Kingston. It was particularly created to relieve
the housing pressures. Because of this, the area now is one of the most populated areas in the
country. The area is well developed and there are a wide range of services available there.
Persons who lives in Portmore commute to Kingston daily where there jobs are.
Historical
There are many isolated communities across Jamaica. These settlements are influenced by
historical events. A good example is Accompong Town which is a historical Maroon Village
located in the hills of St Elizabeth. Accompong was founded in 1739 and their descendants
fought a protracted war with the British. A treaty was signed which saw the maroons given 1500
acres of land in the Cockpits. The community was established back then and still exists after 279
years.

11. Population trends
Birth rate, death rate and natural change
The birth rate (BR) of a country is defined as the number of live births per 1000 of the
population in a given year. The reason ‘per 1000’ is part of the definition is so that countries of
different sizes can be compared. Otherwise, how could China with its 1.4 billion population be
sensibly compared with Jamaica, a country with a population of 2 672 000? Often we record
statistics as percentages. If BR was measured in this way the numbers would be small and more
difficult to grasp. Using ‘per 1000’ is much more manageable.
Birth rates vary between 5/1000 per year and 50/1000 per year. These extremes are both very
unusual. Most countries have a BR between 10 and 30 per 1000 per year. Jamaica’s BR was
20.4/1000 in 2007; Trinidad and Tobago’s was 13.1 per 1000 in the same year.
The death rate (DR) of a country is the number of people dying per 1000 people per year in that
country. Jamaica’s death rate was 6.6 per 1000 in 2007 while Trinidad and Tobago was 10.8 per
1000. Typically death rate lies between 5 and 20 per 1000 per year. Periods of national crisis,
such as war or epidemic disease, would increase the DR above this level. Once we have these
two statistics we can start to work out population change- that is population growth of decline.
This is called natural change and is calculated by simple subtraction. It is the difference between
BR and DR.
Calculating natural change
Natural increase (NI) means a country has a growing population. Birth rate is higher than death
rate, so the calculation is:
NI= BR-DR
Natural change (NC) or rate of natural increase is always expressed as a percentage, so the
answer must be divided by ten.
Example the UK
Birth rate= 10.7 per 1000 per year
Death rate = 10.1 per 1000 per year

12. NI as a percent ( or rate of natural increase)= BR-DR/10
= 10.7- 10.1/10
= 0.6/ 10 = 0.06 % per year
Example: Mauritius ( a developing country)
BR= 15.3 per 1000 per year
DR= 6.9 per 1000 per year
NI= 15.3 – 6.9/10
NI= 8.4/10
NI= 0.84%
Until recently all countries have been in a situation of natural increase unless war, famine or
disease has reversed this for a limited time. Today, however, some countries, mostly in Easter
Europe, are in a state of natural decrease (ND). To calculate ND, BR is subtracted from DR.
Example: Czech Republic (a poorer developed country, which joined the European Union in
2005).
BR= 9.0 / 1000 per year
DR= 10.6 / 1000 per year
ND= DR-BR/10
ND= 10.6- 9.0/10
ND= 1.6/10 = 0.16% year decrease
Birth rate, death rate, natural increase and natural decrease give us information on the level of
development of a country. Today, in all countries, rich or poor, DR tends to be low. People often
assume that death rates in developing countries must be high because people are poor and life
expectancy may not be very long. This is not true. Two factors affect the level of DR: improved
health care and the youthful age structure of these countries. Death rates in developed countries
are often higher than those found in developing countries because they have a larger number of

13. elderly people. Birth rate is a better indicator of development. In all developed countries family
size is relatively small, but developing countries have good economic reasons for favouring
larger families.
More useful definitions
Infant and child mortality rates and life expectancy are also useful indicators of development. In
countries with developing economy the first two tend to be higher and the last tends to be lower.
Countries achieve a longer life expectancy as they develop economically, but, sadly, many
African countries are now seeing their life expectancy figures being reduced to due to the impact
of AIDS. This has happened in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Botswana.
The infant mortality rate is the number of deaths in the age group 0-12 months per 1000 live
births per year. The child mortality rate relates to children up to their fifth birthday. Life
expectancy is the number of years people in a particular society are expected to live. The highest
life expectancy in the world is for Japan: over 80 years old for both males and females. Life
expectancy figures can be split by gender and it is usually higher for females for males. A small
number of European countries now have a life expectancy of 80+ for females, but not yet for
males; only Japan has achieved that so far.
The demographic transition model
The demographic transition model shows the changes or patterns of birth and death rate over
time. Migration is not included. It is divided into five stages during which there is a change from
a situation of high birth rate and death rate to low birth and death rates. Originally the model was
designed to explain patterns in the developed countries but it can also apply quite well to today’s
developing regions of the world.

