Martin-Bell Syndrome

Martin-Bell Syndrome
Fragile x syndrome, also referred to as Martin–Bell syndrome or Marked X Syndrome, is one of the
most common forms of inherited mental retardation. Fragile X Syndrome is a genetic condition that
causes a range of developmental issues. The syndrome starts to affect people around the age of 2.
Although women can also be affected by this syndrome, most of its affected population consists of
men. The female carrier status of Fragile X Syndrome has been estimated to be as high as 1 in 130–
250 population. Fragile X syndrome has many effects on the research of the past, affected people of
the present, and medications of the future.
In the year 1943, two scientist, Martin and Bell, took on a case of mental retardation in a family.
Through their investigation of the family, they were able to find a mark, or difference in a spot of the
X–chromosome. There was extended information on the arm of the X chromosome causing the
difference in looks for the family. More research was done when people began to map the gene in
the 60's and 70's, and there was specific characteristics identified with the syndrome. With the
discovery of the characteristics scientist could compare the affected males in the family compared to
the unaffected women and find physical and genetic differences. ... Show more content on
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This includes long narrow face, prominent jaw, large ears, flat feet, and a prominent forehead. Side
effects of Fragile X Syndrome include, ADD, Autism, Seizures, anxiety, hyperactive, and
intellectually disabled. Some other neurological deficiencies of Fragile X Syndrome include
depression, general and separation anxiety, and oppositional defiant disorder. The phenotype for
Fragile X Syndrome can be hard to identify in youth and only appear after puberty. However, when
the syndrome is identified many methods can help to combat the major
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Genetic Disorder : Retinitis Pigmentosa
Genetic Disorder: Retinitis Pigmentosa
Retinitis pigmentosa(RP) is an inherited, degenerative eye disease that causes severe vision
impairment due to the progressive degeneration of the rod photoreceptor cells in the retina . Retinitis
pigmentosa is one of the most common inherited diseases of the retina, affecting 1.5 million people
worldwide. Up to 150 mutations are known to cause retinitis pigmentosa, which includes three
genetic inheritance patterns– autosomal dominant inheritance, autosomal recessive inheritance, or
X–linked inheritance. Symptoms often first appear in childhood that patients would endure
nyctalopia, the decreasing vision at night or in low light, then lost of peripheral vision causing
"tunnel vision" and finally, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, my family started to pay attention to this disease and tried to find as many cutting–edge
therapies as possible for curing and alleviating the symptom. Fortunately, my grandmother still can
capture a little sense of light and she is optimistic all the time during these 20 years.
Retinitis pigmentosa is one of the most common forms of inherited retinal degeneration which
relates to multiple genes, including more than 150 genes. When these genes mutated, the retinitis
pigmentosa phenotype would show up. The disease can be inherited as an autosomal dominant
(about 30–40% of cases), autosomal recessive (50–60%), or X–linked (5–15%) trait . Retinitis
pigmentosa is caused by a form of inherited retinal degeneration which effects two types of
photoreceptors, rods and cones, the light–sensitive cells that convert light into nervous impulses. As
the disease progresses, the rods would be degenerated initially, so the patients would found the
decreasing night vision. Then the cones, which are responsible for diurnal vision, become affected.
Whereas the rods are destroyed, the cones survive in the organism for extended periods, even after
the occurrence of blindness as they cease to function . Gene mapping and gene discovery have
revealed unusually complicated molecular genetic causes of RP . Retinitis pigmentosa varies a lot
because of the follow characteristics: locus heterogeneity which states that mutations in many
different genes cause the

Red Blood Cell Is An Essential Treatment For Patients With...
Red Blood Cell (RBC) transfusion is an essential treatment for patients with the Sickle Cell Disease
(SCD). Alloimmunization to RBC antigens has remained a challenge due to the difference in antigen
prevalence, such as in the case of people of African origin and those of white descendent do not
have a similar antigen prevalence. The presence of RH heterogeneity leads to alteration of the
representation of the Rh antigen on a patient 's RBC hence increasing chances of alloimmunization.
To be able to counter this, methods such as pre–transfusion determination of extended Rh (CcEe)
and K antigen phenotypes and RBC phenotyping by hemagglutination have been attempted. RBC
phenotyping by hemagglutination has been the gold standard, but is labor–intensive and hindered by
subjectivity in interpreting agglutination reactions and transcription errors when manually
transcribing results. Testing is also limited by lack of reagents for a number of clinically significant
antigens.
10 DNA–based assays targeting single–nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with blood
group antigen expression offer an alternative. 11–14 Genotyping method provide information on
RBC antigens for which standardized serologic typing reagents are not available and are responsive
to high–throughput testing with computerized interpretation. RBC antigen phenotypes determined
by single–nucleotide polymorphism analysis was compared with serologic testing for 13 routinely
tested RBC antigens. The frequency of

