Human Geography- Economic activities in the Caribbean

CSEC Human Geography
Economic Activity
O.Johnson
The term “economic activity” refers to any activity which produces a good or service. People
earn a living by engaging in various economic activities. Though people engage in thousands of
different economic activities around the world, they can all be classified into three major groups:
Primary Industry: These are industries which take natural resources from the earth. Because of
this they are also called extractive industries. Examples include farming, fishing, forestry, mining
and quarrying. The products of some primary industries, such as fishing or agriculture, can be
used as they are. The fishermen go to sea and come back with the fish they sell directly to the
market. The products of other primary industries, such as bauxite and crude oil, are used as raw
materials for other industries. For instance, oil from Trinidad and Tobago is exported to
companies in the USA where it is used to make petroleum products. Some developing countries
employ more people in the primary industry than any other type of industry. For instance 80% of
Egypt’s population work in agriculture.
Secondary Industry: These industries are involved in the production of processed goods. Many
take raw materials from primary industries and use them to make products for sale. Others use
goods provided by other secondary activities and process them to complete their finished
product. For example in car manufacture the factory where the car is put together is supplied
with parts by other factories that specialize in making wheels or seats or windscreens. Examples
of secondary industries include clothing manufacture, oil refining, automobile production and
food processing. Secondary industries are also called manufacturing industries and almost
always use some kind of factory.
Tertiary Industry: These are industries which provide a service. Because of this they are known
as service industries. Unlike primary and secondary industries, they do not make goods that can
be seen or handled. Instead they include employment in education (teachers), the police, fire
service, healthcare, public transport, local government, banking and finance. Two of the biggest
Caribbean employers, tourism and retailing, are included in the tertiary sector.

In many countries it is the tertiary industries that now employ the majority of the population. In
Jamaica, 68% of people work in the service sector (tourism). In the UK 74% of the people are
employed in the service sector. Activities are largely based around health, education, retail and
the financial sector.
Most developing countries, unless they have a highly developed tourist industry, have a low
percentage of people working in the tertiary sector.
Quaternary sector
Quaternary activities, or quaternary industries, are fairly new addition to the classification of
economic activities. They are often thought of as just another part of the tertiary sector because
they also provide a service. The difference is that the quaternary sector mainly concentrates on
those industries that provide information and expertise. This includes activities such as training
and research and development and includes high technology industries such as internet-based
companies.
Because many of the quaternary industries rely on new technology such as satellites and
computers they do not have to be located near to their raw materials in the same way as drilling
for oil has to be. They can, therefore, move to areas either where wages are lower or where there
is a pleasant environment for their employees to live and work in.
Several companies in the quaternary sector are now setting up in the Caribbean for those reasons.
Call centres, where people ring up for advice on their bank accounts or for help in booking
airline flights, are a good example. The customer never gets into direct contact with the
employee they talk to on the phone, so it makes no difference whether the company is located in
Guyana, India or the UK.

Examples of Primary Sector in the Caribbean
While agriculture remains a traditional way of earning income and a vital part of a sustainable
economy, it has given way to tourism, mining and drilling as a mainstay of the Caribbean
economy.
AGRICULTURE
Caribbean nations produce and export bananas, citrus, cocoa, sugar cane, mangoes and coconuts.
MINING AND DRILLING Petroleum, natural gas, bauxite, gold and asphalt are some of the
underground natural resources that attract mining and drilling interests. Jamaica and Guyana
have gold and bauxite reserves, and Trinidad and Tobago has extensive drilling operations in
petroleum, natural gas and asphalt.
Forestry- Guyana, Belize, Bahamas, Dominica
Fishing- Cuba, Belize, Guyana, Netherland Antilles
Bauxite Mining – Jamaica, Guyana, Suriname
Oil – Trinidad
MANUFACTURING
Food processing is one of the oldest industries in the Caribbean. It was established during the
colonial period. The products are highly dependent on local and regional markets, some of which
are niche markets being exploited internationally. The medium and large enterprises produce
beverages such as beer, rum and soft drinks, utilizing local raw materials as well as imported raw
materials and semi-processed materials. For example, the distilleries in Jamaica and Trinidad and
Tobago.
TOURISM
Tourism is big business in the Caribbean where several countries depend on revenue from
foreign visitors. Tourists visit the Caribbean to experience the exotic, natural beauty and sand,
sea and sun. Caribbean nations frequently capitalize on historic landmarks, nature and festivals
to attract tourists while constructing infrastructures to accommodate them. Jamaica, Barbados,
Trinidad and Tobago, The Bahamas, the British Virgin Islands, the US Virgin Islands,

Martinique, Guadeloupe and Grenada are the Caribbean nations that have well-developed
tourism
Explain the relative importance of primary, secondary tertiary activities in the Caribbean
Benefits
- One of the most important importance of economic activities is that they all create jobs.
People with jobs pay taxes to the government which uses this money for services such as
health and education.
- They are also a source of foreign exchange. When goods are exported countries receive
payments in international currencies such as US, Euros and UK pounds.
- All governments need foreign exchange to pay for goods and services from overseas.
Money paid for exports will often be in US dollars and this is useful for governments that
want to buy things from other countries.
- Provides food and goods for human consumption, and service. Agricultural produce are
consumed daily.
- Governments also take money in taxies from companies and business operating in their
country. This money can be spend on the infrastructure, such as roads, port services and
education for people. A better infrastructure will attract more foreign investment into the
country.
All four types of economic activity are important to the islands of the Caribbean but their relative
importance varies from place to place and changes over time. Nowadays, almost all the
Caribbean islands have a well-developed tourist industry in the tertiary sector. However, a
hundred years ago only a few very rich visitors from Europe and North America would have
contributed to this part of the economy.
Up until the middle of the 20th
century, most of the Caribbean’s income came from the primary
sector, mainly from agriculture and large estates producing valuable crops such as sugar, bananas
and nutmeg. As countries become more economically developed, fewer people work in
agriculture and secondary and tertiary activities become more important. In the Caribbean, these
include:
- Garment manufacturing in St Kitts and Nevis, food processing and the drinks industry in
Jamaica, electrical goods in Barbados and cement manufacture in Guadeloupe.

- Tourism in Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic and many other Caribbean
islands.
- Financial services in Bermuda, the Cayman Islands and the Netherland Antilles.

Renewable and Non- renewable resources
Renewable resources- Any natural resource that CAN be replenished naturally with the passage
of time (e.g. wood, solar energy, wind energy and forestry).
Non-renewable resource- Any natural resource that CANNOT be replenished with the passage
of time. They’re exhaustible. Examples in coal, oil, gas, bauxite and gold.
Areas in the Caribbean with the following resources
Forests- Belize, Guyana, Bahamas, Dominica
Fish- Belize, Guyana, Bahamas, Dominica and Cuba
Limestone- Jamaica, Barbados, Puerto Rico
Petroleum/oil- Trinidad and Tobago
Natural Gas- Trinidad and Tobago
Bauxite- Jamaica, Guyana and Suriname
Industrial Location in the Caribbean
Factors affecting industrial location
Industries that are involved in processing raw materials or manufacturing new products such as
cars, computers and clothes form the secondary sector of the economy. Most industries have very
specific needs, which affect their location. These needs are called locational factors
Physical factors
Raw materials
Heavy and bulky raw materials, such as sugar, coal and bauxite, are expensive to transport.
Industries involving these raw materials are often located close to the source of raw materials.
Bauxite plants in Jamaica are located close to the bauxite deposits.
Energy

In the past, industries were tied to power sources such as coal and water. Today most industries
use electricity, which is available almost everywhere at the flick of a switch, so this factor is less
important than it used to be
Relief
Industries often need extensive areas of flat land for building of infrastructure and storage
buildings. It’s easier to build infrastructure on flat or gently sloping lands
Political
Government policies
Governments often encourage industrial location in certain areas by providing grants or tax free
incentives. The government of Jamaica has established Free- Trade zones to encourage industries
to locate there. Other countries have used this strategy to invite industries to develop in specific
areas.
Human/Economic
Labour
Factories often need to employ large numbers of workers and for this reason it is an advantage to
be located in a town or city. Some industries require highly skilled university-educated workers.
In the Caribbean most of the garment industry are located in the capital cities (urban areas). This
industry is labour intensive and hence requires a large number of people. Therefore they locate in
these areas that usually have a high population.
Transport
Good transport links are essential for many industries to bring in a raw materials and take away
finished products. For this reason many industries are close to main roads, railway terminals or
ports. E.g. the garment and food processing industries are located close to ports as they
sometimes are largely dependent on imported raw materials.