14. Stage 1
In stage 1 both the birth rate and death rate are both high and fluctuating. This stage is called the
high ‘fluctuating stage’. Birth rates are high owing to high infant mortality, lack of birth control
and need for children to work on the land. Death rates are high owing to famines, war and
disease. It refers to a simpler society than we find today, with little medicine, a low life
expectancy and no mean of birth control. The only places where this stage still applies might be
among indigenous people in remote rainforests in Amazonia or Indonesia, but even they now
have some influence from the outside world.
Stage 2
In stage 2 the birth remains the same but the death rate fall rapidly. Death rates fall as medicines
are introduced, health care improves, and there are better diets and improved living conditions
(safe water and sanitation). This results in a natural increase and the population starts to increase.
The key characteristic of stage 2 is a decreasing death rate. The gap between the BR and the DR

15. on the graph represents population growth. The farther apart these lines are, the greater the
growth.
Stage 3
In stage 3 the death rate continues to fall, but at a more gradual rate. The key change is that birth
rate now falls, and often quite rapidly. This is due to several reasons. Women are now focusing
on self-development and pursuing careers rather than having multiple children. This is also due
to the availability of birth control, but people must have an economic reason for desiring birth
control. As a country develops children become economic costs rather than economic assets.
When children can work and earn they bring money into the family, but when they have to go to
school (which may cost the family money) they can contribute less. It is therefore become cost-
effective to have fewer children.
Stage 4
In stage 4 both the birth rate and death rate are low. This is called the low fluctuating stage. The
lines on the graph are close to each other and birth rate is still higher than the death rate, so there
is still population growth but it is slow. A country in this stage is developed and there are several
reasons for having a small family.
Stage 5
The original DTM did not include this stage. It was added later to try to explain recent
demographic changes in some developed countries where, for the first time in human history,
birth rate is less than DR. More people are dying than are born each year. Many eastern
European countries and some western European states are now in this situation. Germany, Japan,
Greece, Spain and Italy are some good examples.
The position of the Caribbean in the DTM
Most Caribbean countries can be placed stage 3 of the demographic transition model. Because
they are developing economically their DR has been low for many years and their birth rate is
also declining. Within a few decades the Caribbean region should enter stage 4
Reasons for higher birth rates in LEDCS

16. Hardly any part of the world does not have access to birth control today, only the most remote
regions like Amazonia. In some cultures the position of women and traditional life make birth
control less acceptable such as Afghanistan, which still has one of the world’s highest birth rates
of 38.84/1000 per year. Lack of education may mean people have difficulty accepting new ideas.
Religion
Religion had also had an impact on the acceptance of birth control. The Roman Catholic faith
does not agree with birth control, so Catholic countries have traditionally had larger families. In
some Muslim societies the position of women is low and this encourages a high birth rate,
though there is no basis for this in the Koran. Girls tend to marry young so there is a longer
period in which to have children.
Children needed to work on the land
In a peasant farming society children are needed to work on the land; they can produce more
food than they eat. Even in the cities children are able to earn some money to supplement the
family’s income.
Cultural traditions
Some cultures prefer sons to daughters. Several children may be born to ensure at least two sons.
In India, for example a bride must bring a dowry (a payment at marriage) to her new husband’s
family. It is therefore expensive to have daughters. Sons also carry on the family name; if you
produce only daughters, the name will die out. This is particularly important in China. In other
cultures men are polygamous (have more than one wife) and having several wives was a sign of
wealth and status for a man.
Children seen as pension plan
LEDCs have little state care for the elderly. Parents expect their children to look after them in
their old age. This is not only a reason for having a larger family, but also for having sons, as a
man is in charge for his household, not his wife. A man is more able to care for elderly parents
financially. There are few pensions or services for the elderly in LEDCs.