Sickle Cell Transfusion
Abstract
Sickle cell disease (SCD) patients undergo episodic or chronic blood transfusions to treat anemia
and prevent life–threatening complications. Although blood transfusions provide benefits to SCD
patients, there are also associated risks. The risks of transfusion include infectious disease
transmission, circulatory overload, acute hemolytic transfusion reactions, iron overload,
hyperhemolysis, red blood cell alloimmunization and delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions
(DHTR). Alloimmunization and DHTR are one of the biggest challenges and occur in 25–30% of
SCD patients. Only those patients who are responders will become alloimmunized. The number of
units transfused, the limited or extended phenotypically matched red blood cell transfusion, ... Show
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The study investigated four different strategies (limited history–based, extended history–based,
limited prospective, and extended prospective) over 10 and 20–year periods.13 The limited match
included antigens C, E, K and the extended match included antigens C, c, E, e, K, Fya, Fyb, Jka,
Jkb, S, and s.13 The results of the study are rather alarming. For all of the strategies, the cost of
providing historically matched units were vastly cheaper than providing antigen matched units.13
The 8500 patients studied with no previous history of transfusions or alloimmunizations, providing
limited antigen matched units would cost $765.56 million more than limited historically matched
units but would have 2072 fewer alloimmunizations.13 The same patients given extended antigen
matched units would cost $1.864 billion more than extended historically matched units but would
have 2424 fewer alloimmunizations.13 The cost comparisons were similar for the patients who were
previously transfused or alloimmunized.13 For instance, the cost to provide limited antigen matched
would cost $358.34 million more than limited historically matched but would have 1417 fewer
alloimmunizations.13 The same patients given extended antigen matched units would cost $930.51
million more than extended historically

Candida albicans Essay
Candida albicans
Candida albicans is a dimorphic fungus. This means that that C. albicans has to different phenotypic
forms, an oval shaped yeast form and a branching hyphal form. C. albicans normal habitat is the
mucosal membranes of humans and various other mammals including the mouth, gut, vagina, and
sometimes the skin. Normally C. albicans causes no damage and lives symbiotically with the human
or animal host, even helping to breakdown minute amounts of fiber that are eaten in the host's diet.
The normal bacterial flora of the gut, mouth, and vaginal mucosa act as a barrier to the over growth
of fungal infections like C. albicans. Loss of this normal flora is one of the main predisposing
factors to an infection by C. albicans. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
albicans can gain an advantage over the normal bacterial flora. Two common substances are steroids
and birth control pills. These both act to alter the host's body chemistry in a way that is favorable to
the over growth of C. albicans. If the host is immunocompromised to begin with as in the case of
AIDS patients or organ transplant receivers that are on immunosupresive drugs C. albicans
infections are very prominent. A common symptom among AIDS patients is oral thrush, where there
is a huge over population of C. albicans on the back of the hosts tongue, it appears as white
speckles.
When C. albicans becomes pathogenic, or switches it's phenotype to the hyphal form to invade the
host cell epithelium, be it the mouth or the gut or the vagina; these infections are superficial and can
usually be treated with common anti–fungal agents like fluconazole, diflucan, azole–related anti
fungal drugs, amphotericin B, fungizone ( I think this is the same as amphotericin B). However in
severely immunocompromised individuals like transplant patients or AIDS patients C. albicans can
become systemic. That is the fungus will travel through the blood stream and infect any major organ
it can. When C. albicans has become systemic it is almost always fatal because of the similarity
between the host cells and the fungus, and the lack of a reliable anti fungal drug.
Common symptoms of an oral C. albicans infection include burning pain,

Richard Dawkins The Selfish Gene
In 1976, the ethologist Richard Dawkins published a groundbreaking book, "The Selfish Gene" , in
which the thesis of sociobiology is divulged previously granted by EO Wilson in his "Sociobiology"
1975.
EO WilsonIn 1989, Dawkins pulled back his book, with two new chapters to the original and final
chapters, in which small self–correction is done and defends the attacks after the first edition notes.
Let's go to see, and magnify features, which means this new contribution to the modern theory of
evolution.
The purpose of Dawkins is to examine the biology of altruism and selfishness. It shows that the
important factor in evolution is not the good of the species or group, as traditionally understood, but
the good of the individual or gene. For ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Genes prepare the machine in advance, then this will be at your own risk. Genes act in the long term
by protein synthesis, but this is a slow process. Therefore, the genes build your machine in advance,
in the best way possible and programming it in advance.
Therefore, the behavior is governed by the selfishness of the genes of each agency and not by
altruism of individuals with regard to the other members of their species. Dawkins takes care to
show this throughout the whole book with numerous individual behaviors.
As for the man, for he is the only body able to cope and be contrary to the dictates of the selfish
genes, thanks to our consciousness: . "only man can rebel against the tyranny of the selfish
replicators" Most characteristics that are unusual in men are due to culture, Dawkins also intended
to treat as a transmission unit, although with some particular mechanisms.
In his own words, for an understanding of modern man must discard to the gene as the sole basis of
our ideas on evolution would also be culture; Darwinism is too broad to be confined to the narrow
context of the gene theory. Culture acts as a replicator that is established in the brain and persist
generation after generation