Capital- industries rely upon investments in buildings, equipment and training. This may come
from governments or wealthy individuals and can affect location. If money is borrowed from the
government, the government can influence where the industry should locate.
Markets
Industries need markets for their products. Some industries in the Caribbean export their
products to nearby countries such as United States e.g. one of the main markets for Caribbean
Bauxite is the United States. In addition the local population in countries are often markets for
different products e.g. clothes and processed food).
Primary sector case Study: Fishing in the Caribbean
Fish are abundant in the warm waters of the Caribbean and have always been an important
source of food. Most countries in the Caribbean have developed small scale fishing industries. In
some countries it is exported and provides foreign exchange and contributes to the GDP.
Importance of fishing industry
 The industry provides jobs. Over 10,000 persons are employed in Guyana and several
thousand persons are employed in Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago.
 Provide raw materials for further processing. E.g. Canned Tuna or Mackerel
 Provides a source of foreign exchange when products are exported and directly
contributes to the GDP of the country.
 Provide food for consumption ( a direct source of protein)
Fishing in Belize
Belie has one of the best fishing grounds in the Caribbean and Fishing make up 6% of GDP.
Over 1,672 persons are employed in fishing, most belonging to a small number of cooperatives
that own the modern-fish processing plants. The most important fish products are lobsters, conch
and shrimp. Lobsters are caught in wooden traps or by divers in the shallow waters along the

coral reefs (account for over 50% of the export earnings). Conchs are found on beds of sea grass
and shrimps are caught by trawlers.
Factors influencing the location of fishing industry in Belize
Belize fishing industry is located on the coast (coastal fishing). This is due to several reasons.
 Belize has productive fishing grounds. Rivers bring nutrients to the sea. The shallow
waters offshore hold nutrients for marine life. Mangroves and sea grass beds in shallow
water provide food and shelter for young fish. There are barrier and island reefs where
living coral, fish and crustaceans thrive. The barrier reef is over 290km long. They are
also fishing grounds in deeper water, beyond the barrier reef
 There are several sheltered harbours and ports that are able to facilitate fishing vessels
and export products (processed fish).
 The communities on the coastline are organized for commercial fishing. There are close
to 2,000 fishers, and many shore based jobs in processing and administration. Fishing
cooperatives are located in these coastal communities. Close to 60% of the fishers belong
to a fishermen’s co-operative. The co-operative buys the catch from the smaller
fishermen, process it, and exports it by sea to the USA, with also to Europe and Japan. At
the end of the year, the profits are distributed to members as a second payment.
Challenges and problems of the fishing industry.
A number of challenges face the Caribbean fishing industry:
 Overfishing, this often involves catching and killing young fish which cannot then mature
and breed. This reduces fish stocks and is unsustainable.
 Pollution is also a problem. Rivers and seas are polluted by oil and sewage waste. This
can contaminate fish and kill off fish stocks.
 Mangroves and other breeding grounds are sometimes destroyed to facilitate tourism and
residential development.
 Global competition from big fishing businesses from countries such as Japan with high-
tech equipment used, for example, to track fish by satellite.

 Similarly like agriculture there is a reduction in labour as young people do not want to
enter the fishing industry.
 Some widely available species are under-used at the moment
Solutions
 There is a closed season for conch from July to September, and for lobster from February
to June, when most breeding takes place. This allows the
 Young lobster and conch below a minim minimum size are not used. This gives them a
chance to mature. Conch shell must exceed 7 inches.
 Scuba diving for conch and lobster is not allowed. This prevents diving in water over
15m deep,
 Each co-operative has an annual quota
 Fishing for grouper is prohibited in most places, because over-fishing has damaged
stocks
 Government is also trying to encourage individuals to make greater use of the less
popular under-used species.
Bauxite mining in the Caribbean
Case study: Jamaica
Bauxite is the ore from which aluminum is made. Jamaica contains some of the largest known
deposits of bauxite in the world. The mining areas are located in the western and central parts of
the island. After mining, most of the bauxite is carried to alumina plants where it is refined into
alumina. The alumina (or in some cases unrefined bauxite) is carried to export ports by rail. Most
of Jamaica’s bauxite is refined into alumina and the rest is exported unrefined. The marketing of
bauxite and alumina is done by large international companies
Other producers of Bauxite in the Caribbean includes Guyana and Suriname. In 1965, these
produced 44% of the world’s supply. Other major producers include Brazil, China and India.
Australia is the world’s largest producer of bauxite. The bauxite industry provides job to millions
of people across the world and is a major foreign exchange earner for several countries.

Factors that influence the location of the bauxite industry in Jamaica.
The bauxite plants (alumina plants) in Jamaica are located close to the bauxite deposits. The raw
material which is bauxite is heavy and very expensive to transport. Hence the industries are
located to the raw material to minimize transportation costs. The parishes with the largest
quantities of bauxite in Jamaica includes St Ann, Manchester, Clarendon, St Catherine and
Trelawny. Jamaica’s bauxite occurs in shallow pockets across the central portions of the island.
Bauxite plants have developed close to these deposits in the parishes mentioned above.
Good transportation networks (roads and railways) were built to transport bauxite and the
processed alumina to ports to be exported. The alumina is then exported to nearby markets such
as US where it is further processed into Aluminum. The closeness to the major market in the
USA is important as transportation costs are less. Large capital invested from overseas
companies further developed the industry.
Challenges faced/problems of the industry
 Jamaica is finding it more and more difficult to compete with other bauxite producers
around the world. Countries such as China, India, Australia and Guinea have become
important bauxite producers. Australia, Brazil and China have lower-quality bauxite, but
cheaper and sometimes more reliable supplies.
 Also, aluminium smelters have been built in Europe, Asia and South America. North
America is no longer the major producer of aluminium.
 Output per worker is lower and their wages are higher than in other countries. The cost of
mining bauxite is therefore expensive. Large international companies play a leading role
in the Jamaican Bauxite industry. They use Caribbean bauxite and alumina for their
plants in other countries. Shipping costs are now lower and so transport costs have
dropped. This has caused mining costs to become a more important factor than location
near a smelter. The mining cost is high, so companies may eventually switch to other
mines where mining cost is lower.
 There is an over-reliance as most countries major market is the USA. If any economic
situation should occur in the country for e.g. if demand is reduced, this would
significantly affect the country’s export volume and ultimately it’s GDP. Reliance on one
country is problematic.

 Alumina plants use caustic soda to remove impurities from bauxite. The process produces
‘red mud’, which is 20% solids and 80% liquid. For each tonne of alumina, there are up
to five tonnes of red mud, which is dumped in ‘ponds’, covering up to one square km.
Caustic soda in the red mud kill nearby vegetation. In dry weather, crystals form on the
surface; when these blow away, they make the air unpleasant to breathe. If it escapes,
contaminated water from red mud ponds can pollute springs and wells.
 Vegetation is destroyed to facilitate the building of roads and railways to transport the
bauxite.
 The mining of bauxite requires several equipment such as tractors, trucks, mechanical
excavators and conveyor belts. They are powered by fossil fuel based energy sources
particularly gasoline/oil (gasoline comes from oil). Whenever these fossil fuels are burnt
they release harmful gases in the air such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.
Solutions
 There has been some progress in dealing with red mud. Improved technology in alumina
plants produces a more concentrated mud. There is less to dispose of. In addition drains
underneath red ponds extract caustic soda, which is recycled in the alumina plant.