17. Reasons for low birth rates in MEDCs
Emancipation of women/ women are more career oriented
Two factors are important in reducing the birth rate as a country develops. In an MEDC,
education is compulsory for boys and girls until the age of at least 16, or higher, and many
continue their education at university. Marriage is therefore later. Women have the chance to
develop a career. They therefore choose to have children later or even not to have any at ll. Most
women have to work outside the home. It takes two incomes to buy a house and look after a
family. A working mother with limited time is likely to choose a smaller family.
Cost of raising a child
Children are also expensive. They cannot go out and earn money for the family but it costs a
good deal to bring them up in a country with high standard of living. People prefer to have one,
two or three children and give each as much as they can afford, rather than dividing the family
resources between more children.

18. Population growth
Factors affect population growth in Jamaica and China
Some of the factors that affect population growth are: fertility rate, birth rate, natural increase,
migration, fertility rate, and life expectancy and government policies.
Population growth in Jamaica
Factors that affect population growth in Jamaica
The population of Jamaica increased rapidly in the 1900’s but in recent times, the rate of growth
has decreased. Though the population is still growing, it is not growing as quickly as it was in
past decades. The line graph below shows that population growth in Jamaica has generally been
on the decline for some time. In the early 1980’s the population growth rate was almost two
percent but by 2011, the rate had dropped to about a quarter of one percent.
Fertility rate
The average number of children women are having now is significantly smaller than what is used
to be in the past. In the 1900s the population increased rapidly. Having more than 5 children was
a norm in the 1900s. One of the issue was a lack of birth control. Couples had large families
because they needed children to work on farms as farming was the major economic activity. In
addition some couples have multiple children so their kids can take care of them when they reach
retirement age. Children were seen as an economic resource rather than a burden. The average
number of children is a family has halved in thirty years. There are many reason for this. Birth
control is now readily available. More women are working, giving greater freedom to plan
independently. In Jamaica, two thirds of women have jobs, one of the highest ratios in the world.
More women than men enter higher education. In 1960 Jamaica’s fertility rate was 5.42 and it
was 2.02 in 2015. The decrease in fertility rate has a negative effect on population growth.

19. Birth rate
The birth rate is similar to the fertility rate and has also decreased due to the same reasons. The
birth rate in 1960s was 41 per 1000 and in 2015 it was 17 per 1000. Women are now more
career oriented thus delaying child bearing. Also birth control is more readily available. The
decreased in birth rate also has a negative effect on population growth.
Death rate
There is not a significant change in the death rate as the birth and fertility rates. The introduction
of modern and western medicine have significantly improved medical care. The death rate in
1960 was 9 per 1000 of the population while the death rate in 2015 was 7 per 1000. The death
rate has remained the about the same.
Natural increase
The rate of natural increase is lower, because of the falling birth rate. In 1960 the natural increase
was 32 per 1000 and in 2015 it was 10 per 1000. As women begin to pursue their career and
have fewer children and smaller family, there is a significant reduction in the rate of natural
increase.
Life expectancy
Life expectancy has increased and infant mortality has decreased as a result of improvements in
living conditions and medical care. This will tend to have a positive effect on the rate of
population growth. Life expectancy in the early 1970s was 69. Now the life expectancy is
approximately 77 years. Infant mortality rate has been cut by two-thirds
Migration
There is a significant outflow of migrants to the USA, Canada, Britain and other Caribbean
territories. There is a much smaller number of people moving into Jamaica from other countries.
Since emigration is greater than immigration, this will have a negative effect on population
growth

20. Factors affecting population growth in China
Fertility rate: There has been a significant reduction in the fertility rate in China. In 1960 it was
5.7. Previous Chinese governments encouraged people to have a lot of children. This was done to
increase the country’s work force and military power. However, in the 1970s the government
realized that the rates of population growth would soon become unsustainable and will soon face
famine conditions. In the late 1970s, the Chinese government introduced a number of measures
to reduce the country’s birth rate and slow the population growth rate. The most important of the
new measures was a one child policy which was implemented in 1979. The fertility rate in 2015
was 1.6. See government policy below
Birth rate
With the lower fertility rate, the birth rate is also declining. The birth rate in 1960 was 44 per
1000 and the birth rate in 2015 was 12 per thousand. The decline in birth rate is due to the
implementation of the one child policy.
Life expectancy
Life expectancy has increased by 43 in 1960 to 76 in 2015. Arguably, improvement in the
provision of public health services particularly in infant and mental health have been the biggest
factors in raising life expectancy. The improvements in medical care was not drastic but a slow
process. Its effect on population growth is positive as people are now living longer. Ten percent
of China’s population is over 65 compared to 4% in 1960.
Death rate
In 1960 the death rate in China was 25 per 1000, the death rate has fallen to 7 per 1000 in 2015.
There has been significant improvement in China’s health care. There is better control and
prevention of infectious diseases which also lowered the infant mortality rate which ultimately
increased life expectancy. Infant mortality rate fell from 84 per 1000 live births in 1960 to 8.5
per 1000 live births in 2015. The falling death rate has a positive effect on population growth.

21. Natural increase
There is a fall in the natural increase as there is a decline in birth rate. The natural increase fell
from 20 per 1000 in 1960 to 6 per 1000 in 2015. The decline comes as a result of one child
policy. The reduction in natural increase has a negative effect on population growth.
Migration
There is an outflow of Chinese to different destinations across the world. There is a much
smaller number of people moving into China from other countries. Since emigration is greater
than immigration this would have a negative effect on population growth.
Government policy:
The policy China decided to introduce was extremely strict and probably not possible in a non-
communist country. The government stated that from 1979 all couples were only allowed to have
one child. Each couple:
 Must not marry until well into their twenties.
 Must only have one successful pregnancy.
 Must be sterilized after the first child or abort any other further pregnancies
If you applied by these rules you were entitled to free education, healthcare, housing and given a
job. If you did not follow the rules, then benefits would be removed and females who were
found to be pregnant were given forced abortions and even sterilized.
To enforce the policy
 The government relied on community enforcement. Often elderly residents who were
trusted within the community were asked to inform, elderly female informants were
nicknamed 'granny police'.
There were a number of exceptions to the rules,
 if your first child had a physical or mental disability you could have a second,
 Families in rural areas (farming areas) were often allowed a second, ethnic minorities
were allowed a second and often couples who bribed officials could have a second.
SUCCESS The policy has been relatively successful, birth rates have fallen from a peak of 44 in
the 1950's down to just 12. Because of its success there have been further relaxations including

22. The policy was controversial for several reasons:
 Later abortions were carried out
 Women were placed under tremendous pressure.
 Local officials had power over people’s private lives
 As sons were preferred, many girls were abandoned or were left at orphanages. Some
were later adopted by Western families.
 Chinese children have a reputation for being indulged because they are ‘only’ (single)
children
The main result of the police has been a rapid reduction in China’s population growth rate. The
likely famine has been avoided. The country is still growing, but much more slowly. It is now
possible to pay to be allowed to have a second child, unless you are a government employee
(government employees are expected to set an example to others, by not having a second child).

23. Population Structure
Age structure shows the proportions of each age group within a country’s population. This
varies between developing countries and developed countries and within a country as it develops
over time. Gender structure- the balance between males and females- is also important. Small
differences here can tell us a lot about a country.
Population pyramids
A population pyramid is a bar graph diagram used to show the age and gender structure of the
population of a country, city or other area. The horizontal axis is divided into either numbers of
percentages. The central vertical axis is divided into age categories, either every ten years, every
five years, or ever one. The lower part of the pyramid is the base and shows the younger section
of the population. The upper part is concerned with the elderly group. Pyramids give us a
remarkable amount of information about a population: birth and death rates, life expectancy, and
the level of economic development (or stage of the DTM).