Food processing in CARICOM and Hong Kong
Development of manufacturing industry in Hong Kong
Hong Kong is art of a newly industrializing country (NIC). While it retains some features of a
developing country, its economy is expanding and standards living have improved. Hong Kong
is a former British colony and it developed as a thriving port and as a gateway between the west
and Asia. In 1997, it reverted back to being part of china, although today it still retains a very
distinctive and Westernized character.
Factors that influenced the location of and development of Food processing in Hong Kong
Hong Kong has long been involved in Trading. The port facilities are very developed. The food
processing industries are located close to these ports to facilitate easy importing and exporting.
Unlike the Caribbean that processes local products Hong Kong depends entirely on imported raw
materials. In addition in the major coastal cities there is a large and relatively cheap labour force.
Its closed link with mainland china provide a huge nearby market for processed foods. It has a
tradition for producing entrepreneurs and successful business people to create and run industries.
Its extensive port facilities, relatively large and cheap labour as well as easy access to the
Chinese market have influenced the location and development of the food processing industry
in Hong Kong.
Food processing in Hong Kong
Food processing is one of Hong Kong’s most successful and fastest growing industries. In 2008,
there were 786 factories employing 26,600 workers.
Much of the exported-oriented with the main markets being mainland china. It also exports to
Taiwan and Macau. It is very DIFFERENT from the Caribbean where food processing involves
products actually grown in the Caribbean. In Hong Kong, raw food is imported and then
processed before being exported.
Hong Kong manufacturers process a wide variety of foods and drinks for three main
markets.

1. Local consumption in Hong Kong- this includes fish processing, noodles, biscuits,
seasoning, and dairy products. With a population of nearly 7 million persons, the home
market is an important one for the food processing industry
2. Chinese Mainland (China) - the most popular items include bird’s nest, mixed oils and
processed duck. Hong Kong is considered to be the major gateway through which the
Chinese mainland’s demand for western food is met.
3. Foreign markets (Asian and Western) - popular products include dried noodles, oriented
foods and sauces, such as soy sauce and oyster sauce.
Recent Trends and Future challenges
1. The industry needs to be constantly adapting to changes in the Chinese market. With
people living longer and more women adapting to choosing to follow careers, there is less
time for food preparation and shopping. Customers are increasing looking to buy ready
meals and frozen products
2. Demands are increasing for healthy products, such as low-cholesterol dairy products as
well as low-sugar and low-salt items. Many companies are now producing health options
or dietary products as part of their increasing range. Demand for energy drinks has soared
in recent years
3. In the face of increasing competition some Hong Kong companies have started to set up
factories and offices in export market centres such as the USA, UK and Australia to
secure their market position.
Food processing in the Caribbean
Food processing is an important manufacturing industry in the Caribbean. Food is processed
to preserve it and to add value before it is sold. A wide range of agricultural products are
processed in the Caribbean including sugar cane, cocoa, citrus fruit, fish, meat, nuts and
preserves of local fruits. Processing involves canning, drying and smoking. The industry
employs several thousand workers across regions.
Factors that influence the location of food processing in the Caribbean

Raw material- There are different types of products are that are processed in the Caribbean.
These cases below shows how raw materials influences industrial location in the Caribbean.
Sugar and rum are products that are formed from the processing of sugar cane, the sugar cane
refineries in Jamaica are located close to where the sugar cane is grown. The Rum factories
are also located close to the sugar refineries. This is because the raw material is bulkier and
more expensive to transport than the finished product (bottles of rum).
This is a similar case in Guyana with their beef industry. The processing factory is located
close to cattle farm (ranch) in Lethem. This is because the raw material (cattle) is heavy to
transport so the location of the industry is close to the raw material. The processed beef is
sold locally and also exported to nearby Brazil.
Transport and Labour - In other cases food processing industries in the Caribbean are
located close to ports or have coastal locations. These are import-export industries. They
import the raw materials and process them near the port. After processing they export the
final product. In the Caribbean ports are usually located in major cities where processing
industries also benefit from an urban work force and a large domestic market. E.g. There is
a flour mill in Kingston Jamaica. It is located close to the Kingston Harbour (port). The
Flour mill processes imported flour, which explains its port location. They benefit also from
the urban workforce and a large domestic market. They export to other Caribbean countries.
In Guyana, food processing is also located close to the coast. This is because the capital
Georgetown and other coastal towns provide a workforce and a large domestic market. The
ports also enable processed products to be exported. The raw materials are also located close
to the coastal areas as well.
Recent Trends and future challenges
 Increasingly, Caribbean food processing is based on imported raw materials. For
example, in Barbados powdered milk is imported from New Zealand processed into
condensed milk, evaporated milk and yoghurt.
 While there are some large factories in the Caribbean, a lot of small- scale cottage
industries exist often employing less than 10 workers.

Comparing food processing in the Caribbean with Hong Kong
Caribbean Hong Kong
Types of products
produced whether local or
imported
Processing both locally
produced foods and
imported products
Mainly processing
imported products
Products Sugar, rum, fruit, nuts,
coffee, cocoa, fish,
sweets, juices and
seasonings and dairy
meat
Fish, sauces, duck,
noodles, pasta, seasonings
Location Close to raw materials (
sugar cane, cattle farm),
coastal sea ports
Close to port facilities for
import/export
Labour Local Local, relatively cheap
Markets Caribbean and USA Mostly mainland China
Recent Trends/Challenges Changing market forces
and demand for healthy
products, organics etc.
Changing market forces
in China requiring healthy
products, ready meals and
western foods.

TOURISM IN JAMAICA
Tourism is an example of a service industry or a tertiary industry
Tourist season: December- April Origin of tourists: USA, Canada, and Europe
BENEFITS OF TOURISM TO JAMAICA
 Foreign exchange- Tourist spend their money in US dollars, euros and British pound
which provide an important source of revenue. Tourism is the largest earner of foreign
exchange. Earnings from tourism accounts for 15% of the GDP of the country. The
money can be spend on education, health and also paying for imports.
 Employment – Man persons are directly employed in the tourist industry such as tour
guides, waiters, cooks, cleaners, chefs and receptionist. Indirectly, many persons gain
employment too, for example, in construction, food supply, electrical and plumbing,
transportation (taxis, bus tour operators, car rental agencies), craft vending and
entertainment (music, singers and dancers)
 Improvement in infrastructure- tourism has many useful knock-on effects on the
economy such as improvements in infrastructure (roads, airports, electricity and water).
 Many countries charge a departure tax or a head tax for visitors and this money goes to
the government to help pay for things such as electricity and water services, roads, health
and education. An airport departure tax of US$35 is payable when departing Jamaica. In
most cases this tax is included in the cost of the airline ticket (paid in advance).
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM
PHSYICAL FACTORS
Climate- The Climate in the Caribbean is stable, it is warm and sunny all year round. The tourist
season (December to April) also falls out of the hurricane season. It is very cold in North
America and Europe at this time of the year. As a result of this tourists visit the Caribbean to
escape the extreme temperatures in their homelands. This is one of the major factors influencing
the development of tourism in the Caribbean

Natural Attractions – Beaches and sea, natural scenery
There are excellent white sand beaches in the Caribbean which are well maintained and the water
is warm and crystal clear. As a result water related tourist activities are common in the Caribbean
for e.g. snorkeling, swimming, sailing and glass bottom boat rides which allow them to see the
beauty of underwater life. There are also natural features such as caves, waterfalls and
mountains which attracts tourists. The natural water falls e.g. Reach falls (Portland), Dunns’s
River (St Ann) and Y.S falls (St Elizabeth) are used for recreational activities. The Blue
Mountain and the Cockpit Country are world heritage sites, most of its natural vegetation is
untouched. Tourists do nature walks in the mountains. Erosion of limestone rocks has produced
huge underground caves with stalactites and stalagmites for e.g. The Green Grotto Caves in St
Ann
Accessibility (Geographical Location)
Jamaica is located near to the large tourist market of the USA. There are direct flights linking
Jamaica with the major population centers of the USA and Canada allowing easy movements of
tourists. Cruise ships (especially from the USA) also bring tourists to the island.
Human and Economic Factors
Culture- The culture of the Caribbean is very diverse and unique. It is dispersed across the world
by the millions of migrants from the Caribbean. Our cuisine, music and art is world-renowned
and tourist visit the islands because of this. A traditional place is the Bob Marley Museum in
Kingston. The reggae sumfest also attracts a lot of visitors. The annual Crop Over festival in
Barbados and Carnival in Trinidad attracts many visitors to these countries. Jamaicans are also
seen as friendly with good hospitality.
History- Many historical sites and buildings are in Jamaica that also attracts tourists. E.g. include
Rose Hall Great House, Devon House, old forts, old cathedrals etc. Visitors can visit these sites
to learn about the history of the country.
Education - Skilled Workforce There are many institutions which offer training for employment
in the tourist sector for e.g. Heart Academy, UTECH and UWI. Tourism and hospitality
management is a course that is offered by both UTECH and UWI. Every year hundreds of