24. Interpreting population pyramids
- A broad/wide base indicates a high birth rate. This is typical of developing countries and
they tend to have a young or youthful population. Sometimes majority of their
population is below age 15. There are several reasons for the high birth rates
- A narrow base indicates a low birth rate. This is typical of developed countries. Women
are career oriented, availability of birth controls and the cost of raising children are some
factors that contributes to this.
- A broad apex indicates high life expectancy (top heavy). The bars at the top are
wide/broad. This is typical of developed countries. These countries often times have an
aging population where a good percentage of the population is over 65. Persons are living
longer as these countries have advance medical care.
- A narrow apex indicates low life expectancy. This is typical of developing countries
- If there is a decrease in the width with each successive bar (sides narrow in quickly), this
shows a high death rate.
- Sometimes the bars in the economically active age groups are significantly wider. This
reflects migration as sometimes there are high levels of in migration in a country.
- Sometimes a bar can be missing or be significantly smaller on the male side in a country.
This show the effects of wars.
Population structure of MDCS and LDCS
The population structure in more developed countries tend to show a narrow base reflecting
lower birth rates and a relatively small proportion of its population under age 15. They typically
have a higher percentage over 65 years. The base is narrow which indicates a low birth rate, the
fertility rate is sometimes below replacement .The apex of the pyramid tends to be broader than
those of less developed countries because life expectancy is high. Medical care is available from
cradle to the grave ensures low infant mortality rates and long lives. Japan has 27.87% of their
population over 65 years and 12.84% under 15 years. This means Japan has twice as much old
people than young people.
Generally the population structure of LDCs is marked by a higher proportion of young persons.
LDCS usually have a larger percentage of their population below age 15. These pyramids have a
broad (wide bases) because of high birth rate. The apex of the pyramid is small/narrow which

25. indicates a low life expectancy. Niger has 52% of their population below age 15 and only 2.64%
over 65 years old.
The effects on a country of having a young population
The whole of Africa ( except south Africa), most of South America, India and its neighbors,
Mongolia and North and South Korea have over 40% of their people under age 15 years. This
places very specific demands on the governments of these countries.
Whilst there are so many children in the population, more of the services they require will have
to be provided: schools, baby clinics and youth centers. Funds for this come from the
government, from taxes paid by those of working age. A lot of pressure is placed on the
economically active age group as they have to support the needs of the young population.
Governments often increase taxes on the working age group in order to facilitate the needs of the
young population.
On the contrary, countries with the highest percentages of children are generally the ones that do
not have the funds and so cannot supply these for their population
The effects of having a an elderly population
Life expectancy is higher in developed countries than in developing countries, so it is the
developed countries that have the difficulties associated withhold age. In richer countries people
expect to be able to retire from work and have a pension (income) on which to live. Funds for
this come from the government, from taxes paid by those of working age. The demand for
health care increases because more illness occurs in old age. As people live longer, even greater
pressure is placed on the system. The government has to find more funds, again from taxation of
present workers.
Elderly people need certain services in particular: nursing homes, day care centers and people to
assist the elderly in their own homes. These special needs also put financial pressure on the
country.
Population pyramids and the DTM

27. Urbanization
Urbanization is the process whereby an increasing percentage of the population in a country lives
in urban settlements. Urban growth is the actual increase in size and total population of urban
areas.
According to the United Nations:
Around 5 billion people are expected to live in urban areas by 2030. This will be about 60% of a
world population 0f 8.1 billion. At present about 75% of the population of developed countries
live in urban areas. This figure should rise to 83% by 2030. This compares with 40% of the
population of developing countries living in urban areas today. This will increase to 56% by
2030.
Causes of rising urban populations
Rapid urban growth is the result of three factors:
 Natural increase- the excess of births over deaths in most urban areas, particularly in
developing countries.
 Rural-urban migration- The perceived higher quality of life in urban areas as opposed to
rural areas has resulted in high rate of migration from the country side to towns and
cities. This has been at a very high rate in developing countries since the 1950s.
 Reclassification – rural villages that have expanded rapidly to become towns are
reclassified as urban areas. In such cases long-standing residents who will have
previously seen classed as rural dwellers because their settlements have expanded in size.
The two most important factor in urban growth are natural increase and in migration.
Push and pull factors
A variety of push factors in the country side has encouraged out-migration.
 There are not enough job opportunities available in rural areas. This results in
unemployment.
 The poor wages and conditions of rural employment