students pursue the course. Upon completion of the course students are employed directly by
hotels and other tourism organizations.
Government Encouragement
The Jamaican Tourist board is responsible for selling Jamaica to the world. They advertise the
attraction of Jamaica abroad. There are also offices in North America and Europe. Advertisement
is also done on social media pages through the Jamaica Tourist Board. Brochures and pamphlets
can be seen around many major airports across the world.
In addition the government has improved facilities for tourists by upgrading facilities in resort
areas e.g. road, high ways (North Coast High way) and docking facilities for cruise ships e.g.
Falmouth. Most of the hotels that are here in Jamaica are multinational companies ( Riu, Secrets,
Iberostar, Grand Palladium). They’re Spanish-based hotels and are owned by international
companies. In order to attract these hotel chains into the country the government gives generous
incentives such as tax breaks (10yrs-50yrs). The hotel chains will not nay pay tax for the
specified time given.
Challenges/problems faced by the Tourist industry in the Caribbean/Jamaica
Competing destinations
Jamaica was one of the first tropical islands to develop its tourism product. Today there are many
other well established tropical destinations in the Caribbean and elsewhere. It is now more
difficult to make Jamaica stand out when there are so many tropical islands to choose from.
Export of Profit/All-inclusive resorts
Sometimes money earned by tourist industry does not remain in the Caribbean because the
resorts may be owned by foreign companies which take their profits overseas. In Jamaica for
example, there are many Spanish hotels on the north coast and the profits earned by these hotels
are therefore taken out of the country. Out of every dollar (100cents) that is earned through
tourism 43 cents is retained by the country and the rest goes to the overseas companies.
Large import content

Majority of the products that are used in the tourism industry is imported for e.g. food and other
infrastructure. The local economy is not able to provide the large quantity of products for some
foods on a consistent basis. Therefore significant of money is loss through this means. This is
called import leakages.
High levels of crime and violence
Tourists are often harassed by local people who want to sell them just everything ranging from
local craft items to illegal drugs. Sometimes crimes are committed against them and all of these
factors cause them to go to other tourist destinations where these problems are not encountered.
If a country is unstable and there is crime and violence this will discourage visitors. Good
examples include the Tivoli incursion and the upsurge of violence in Montego Bay. United
States advised its citizens not to visit the country. This can have a significant influence on the
economies of Caribbean countries that are dependent on tourism.
Increase in cruise passengers
An increasing number of persons are now taking cruises rather than land-based vacations. Cruise
passengers spend less money on shore than those in hotels do. In some cases tourist don’t leave
the ship at all. Everything is available on the ship. No money is spent in the visiting country
when this happens. The country therefore earns less from cruise passengers than from those who
opt to stay in hotels.
Economic dependency / over dependency on tourism
Some countries are too dependent on tourism and this can be a problem. Majority of the tourist
that visits Jamaica comes from USA. During economic crisis such as recessions people will more
likely to save money rather than spend on extravagant holidays. This happened before and the
number of visitors declined significantly.
Environmental damage
Tourism is beneficial to the economy of the country but it also has significant consequences on
the environment. Large areas of vegetation for e.g. mangroves are cleared to facilitate the
construction of hotels. Tourist sometimes when doing activities such as snorkeling or diving may

trample corals or take corals for souvenir purposes. Large cruise ship sometimes drop their
anchor on coral reefs and dispose waste directly into the ocean.
Solutions
Tourism in Jamaica is dependent to a large extent on what the natural environment has to offer
e.g. the beaches, sea, rivers etc. Unfortunately there are various activities associated with tourism
which have resulted in these resources being downgraded. Efforts are therefore now being made
to ensure that our tourism remains a sustainable type of development. Sustainable tourism
ensures that the country’s resources not destroyed, but they remain intact so they can be used by
future generations.
Ecotourism- In effort to preserve the environment, several Caribbean countries (including
Jamaica) have been encouraging the development of ecotourism. Ecotourism refers to a type of
tourism which caters to visitors who are interested in the natural beauty of a country’s natural
environment and/or its wildlife. Eco tourists have interest in activities such hiking, bird
watching, visiting rainforest etc. Inn areas where ecotourism is promoted, the environment is
conserved, while at the same time providing employment opportunities for the local people.
Examples of such trips include:
 Building bamboo rafts to see the rainforest along the Rio Grande
 Island-wide bird watching trips to find all 27 of Jamaica’s native bird species, including
the Jamaican owl, Jamaican mango and Jamaican today.
Ecotourism often involves the setting up of Eco lodges in nature reserves, rainforest areas or
isolated beaches where they are built to fit in with the natural environment. Instead of huge hotel
complexes, guests normally stay in small cabins, often with no electricity, and eat local food.
Guides may take them on walks to understand the local environment. Eco lodges employ a large
number of local people and have a small impact on the environment.
Heritage tourism- This type of tourism focuses on using the history and culture of a people as an
attraction for tourists. Activities include historical buildings, museums, traditional rural
communities etc. Increasingly Caribbean are investing in this type of tourism as it does not result
in any damage to the environment

Agriculture
Classification of Agriculture
Farms can be categorized according to what is being grown or reared, the size of the operation
and the agricultural techniques being used.
For example, farming can be:
 Subsistence or commercial
 Arable, pastoral or mixed
 Extensive or intensive
 Sedentary or nomadic
SUBSISTENCE, PEASANT OR COMMERCIAL
Subsistence farming is the provision of food by farmers only for their own family or the local
community- there is no surplus. Subsistence farmers often produce the widest range of products,
and may include both the growing of crops and rearing of animals. The fact that subsistence
farmers are rarely able to improve their output is due to lack of capital, land and technology, and
not to a lack of effort or ability. They are the most vulnerable to food shortages.
Peasant farming is small-scale farming (slightly larger than subsistence farming) for
subsistence purposes as well as for cash sale in the market. Some of the crops grown include
sugar cane, bananas, cocoa, rice, vegetables and root crops. The famer may also rear animals to
supplement income.
Commercial farming takes place on a large scale, and its purpose is to produce crops or animals
for sale, whether locally or internationally. Monocropping or monoculture (the growing of one
crop exclusively) is a common feature of commercial agriculture in the Caribbean, especially
crops such as sugar cane or rice. Commercial farms are usually large.
ARABLE, PASTORAL OR MIXED

Arable farming is the growing of crops. Crops are plants that are harvested from the ground to
be eaten or sold. These are usually grown on flatter lands where soils are of higher quality.
Pastoral farming is the raising of animals usually on land which is less favorable to arable
farming (i.e. colder, wetter, steeper and higher land). However, if the grazed area has too many
animals on it, its carrying capacity is exceeded or the quality of the soil and grass is not
maintained and then erosion and desertification may result.
Mixed Farming is the growing of crops and the rearing of animals together.
Shifting cultivation or slash and burn is one other type of farming where farmers shift their farms
from one plot to another every few years. In this type of farming, there is limited input in the
form of fertilizers, so farmers rely on the restoration of fertility during the fallow. This farming
type can be considered a sustainable form of agriculture in areas where it does not put undue
pressure on the land; that is, where there is a large land area available plus a low population.
SEDENTARY OR NOMADIC
Sedentary farming is when a farm is based in the same location all the time.
Nomadic farming is when a farmer moves from one place to another. This is common in some
less developed countries.
EXTENSIVE OR INTENSIVE
Farming is extensive or intensive depending upon the relationship between three factors of
production: Labor, capital and land.
In extensive agriculture, LAND is usually the largest component of the farming system and
output is generally high relative to the land area under cultivation.
Extensive farming is where a relatively small amount of produce is generated from a large area
of farmland.

In intensive agriculture, unlike extensive, land is the smallest component in the farming system
and output is generally high relative to the land area under cultivation.
Extensive agriculture
The Amazon Basin- shifting cultivation
The Canadian Prairies- Wheat Cultivation
Intensive Agriculture
The Ganges Valley- rice cultivation
The Netherlands- dairying, horticulture
Intensive farming is where a large amount of produce is generated from a relatively small area
of land. Inputs will be high to achieve a high yield per hectare. Inputs could be fertilizers,
machines or labour.
Physical, Human and Economic factors influencing/affecting Agriculture
Human factors
Land tenure
This is the rights a person has to the land. Rights range from complete ownership to squatting. IF
the land is owned, the farmer is able to make long-term investments such as the growing of tree
crops like cocoa, coconuts and coffee; the putting up of farm buildings and the making of farm
roads. Farmers who actually own the land which they work also usually find it easier to borrow
money for making improvements.
At the opposite extreme, squatters (people who occupy land without having a proper title or
rental agreement) have no guarantee of continued land use. Because of day-to-day uncertainty,
most squatters prefer to grow short-term crops such as corn, peas and other vegetables. They
have no incentive to improve the land, or to put up farm buildings. They often find it difficult to
get credit (borrow money). In Barbados squatting is not very common, but in other Caribbean

countries such as Trinidad and Tobago, Dominica and Puerto Rico, this type of land-tenure
occurs more frequently.
For other forms of land-tenure between outright ownership and squatting, it is clear that the
longer the terms of the lease the more secure is the farmer’s tenure. The more secure the tenure
the greater is the possibility of obtaining credit, and so the greater the likelihood of farm
improvements being made.
Inheritance practices
In some parts of the Caribbean farms are highly fragmented. They do not consist of a single
continuous piece of land, but are made up of several scattered plots. Land fragmentation is often
the result of inheritance practices. On the death of a farmer, the land is often sub-divided among
the heirs. The fragmentation of farm holdings has several disadvantages. Firstly, the farmer
wastes a lot of time travelling between the various plots. Secondly, an unusually high proportion
of land is taken up by field boundaries, and so does not produce as much. Thirdly, the small size
of the plots make it difficult for the farmer to use modern machinery.
In St Lucia the multiple inheritance system is found, whereby more than one member of a family
inherits title to the same piece of land. This family land system has been a hindrance to
agricultural production, for the owners are usually more concerned with their rights to reap
whatever crops they find on it rather than with the need to cultivate and improve the land.
The role of government
Governments can influence farmers towards the form of land-use they feel to be most suited to
the country’s needs. Thus a government may acquire and distribute land to people who are
willing and able to farm it. The governments of Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago have
done this to some extent.
 In Cuba, on the other hand, the government has taken away the farmers’ land and formed
it into state-owned farms.
 In Barbados, where land is in short supply or under pressure from other uses such as
housing and tourism, the government has implemented a land for the landless

programme, where farmers may have access to farmland owned or leased by the
government.
 The Jamaican Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Agriculture and Fisheries has signed a
25-year agreement with brewery giant Red Stripe for the lease of 247 hectares of land for
the mass production of cassava to be used in the company’s beverages.
 Governments can come to the help of farmers by providing them with loans and
insurance. Small scale farmers usually lack the capital to buy equipment and products
that can improve productivity. The National People’s Cooperative Bank (NPCB) in
Jamaica offer loans to small farmers. Agricultural loans may be used to purchase
inventory (livestock, machinery, plants), expand the business, or energy conservation
ventures.
Labour
Labour is needed for the preparation of the soil and for planting and harvesting crops. It is also
needed for the care of farm animals. On crop farms labour requirements vary with the time of
year. They tend to be greatest a planting time and at harvest
Changes in attitude to farming have also affected the Caribbean agricultural sector. Because of
the slave legacy associated with agriculture, many young people have stayed away from the
sector, and labour has been difficult to find especially on larger farms and plantations. This has
fueled the use of mechanization on these plantations. It has also affected what is grown, as crops
which are labour intensive, such as cotton, have been abandoned. The shortage of farm labour
has a tendency to become very acute during harvest time, especially on some of the larger sugar
cane plantations. Sometimes farm workers have been recruited from other countries. For
example, people from St Vincent and St Lucia, and many people from Haiti find seasonal
agricultural work in the neighboring Dominican Republic.
Historical Factors/Tradition
History can play a large role in determining what type of agriculture is carried out. In the
Caribbean, most agricultural production has been for export, since that was the role of the
Caribbean on a global scale. They were to produce food for the colonial countries of Europe.
Sugar was required and sugar cane was therefore grown on a large scale to meet those needs.

This has continued to determine what is grown and by whom on what scale throughout the
region.
Other small techniques and farming practiced by our ancestors are still carried out today.
Examples include planting peas and corn in the same hole and planting cassava and sweet
potatoes together. There may be other ways of doing things which could be more productive, but
tradition tends to prevail.
Economic factors
Markets
In this sense a market is a demand for a particular thing. Farmers in the more developed
countries of the world generally know what kinds of crops and livestock products are in demand
at a particular time, and plan their land use accordingly. In some of these countries the
government helps by setting up marketing boards. For example in the United Kingdom there is
the Milk Marketing Board, and in Canada there is the Wheat Board. These boards keep the
farmers informed of market trends. In many of the less developed countries marketing is not so
well organized. Consequently, farmers often have little idea of market requirements. There is
often difficulty in getting information to farmers in time for them to change their plans.
Distance from the market also affects agricultural land use, although less so now than in the past
because of the development of modern forms of transport. Generally speaking, very perishable
crops need to be grown near to their market, so that they can arrive in fresh condition. For
example, in Trinidad and Tobago the famous Aranjuez vegetable-growing district is
conveniently placed to supply the urban markets of northern-western Trinidad.
Capital
This is the money which is needed to buy such things as land, animals, seeds, fertilizers, tools,
machinery, etc. In some parts of the world small-scale farmers lack the capital needed to buy
these things, which are so necessary to enable them to produce more. In some countries the
government now plays an important role in providing agricultural credit (loans to farmers).

Physical factors
Soils
Most plants need soil order in grow, and so the mineral content of the soil, its depth and its
texture all can influence agricultural activity. are not only important for crop growing, but also
for animal rearing as farm livestock eat plants which grow in soil.
Soil depth can also influence agriculture. Deeper soils located on plains or gently sloping areas
are more fertile and productive than thinner soils located on steep slopes. Plantations in the
Caribbean are typically located in flat areas where soils are deep and fertile. E.g. alluvial soils
covering the plains of Jamaica provide suitable soils for sugar cane cultivation. Not only are
these soils fertile but they are able to retain water (retentive) making them ideal for sugar cane
cultivation. Thin soils on steep slopes are easily eroded. The Scotland District of Barbados is one
of those areas where thin soils have been badly eroded in the past. Volcanic soils found in the
islands of the Lesser Antilles are very fertile and therefore many small farms are located on
them.
Soil texture is also important. The best soils for crop growing. These contain both clays and
sands. They generally drain easily (do not become waterlogged) and are relatively easy to work.
Soils need to be deep enough to accommodate the roots of the plants, and to keep them firmly
rooted.
Relief/Topography
Relief has strong influence on type of farming system and types of crops grown. On flat lands it
is easier to use machinery and the soils are usually deeper and more fertile. Typically large
plains in the Caribbean countries e.g. Jamaica, Trinidad, are used for commercial arable farming
because flat land facilitates use of machinery which is necessary for commercial farming to take
place. Roads for transporting reaped crops as well as irrigation systems can be set up more easily
on flat land.
As a result, the largest plains in Jamaica are used for commercial cultivation of sugar cane while
hilly areas tend to be associated with peasant farming where farmers grow a variety of crops.