28.  There are not enough services such as schools, health facilities and recreational activities
in rural areas. Most tertiary based institutions are usually located in the urban areas of a
country for e.g. Jamaica. The social conditions in rural areas are poor.
 In some rural areas, the conditions of infrastructure ( electricity, water, sanitation and
roads are often lacking
 Agriculture is declining in rural areas in many countries and there is an expansion of the
service and manufacturing industry in the urban areas. The idea of farming is not
generally attractive to young people so there is a tendency to move to urban areas.
A variety of pull factors in the urban areas has encouraged in in-migration. People are attracted
to urban areas because they feel that life in town and cities will provide at least some of the
following:
 A much wider range of jobs and a greater likelihood of employment. The manufacturing
and service sector jobs are often located in urban areas. Call centers are expanding in the
Caribbean now and majority of them are located in urban areas where there is a large
educated labor force. After finishing university in Jamaica, most of the graduates stay in
Kingston as there is a higher chance of getting a job there. Therefore many people move
to towns and cities in search of employment.
 Urban areas also have better educational opportunities. Most secondary and tertiary level
educational facilities are to be found in towns and cities. In Jamaica some of the top
tertiary institutions are located in Kingston for e.g. UWI, UTECH, MICO and EDNA.
After students graduate secondary school they move to Kingston to attend these schools.
 Urban areas generally have better healthcare facilities than rural areas. Indeed, some
rural areas have no healthcare facilities at all.
 Urban areas provide more opportunities for entertainment than rural areas. In urban areas
one may find nightclubs, fancy restaurants, sports facilities, shopping malls and many
other opportunities for entertainment and recreation. These are particularly attractive for
young people.
 A wider range of consumer services such as food markets and different kinds of shops.
 Proper infrastructure- roads, water, electricity etc

29. The scale of rural-urban migration in developing countries is not surprising given the great
concentrations of wealth and economic activity in the cities compared with the countryside. For
example Caracas accounts for 75% of all the manufacturing industry in Venezuela. Because of
urbanization cities across the world are rapidly increasing. Some cities for e.g. Barcelona and
Milan have more than one million people and are termed million cities. Some cities which have
populations of 10 million or more. These are termed megacities. Tokyo, Mexico city, Sao Paulo,
New York, Mumbai, Los Angeles and Kolkata are all mega cities. Eight (8) percent of the
world’s population live in megacities.
Urban primacy
In developing countries and some developed counties socio- economic, cultural and historical
factors usually result in the dominance of one or few urban areas. Most of the economic
activities, services and government administration are located there. Urban primacy exists
when one or a few cities dominate the settlement system in a country. A primate city is one
that is at least twice the size of the next largest city. London which is six times larger than the
next largest city in England; and Paris which is ten times larger than the next largest city in
France. Kingston is at least 3 times larger than Portmore. In most Caribbean countries over 30%
of the population live in or very close to the largest city. The main concern about urban primacy
in the Caribbean is the heavy concentration of investment in capital cities which has let little
investment for elsewhere.
Benefits of Urbanization
Some of the benefits of urbanization include:
 Convenience: A wide range of goods and services are conveniently located in the same
area.
 Many businesses prefer to be located in urban areas in order to have access to potential
customers, employees and other businesses which supply them with inputs.
 Efficiency: Services such as piped water, electricity, telecommunications and even
garbage collection can be provided more efficiently in urban areas

30.  Majority of the urban residents are in the economically active age group. This results in a
large labour supply for industries. Call centers are expanding in the Caribbean regions
and they are primarily located in urban areas due to this large labour force.
 Large urban areas are more likely to attract new businesses. This is because cities have
better facilities and a more highly skilled workforce than smaller settlement.
Problems of urbanization
Shortage of land for building
In many cities, there is a shortage of land for building. As a result, cities often spread out onto
the surrounding areas. This is known as “urban sprawl”. A good example of urban sprawl has
occurred in Jamaica as the capital, Kingston, has spread outward into the surrounding areas such
as St. Andrew and Portmore. Urban sprawl is the uncontrolled spread of urban development
into surrounding lands (farmlands, green spaces)
Traffic congestion
Since many people travel to cities for work or school, there may be very heavy traffic on the
roads leading into these areas on mornings. Traffic is also quite heavy on afternoons as people
make their way home from work or school. There may be traffic congestion during these periods
as the road networks are often incapable of handling such a heavy flow of traffic.
A lot of persons commute from surrounding areas e.g. Portmore and Spanish town into Kingston.
In addition some commuters live as far away as May Pen and Mandeville. The road network in
Kingston cannot cope with the large volume of traffic and this results in congestion. It is visible
in the early mornings and late evenings.
High levels of unemployment
Due to the rapidly growing population, there are not enough jobs available for everyone.
Additionally, some migrants are unskilled and therefore can’t find jobs. The high unemployment
rate in Kingston has forced many residents to create their own jobs resulting in a growth in the
informal sector. E.g. persons selling fruits on side walks