Steep slopes also restrict planting of crops as soils are thin and therefore relatively infertile,
leading to low yields. Steep slopes also limit the use of mechanization, reducing the possibility
of intensification of production. In some parts of the Caribbean steeply sloping hillsides have
been terraced in order to create flat land on which to grow crops, and also to reduce the risk of
soil erosion.
Climate
Climate can have an impact on the type of crops that are grown. Each crop requires specific
conditions in order to grow for e.g. specific temperature ranges and rainfall amounts. For e.g.
Sugar cane needs high temperatures throughout the year, with mean monthly temperatures not
falling far below 21o
C. It also needs plenty of moisture (the total annual rainfall should be at
least 1000mm). Sugar cane can only grow in these areas (sugar cane will not grow in polar
climates)
Seeds germinate and plants grow best at certain temperatures, in some parts of the world
temperatures are favorable to plant growth throughout the year. This is the case throughout the
Caribbean where the farmer’s activities are more influenced by the distribution of rainfall over
the year. In countries such as Canada, however, there are periods in winter when plants will not
grow actively because of low temperatures. Consequently the growing season is a very much
shorter one than in the Caribbean.
Other climatic factors which influence agricultural land use include wind and sunshine. Certain
crops are easily damaged by strong winds, and so ideally should be grown in sheltered areas. In
the Caribbean where hurricane damage is frequent farmers may opt for crops that grow quickly
or close to the ground in order to avoid wind damage from storms, or in flood prone areas they
may opt for free tree crops instead. Many crops need a lot of sunshine to in order to ripen. Other
crops grow best in shades.

Peasant Farming in the Caribbean
Characteristics
Location
In Jamaica, rural peasant farms exist in the white limestone plateau as in the Christiana Area, in
the Lluidas Vale, St. Thomas in the Vale in the Valleys of the Blue Mountain region.
Size of Farm
This type of farming is carried out by small farmers on a small scale. Typically, farms are small
in size i.e. less than 2 hectares. Sometimes farms may be fragmented and scattered. In Jamaica
where two-thirds of the hand are made up of highlands, about 80% of the farms are under 0.4
hectare in size.
Type of Crops grown
Multi-cropping is practiced. This means that a variety is grown and may include ground
provisions ( Yams and sweet potatoes), vegetables ( lettuce, carrots, cucumbers) and tree crops (
e.g. Ackee and breadfruit). Very often farmers also practise mixed farming, meaning that
animals are reared along with the growing of crops. There are many benefits to be gained from
growing a variety of crops. Intensive farming is practiced as farmers try to get the highest output
from the farm.
Labour
As most of the farmlands are small the family unit of labour is the main type of organization.
The peasant farming organization is a family economy. Family labour is used in such activities
as weeding, hoeing, reaping, harvesting and storage.
Tools used
Simple tools such as the hoe, fork and cutlass are used on farms. There is limited use of
machinery due to lack of capital. The farmer may instead use animal manure to keep the soil
fertile and mulching, to conserve moisture in soil
Capital Expenditure

Capital expenditure is very small or limited due to the limited returns from small size farms. This
also reflected in the simple tools used.
Ownership
Very often the farmer may not own the land that he farms, but is leased from a big landowner.
Marketing of produce
The produce from the farm is sold to vendors who then sell the food locally, in the open markets
found in most towns. In more recent times ‘non-traditional’
Problems facing peasant farmers in the Caribbean
- Praedial Larceny – On occasion thieves may steal crops or animals from farmers. As a
result farmers may experience severe financial losses. Peasant farmers are not able to
afford security systems such as security fencing and farms are not insured against such
losses.
- Size of farms- Because their farms are very small, it is often difficult for peasant farmers
to make a reasonable living. Indeed, in some countries they only work for part of the year
on their own farms. At other times they may make cash income by doing seasonal work
on nearby plantations. This is particularly the case in areas where sugar cane is grown on
plantations, there being a large demand for extra labour when the cane is being harvested.
- Lack of capital - Because of their low income many peasant farmers are unable to afford
better equipment such as modern machinery, chemical fertilizers and pesticides which
would help to improve their crop yields.
- In some areas peasant farmers are fragmented, and farmers may waste a lot of time
walking between their various plots of land.
- Peasant farmers generally occupy fairly poor quality land, and as a result crop yield are
often poor. The reasons for this are mainly historical. In Jamaica, for example, during the
time of slavery most of the best quality land in the lowland areas was taken up by
plantations. After emancipation those former slaves who wanted to start their own farms

often found that the only spare land available to them was very poor quality land in the
hills.
- Weather related problems- The weather can cause problems, especially the rainfall. In the
Caribbean this cannot always be depended upon to come when it is most needed and in
the desired amounts. Farmers can be damaged or even completely destroyed by droughts
and floods. In many parts of the Caribbean also, hurricanes are a threat, especially to
crops like bananas which are easily blown over by strong winds. In addition most
peasant farmers have no insurance protect against crop losses.
- Storage problems - Storage facilities for crops are sometimes inadequate. As a result, it is
not always possible to store those crops when they are in surplus which might be used
later when they are in short supply.
- Pests and diseases - Pests such as worms may destroy crops or cause low yields. Very
often, farmers cannot afford to buy pesticides to control the spread of these pests. In the
past serious disease have included Panama Disease and leaf spot disease (in bananas),
lethal yellowing (coconuts) and witches broom disease (cocoa).
- In some areas, roads are inadequate, and as a result farmers sometimes find it difficult to
get their crops to market.
Commercial/Plantation Farming in the Caribbean
Characteristics
Size
Plantations (sometimes called estates) are very big farms (over 200 Ha). They usually have
hundred and sometimes thousands of hectares of land under crops. (N.B 1 hectare= 2.5 acres
Type of crops grown
Plantations usually grown one type of crop. This practice is known as monoculture. Crops are
grown almost entirely for sale, and are very often intended for export. The benefit gained
from growing a single crop is found in the ability to grow the crop more efficiently because
whatever methods are used can be used for the entire farm e.g. the same fertilizers are

applied, same insecticides can be used. There are also disadvantages. The entire crop is
susceptible to the same diseases and pests and when prices fall the farms suffer.
Labour
A lot of paid workers are employed. Plantation crops require a great deal of labor, both
skilled and unskilled. It allows for a high degree of specialization. The employee fertilize
crops, drive trucks, tractors, and harvesters in addition to several who cut the cane by hand.
The labour is highly specialized. The factory also require work to be done by engineers,
supervisors, managers etc. In some Caribbean countries there is an increase in the use of
machinery as there is a shortage of local labour.
Capital
A great deal of capital is involved. This is needed to buy land and machinery, build housing
and roads, pay the workers etc. Many plantations have their own factories for processing
their crops, and this also involves a lot of capital investment. Some plantations have their
own light railway systems for transporting the crops from the field to the factory.
Scientific methods
Methods of cultivation are usually modern and efficient. Much use is made of artificial
fertilizers (chemicals to put on the land to keep the soil fertile and to improve crop yields),
pesticides (chemicals used to kill harmful insect pests and control diseases), and herbicides
(chemicals used to kill weeds). Aerial spraying is also practiced.
Technology/tools used
There is an increase in the use of machinery on some plantations. Mechanization is
increasing since there is a decrease in local labour. Some countries harvest/harvested cane
manually. A lot of plantations are using machines such as the combine harvester that reaps,
threshes and cleans sugar cane in one operation. Other machines are also used.
Ownership
Some of the estates are owned by multinational corporations/ foreign companies. In some
countries plantations have been nationalized (taken over by the government). In Jamaica,

Complant, a Chinese Firm paid a 9 million for the Monymusk, Frome and Bernard Lodge
factories. Most of Guyana’s farms are owned by the government
Marketing of produce
Sugar cane was initially marketed under a special agreement known as the Lome Convention.
This is ensured that the farms in Jamaica had a sure market for their sugarcane at a pre-
agreed price. In the recent past however the sure market has been lost because of the activity
of the W.T.O., that is the World Trade Organization. The WTO ensures that there is a free
trade where no country gets preferential treatment when trading with another country.

Sugar Cane Production in Guyana and Brazil
Sugar Cane Production in Guyana
Guyana is the largest sugar producer in the Caribbean Community. Sugarcane is grown in
several areas near the coast.
Temperatures are high all year round and the area receives about 2000 mm of rain each year.
This is good as sugarcane requires high temperatures and at least 1500 mm of rain annually to
thrive. Also, there are two rainy seasons and two drier periods. Therefore, there are two
sugarcane harvests per year. The sugarcane is allowed to grow during the wetter periods and
harvested in the drier periods.
The soil near the coast is deep and fertile. It is therefore suitable for growing sugarcane. Most of
Guyana’s population lives on the narrow coastal plain, providing the sugar estates with an
adequate supply of unskilled as well as skilled labour. The main road which runs along the coast
makes estates easily accessible and also provides the estates with access to other areas.
The fact that the estates are located near the coast makes it easier to export their finished product.
All sugar estates are located relatively close to one of the ports from which sugar is exported.
Sugar is transported by ship from Blairmont, Skeldon or Georgetown.
Characteristics of sugar cane Farming
Size/Acreage
Guysco is a state own factory owns eight (8) sugar factories and grows sugar on 470sq km of
land; which is a larger area than the island of Barbados. This is 47 000 hectares. The sizes of the
farms are very large.
Farming Practices:
The system of sugarcane cultivation in Guyana makes controlled flooding possible. Before
sugarcane is planted, the fields may be flooded for months. This kills so reduces the need for
herbicides. The flood also contains essential minerals and nutrients so reduces the need for

fertilizers. Parasites are used to reduce pest infestations so there is minimal use of chemical
pesticides.
The planting of sugarcane is usually done by hand. Cane is usually planted in beds to aid
drainage and this makes the use of machinery difficult. In some cases, the soil is too soft for
heavy machinery to operate. Heavy machinery is used in only a few places.
There are many canals which cross the sugarcane fields. Almost one eighth of the area of the
average sugarcane field is taken up by canals. This elaborate system of canals is used for
irrigation. These canals are also used for transporting the canes to the factories. Sugarcane is
transported in small flat bottomed boats (known as punts) from the fields to the factories.
Sugarcane is usually harvested manually. After the cane is harvested, the roots are sometimes left
in the ground to produce new plants. This is known as ratooning. This is done up to four times.
Then the fields are ploughed and replanted.
Technology:
Most of the sugar cane production in Guyana is done manually (by hand). The use of technology
is therefore limited. Mechanization is difficult. Cane was traditionally in cambered beds, which
slope to aid drainage. The layout of the beds makes it difficult to use machinery, and in some
areas the soil is too soft for heavy equipment. Heavy machinery is used in only a few places.
Labour:
It is important to note that much of the work involved in sugarcane cultivation is done by hand.
This includes planting and harvesting. Therefore sugarcane cultivation in Guyana can be
described as labour intensive.
Ownership:
Majority of the farms are owned by the government. Guysco is a state own factory owns eight
(8) sugar factories and grows sugar on 470sq km of land; which is a larger area than the island of
Barbados. Some sugarcane is also grown by independent farmers
Marketing Sugar:

Most of the sugar produced in Guyana is exported to Europe. Some is exported to the United
States. Some is sold to other CARICOM member states including Suriname, Dominica, Antigua,
St. Lucia, Grenada and Jamaica. These markets pay more than the world price, allowing the
sugar industry to remain profitable.
Sugar Cane in Brazil
Brazil is the largest exporter if sugar cane is the world. Brazil also exports ethanol which is a by-
product of the processing of sugar cane. In 2009 Brazil produced 671,395,000 metric tons.
Characteristics of sugar cane Farming in Brazil
Size/Acreage:
The farms in Brazil are very large. The area planted in 2007 was over 7 million hectares.
Farming practices
Brazil farming practices have changed significantly over the past few decades. Traditional
methods were once used. Planting and harvesting sugar cane was done by manual labour. When
it was close to harvesting the sugar cane fields were burnt. This was done to remove the leaves
and to drive away any potential poisonous animals. The sugar cane were then cut by hand.
The sugar cane production now is highly mechanized. Most stages of the production is done by
machines. From digging rows to planting the cane is done by machines. Harvesting the crop is
done by machines which eliminates the need to burn fields.
Sugar cane in Brazil share some similarities with Guyana. Application of pesticides on Brazilian
sugarcane fields is negligible and use of fungicides practically non-existent. Major diseases that
threaten sugarcane are fought through biological control, introducing natural enemies to fight
pest. Brazilian sugarcane needs fewer chemicals due to the innovative use of organic fertilizers
created during sugarcane processing. For instance, sugarcane mills recover residues called filter
cake (which is rich in phosphorus) and vinasse (loaded with potassium, organic matter and
other nutrients), which they use in place of traditional fertilizers.
Labour:

The increase in mechanization reduces the need for human labour. The use of machinery
increases productivity and it’s efficient. Human labour is still needed to operate the machines.
The individuals who once worked on the farm are trained by the Brazilian government how to
operate the machines. . They are now operating the various machines on the farms.
Technology:
The use of machinery in almost all aspect of the sugar cane production suggests that technology
is widely used.
Markets
Approximately 2/3 of the sugar produced in Brazil is destined for foreign markets. More than
100 countries around the world rely on sugar from Brazil. Some of the key export markets
include India, Russia, Iran and United Arab Emirates.

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
Impact of tourism on the environment
 Tourism contributes to the physical destruction of the reef when tourists trample it during
sightseeing expeditions. Boats carrying tourists indiscriminately drop anchor, destroying
the reef structure. Local people also rob the reef to make jewelry, handicrafts and trinkets
from coral for the tourists.
 Tourists who go on activities such as hiking and trekking cut down trees to build fires.
For example, one trekking tourist in Nepal – an area already suffering the effects of de-
forestation – can use four to five kilograms of wood a day. Tourists using the same trail
over and over again trample the vegetation and soil, eventually causing damage that can
lead to loss of biodiversity and other impacts. Such damage can be even more extensive
when visitors frequently stray off established trails
 Forests, mangroves and other vegetation are being cleared to facilitate the construction of
hotels, roads and other tourism facilities. The Caribbean tourism is concentrated on the
coast and valuable ecosystems such as mangroves are destroyed to facilitate tourism
development. Mangroves are often seen as unsightly obstructions to tourist interests.
They are viewed as mosquito-infested, muddy swamps holding back progress and hinder-
ing tourism development. In addition habitat loss occurs as ecosystems such as
mangroves provide a home for several marine species.
 Transport by air, road and rail is continuously increasing in response to the rising number
of tourists and their greater mobility. Other methods of transport includes cruise ship and
tour buses. All the above mode of transportation uses fossil based sources for energy.
Environmentally unfriendly substances such as exhausts, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide
and carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere causing air pollution.
 Faulty engine systems on cruise ships can result in oil spills. Oil spills are dangerous and
can have serious impacts on the marine environment. Because oil is thick, birds and other
marine animals may entangle causing death. Ecosystems such as coral reefs are affected
as sunlight will not penetrate through the oil.

 In areas with high concentrations of tourist activities and appealing natural attractions,
waste disposal is a serious problem and improper disposal can be a major despoiler of the
natural environment – rivers, scenic areas, and roadsides. Solid waste and littering can
degrade the physical appearance of the water and shoreline and cause the death of marine
animals.
 Hotels in the Caribbean have inadequate and improper sewage disposal systems. Hotels
sometime discharge their waste into nearby water bodies. Sewage often contains large
amount of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates which causes eutrophication. Sewage
run-off causes serious damage to coral reefs because it stimulates the growth of algae,
which cover the filter-feeding corals, hindering their ability to survive. Eutrophication
also kills other marine organism as they are deprived of oxygen. . Wastewater has pol-
luted seas and lakes surrounding tourist attractions, damaging the flora and fauna.
 Golf course maintenance can also deplete fresh water resources. In recent years golf
tourism has increased in popularity and the number of golf courses has grown rapidly.
Golf courses require an enormous amount of water every day and as with other causes of
excessive extraction of water, this can result in water scarcity.
 Chemicals such as fertilizers and herbicides are used to maintain golf courses.
Sometimes the fertilizers may infiltrate into groundwater and contaminate it. It also uses
1500 kilos of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides per year
Impact of manufacturing industry on the environment
 All raw-material extraction whether mining, or drilling involves disruption of natural
ecosystems. Most manufacturing industries require huge land space for operations. Huge
acres of land are to facilitate manufacturing development. A good example is the bauxite
industry in the Caribbean. Lands are cleared to construct the actual manufacturing plant.
In addition lands are also cleared to make roads to transport the bauxite to the
manufacturing plant. Sometimes communities are destroyed to access bauxite deposits.
The open cast mining method used by the bauxite industry in the Caribbean require
complete removal of vegetation and top soil
 The destruction of forests have led to a decline in natural habitats the support wildlife. In
addition it has forced organisms to move further into the wild, exposing them to predators