31. Crime
The migration of unskilled and unemployed persons may contribute to high levels of crime. In
some parts of Kingston for example at stop lights, it is not uncommon to find young boys doing
odd jobs. They are forced to do these jobs as a result of their poverty stricken situations when
they should be in school and many times they end up joining gangs and perform criminal
activities.
Pollution
There are different sources of pollution emanating from urban areas. The exhausts from motor
vehicles, the dusts from construction sites and the fumes coming from factories in urban areas
result in air pollution. The noise coming from night time entertainment, continuous flow from
traffic and from construction work creates noise pollution.
There are also cases of water pollution. In some communities in Kingston Jamaica there is
improper disposal of domestic waste. Kingston is drained by some 21 gullies. Residents dump
the garbage in the gully when it is dry. After some heavy rains all the garbage is washed into the
Kingston Harbour where it pollutes it. The sewage produced by Kingston is dumped in the
Kingston Harbour. This sewage is normally treated before it is dumped. However, due to the fact
that the sewage treatment plants are unable to treat all the sewage produced by the increasing
number of persons who live in Kingston, the untreated sewage is being dumped in the Harbour
resulting in pollution of the water
Poor housing conditions
Due to the fact that some persons who migrate to Kingston are unskilled and are unemployed,
they are forced to land (vacant lots) illegally. Very often houses made by squatters are built with
inferior materials (board, zinc) and lack basic amenities such as running water and electricity.
These areas may eventually deteriorate in to slums, which are both unsightly and unhealthy to
live in.
Controlling urbanization
Development of new towns

32. One way of controlling urbanization is to build new towns. Portmore in St Catherine Jamaica
was developed primarily to solve the housing shortage in Kingston. It is now one of the largest
residential developments in the Caribbean and has been awarded municipal status by the
government. Freeport in Bahamas is also an example of a new town.
Decentralization of services
One of the main causes of urbanization are the lack of services (education, entertainment, health)
in rural areas. Encouraging development away from cities in rural areas can help combat the
growth of large cities. Some countries in the Caribbean have made attempts to decentralize
services.
In Cuba, the government controls almost everything. In 1963 the government adopted the
Havana strategy. The idea was to stop Havana from growing so the rest of the country could
catch up. Great efforts were made to improve education and health in particular in rural areas.
This would lessen the impact of additional push factors in rural area. This strategy has
particularly been successful.
Trinidad and Barbados both implemented physical development plans in the past to reduce
regional imbalance and dominance of one urban area. However for both countries limited
progress has been made as people and businesses do not always want to do what the government
thinks best.
Providing jobs in rural areas
Providing jobs in rural areas will also prevent urbanization from occurring. The development of
tourism in many rural areas of the Caribbean has pulled away some of the urban population.
Montego Bay and Ocho Rios are now large urban centres. In Puerto Rico industrial estates and
resort areas have develop in rural areas to provide more jobs to the rural population.
Heritage tourism and ecotourism are being promoted as means of conserving rural environments
while providing jobs for people. Eight Caribbean territories have adopted the UNESCO Youth
PATH ( Poverty Alleviation Through Heritage Tourism) program as a means of providing a
livelihood for young people in rural areas while encouraging them to stay and develop these
areas.