and intolerable living conditions. . Consequently, some wildlife species have faced
extinction while several others remain highly endangered. In addition deforestation
contributes to global warming. Trees store carbon dioxide in their leaves. Whenever trees
are destroyed the excess carbon that was once stores is released into the atmosphere.
 Most countries use fossil fuel based energy sources to fuel their manufacturing industries.
Fossil fuel include coal, oil and natural gas. Whenever these fossil fuels are burnt they
release gases in the air such as sulphur. Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The
mining of bauxite requires several equipment such as tractors, trucks, mechanical
excavators and conveyor belts. The trucks used to transport the bauxite to the
manufacturing plant uses oil as their source of energy. Again several gases and pollutants
are emitted into the atmosphere
 Both surface and ground water, ocean and seas are affected. Industries release organic
materials, petroleum products, metals and acids into water systems. Jamaica’s
bauxite/alumina industry produces a waste product known locally as “red mud”. This
waste has been disposed of, for over 30 years since the plants were constructed, in
unsealed mined out pits. The red mud ponds are in the direct path of ground water flow
and pose a serious threat to ground water reservoirs and consequently the ground water
reserves of the island. Sometimes the waste go directly into nearby rivers and
underground water sources
Impact of agriculture on the environment
 Commercial farming (monoculture-one crop) can result in soil exhaustion. Some crops
such as corn use up more/demand more of a particular nutrient (for e.g. nitrogen. This can
reduce the fertility of the soil over time as the one nutrient is constantly being used up by
the crop. The problem is even worse if fertilizers are not being added to the land to
replenish the already depleting nitrogen nutrient.
 Commercial farming is a large scale farming which requires large land space. Vegetation
is usually cleared to facilitate this. This can have several impacts. Vegetation plays a
huge part in the storing of carbon. Once vegetation is cleared the carbon that was stored
is released into the atmosphere. This will accelerate the process of global warming. The
more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere the more heat that is going to trap.

 In addition clearing of forest can result in habitat destruction for some animals, reduction
in biodiversity and loss of some ecosystem. In many parts of the world the farmers drain
wetlands to create areas for farming. This can lead to the loss of ecologically important
wetlands such as swamps/ mangroves. By draining these important wetlands we are
destroying the habitats of many aquatic species.
 One of the characteristics of commercial farming is that there is usually large inputs of
chemical fertilizers (such as nitrogen and phosphorous). Fertilizer, in the form of mineral
compounds which contain elements essential for plant growth, is widely used to produce
a healthy crop and increase yields. If too much fertilizer is applied to the soil, some
remains unabsorbed by the plants and can infiltrate in the soil and contaminate ground
water. Increase in nutrients in ground water can result in a process called eutrophication
(algal explosion). The newly introduced algae will use up most of the oxygen which
deprive other marine plants and animals of it. This can result in massive death of marine
organisms such as fishes
 The agriculture industry in most countries especially for commercial farming requires a
lot of energy. Energy is require to operate processing plants, to transport crops to various
locations and to operate machines such as combine harvesters.
- The Combine Harvester is a machine a versatile machine designed to efficiently
harvest a variety of grain crops. The machine reaps, threshes, and cleans a cereal crop
in one operation. This machine uses fossil based sources such as oil/petroleum for
energy. An ultimate result of using fossil fuel based energy sources is that gases such
as carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide are released into the atmosphere. These gases will
accelerate the process of global warming/climate change as they trap heat coming
from the earth’s surface.
- After crops are harvested they need to be transported to markets or factory for
processing. The trucks, trains and other mode of transportation as aforementioned
uses fossil fuel as energy sources. The exhaust coming from trucks release gases such
as nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The fumes/smokes can result in
air pollution.
 In some developing countries crops such as Sugar Cane are burnt prior to harvesting. The
fields are burnt to remove the unwanted leaves and dangerous insect/pests. The smoke

can result in air pollution (air quality is reduced) and surrounding communities are
affected.
Measures to ensure the sustainable management of resources- regional, personal and
national responses in primary, secondary industries and tourism
Farming
 Farmers can adopt organic farming practices. Organic farming is when farmers use
natural inputs rather than artificial inputs e.g. artificial fertilizers. Animal manure can be
used as a source of fertilizer. When natural inputs are used there is little or no impact of
the environment. Mulching is also practiced. This is when plant material twigs, grasses,
leaves straw are used to cover the top soil. It prevents weed from growing and keep the
soil moist by preventing evaporation. Government can educate farmers about the
benefits of organic farming so they can adopt this technique.
 Soil conservation technique such as terracing can be used on steep slopes. Terracing is a
where the natural landscape is transformed into stair steps of successively receding flat
surfaces. This reduces soil erosion.
 There are certain practices such as agroforestry and crop rotation that are also beneficial
to the environment. When a single crop is grown in one field for many years in a row, the
crop will cause the depletion of particular nutrients from the soil. This depletion of
nutrients leads to poor plant health and lower crop yield. With crop rotation, particular
nutrients are replenished depending on the crops that are planted. For example, a simple
rotation between a heavy nitrogen using plant (e.g., corn) and a nitrogen depositing plant
(e.g., soybeans) can help maintain a healthy balance of nutrients in the soil.
 Agro forestry includes the growing of tree crops with regular crops. Planting tree crops
can be advantageous. Firstly the tall trees encourage infiltration and reduces surface
runoff and can prevent soil erosion. The trees also acts as wind barriers and can protect
the plants at lower levels from wind erosion and damage by high speed winds.
 Contour cropping is a conservation farming method that is used on slopes to control
erosion. Contour cropping involves planting crops across the slope instead of up and

down the slope. Using contour cropping helps against erosion by keeping valuable topsoil
and by slowing down water so that it soaks in the ground.
 Fallowing ( or resting the land) should also be practice more by farmers. After a few
years of planting the soil is left to REST. Growing a crop continously on a piece of land
can decline soil quality overtime as specific nutrients are being used up. When the soil is
left to fallow (rest) for a few years the soil can regain its fertility naturally.
Fishing
 Fishermen are using destructive fishing practices which are affecting important
ecosystems such as coral reefs. Some fishermen will continue to use these practices.
Government can ban the use of these practices and improper fishing gears. In Barbados
cyanides and blast fishing are illegal.
 Government can implement closed seasons for certain species e.g. lobsters, parrot fish. In
the off season they can reproduce and continue to replenish stocks. In Barbados there are
closed seasons for the parrot fish. This prevents overfishing of important reef fisheries
that helps to protect the reefs.
 Government can enforced minimum sized weights for fish (in Belize conch shell must
exceed 7 inches). This enforcement allows only mature species to be removed from
marine areas. This will also prevent fishermen from catching young fishes and other
immature marine animals.
 Government should educate fishermen on the importance of the parrot fish to the
environment.
Tourism
 The tourism industry is degrading the environment. The Caribbean governments can
promote ecotourism. This form of tourism is environmentally friendly. The environment
is not affected and communities and local people benefit more from this type of tourism.
The Caribbean is endowed with natural scenery (mountains, caves etc.). This is a
sustainable type of tourism as money is still being generated, communities and local
benefits from it and it is environmentally friendly.

Human Geography- Economic activities in the Caribbean

Human Geography- Economic activities in the Caribbean

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Human Geography- Economic activities in the Caribbean

Similar to Human Geography- Economic activities in the Caribbean (20)

More from Oral Johnson

More from Oral Johnson (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Human Geography- Economic activities in the Caribbean