33. Diversifying agriculture
Plantation agriculture and traditional crops have failed in the region in the past two decades.
While some territories have shifted the economic focus from agriculture, others have diversified
the crops grown in order to maintain the rural economy. Non-traditional exports such as pepper,
citrus fruits spices and vegetables have are now being grown for export.
Land use zoning laws
In a number of large cities a green belt policy has been adopted to protect farmed or wooded
areas at the edge of cities from development. Green belts:
 Limit urban sprawl
 Provide recreational opportunities for the urban population
 Prevent loss of farmland
 Protect wildlife

34. Caribbean international migration: patterns and consequences
Caribbean people have history of going abroad to find work or for educational opportunities. In
recent decades, emigration has been a major process in the Caribbean. However, there are also
examples of migration within the region. The Cayman Islands and the Bahamas have increased
their populations considerably through this process. It is not uncommon for individuals to
emigrate to the USA or other countries, leaving their spouse and dependent children behind.
Women have played an increasing role in emigration from the Caribbean. This has been called
the ‘ feminization of migration’.
Emigration has been caused by:
 economic hardship
 limitations to professional advancement
 outbreak of civil unrest and violence
 natural disasters
 alienation within island society
 recruitment efforts by US agencies
Changes to immigration laws in both the USA and Canada in the 1960s made migration from the
Caribbean to these countries easier. However, at about the same time it became more difficult to
migrate to Britain. The USA is the major destination for Caribbean emigrants. There are well-
developed networks between Caribbean communities and immigrant areas in the USA and
Canada in particular.
Consequences of out migration in the Caribbean (Jamaica)
 Because the outflow of migrants from Jamaica is much greater than the inflow of
migrants to the country population growth is reduced. In 2003, Jamaica’s natural
population increase was 34, 100. There was net outward migration of 17,700. So
population growth was only 16400, less than one quarter of the natural increase.
 Most emigrants are young people who would probably have children in Jamaica if they
remained there. Therefore, migration helps reduces birth rate.
 Brain Drain- Migration flows are selective. Young and ambitious people are more likely
to migrate. Most migrants are young, talented, ambitious, skilled or educated. These

35. people may/would have made great contributions to their home country if they had
remained there. There are several countries, for e.g. England, where there is a demand for
professionals such as teachers and nurses. Jamaica, like many other countries loses many
of its skilled, trained and educated people through migration.
 Caribbean countries such as Jamaica obtain revenue from taxes from persons in the
economically active age group. The tax base is reduced when persons from the working
age group migrates and a country’s economy is significantly affected. This is the case for
most Caribbean countries as it’s the working class people who are migrating.
 One of the positive effects of emigration is that there is a reduced pressure on social
services and employment prospects. When professionals migrate positions are left vacant
and these can be filled by unemployed persons.
 Remittances – Most migrants send money home to their families. These payments are
called remittances. In some years, they are enough to pay for one-third of Jamaica’s
imports. Remittances bring in as much as tourism or export earnings from bauxite and
alumina. In 2000, remittances amounted to about US 1.4 billion. This a total of 15% of
Jamaica’s GDP. Migrants also send back gifts to family members. There may be a
‘barrel’ at Christmas, or a specific purchase when the need arises.
 Tourism – Overseas Jamaicans who return to visit friends and relatives are officially
counted as tourists, and support an important part of the tourism industry. In Jamaica,
they made up 8% of tourist arrivals in 2009. They may stay in hotels or with their
relatives. They spend money on rental cars, restaurant meals or shopping. In Trinidad and
Tobago, returning nationals make up 55% of tourist arrivals.
 Some emigrants eventually return to Jamaica. Some return after retiring or after acquiring
some qualifications or skill. Some may have substantial savings which they may use to
start a business. This creates employment opportunities for persons in the country.
 Some migrants are forced to return to Jamaica. Some are deported for being in these
countries illegally or because they have been convicted of criminal acts. Some people
return and continue illegal activities such as drug trafficking and other criminal related
activities.
 Broken families – A major problem caused by emigration is that a number of children are
left with relatives as their parents seek a better life. Children who do not live with their

36. parents on a regular basis tend to develop more social problems than the average. For
example their education is likely to suffer and they are more likely to be involved in
crime.
Diaspora – This is the dispersal of people from a particular country around the world. The
number of Jamaicans living abroad is estimated to be about 2.6 million. This is almost the
same as the population living in Jamaica at present