Terrorism And Its Effect On Human Survival
A) There are several issues raised in this question. There is a debate as to whether humans are a
cooperating species or a selfish species. Humans cooperate instinctively for survival because this is
beneficial to them. It can be argued that human beings cooperate for a reason because cooperation
has many benefits; it aids survival. Cooperation evolved as a result of the benefits attached to it, this
could be motivated entirely by the self–interest of the individual. According to Richard Dawkins
"our genes may instruct us to be selfish, but we are not necessarily compelled to obey them all our
lives" , if we choose to live in a society that is safe, we have no choice but to cooperate, as
cooperation over time has allowed humans to survive. Unfortunately, life is full of competition; this
gives rise to competition between groups which promotes cooperation within groups. Cooperation
within groups can give rise to destructive ventures, and can lead to decision and risks that are not
properly reasoned through hence threatening human survival, this is one disadvantage of
cooperation. According to Robert Axelrod, this is the security dilemma in which "nations often seek
their own security through means which challenges the security of others, this problem arises in
such areas as escalation of local conflict and armed races"
It is argued that humans are a cooperating species and that cooperation is not just a by–product of
competition but cooperation is inherent in humans,

The Development of Antibiotic Resistance
For many years people have wondered why the antibiotics that are used so commonly nowadays are
not as effective as they once were. Just like organisms evolve throughout time, resistance to certain
things can also evolve. This resistance however is not something that happens naturally but rather is
a man–made process which was caused via the misuse, overuse, and/or underuse of antibiotics
(Davies 2010). The author Davies explains that there is no better example of the Darwinian notions
of selection and survival than the spread of antibiotic resistance and how the bacteria have evolved
with traits that make them that way. The more people use antibiotics, especially when not necessary,
the higher the chance of bacteria in the body growing resistant to those antibiotics. Major problems
have arisen such as cells becoming resistant to antibiotics because its selection pressure is reduced
or eliminated. This means that one must counteract this by continually increasing the antibiotic
concentration in proportion to the increased resistance (Rosenthal and Elowitz 2012). To understand
how bacteria became resistant to antibiotics, one must first understand the origin of antibiotics and
its introduction into the body. Once these antibiotics were discovered and first started being used, it
was not long after that that they regrettably were accompanied by the appearance of some resistant
strains as well. The development of antibiotic resistance is persistent especially because

A Short Note On Classification Of Β -lactamases
1.6.1 Classification of β–lactamases
Two major schemes for classification of β–lactamases are currently in use. The molecular
classification of β–lactamases is based on the amino acid sequence homology dividing them into
four classes A through D. The enzymes belonging to class A, C and D utilize serine residue for
substrate hydrolysis while class B enzymes (metallo–β–lactamases) utilize divalent zinc ions for β–
lactam hydrolysis [Ambler R. P. et al, 1991]. The functional classification is based on the substrate
and inhibitor profiles of the enzymes [Bush K. et al, 1995; Bush & Jacoby, 2010]. The inhibitors
used in this scheme are Clavulanic acid, tazobactam and EDTA. The β–lactamases can be loosely
identified based on their substrate ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However with the advent of each new class of antibiotic used to treat bacterial infections, new β–
lactamases emerged that caused resistance to that particular class of drug. It is assumed that the
overuse of new antibiotics in the treatment of patients created a selective pressure eventually
selecting for new variants of β–lactamase.
One of the new classes of antibiotics introduced was the oximino–cephalosporins which owing to
their excellent activity became widely used for the treatment of serious infections due to gram
negative bacteria in the 1980s. Not surprisingly, resistance due to production of β–lactamases
against this expanded spectrum β–lactam antibiotics soon emerged. These β–lactamases were named
as extended–spectrum β–lactamases (ESBLs) because of their increased spectrum of activity
especially against the oximino–cephalosporins. The first ESBL capable of hydrolyzing the newer β–
lactams was SHV–2 found in a strain Klebsiella ozaenae in

Reflection Paper On Drosophila
Drosophila Project Reflection Paper
Being an effective group member in an upper level class takes a lot of communication and effort
from everyone involved if the group wishes to succeed. All parties involved need to be on the same
page and able to coordinate with each other effectively. When it comes to lab work like we
performed in the Drosophila project, there were multiple levels of communication involved. First
off, just working together effectively in lab took patience. Making sure everyone knew what we
were doing and why we were doing it was important when checking the vials during the F1 and F2
generations. Collecting the data on the phenotypes of the flies, the number of flies, and the sex of
flies was important to make sure ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ethical action calls us to live as God would. When it comes to working on a group project, an
important step is to go into every situation, every group meeting, or lab as God would. We have a
responsibility to have our work done on time, but not become frustrated at the others in a group who
may not have their work complete. That just gives one an opportunity to help that person and show
them the kindness that God would. We are put into a position to work with others for an extended
period and that is a prime opportunity to shine our light into the others that we are working with.
One can't always know the background of their fellow group members and we must live out what
Christ calls us to as an example to them. As responsible citizens we are called to love our neighbors
as ourselves, and that includes your lab partner. When working in a group, we have an opportunity
to use our varying talents to glorify God and to make sure our partners have the same opportunity. I
think that is the pinnacle of a great group – everyone combining their various strengths in a
culmination to glorify God. Like I mentioned earlier, I thoroughly enjoyed this group project. There
was some stress in getting everything put together and combining everyone's parts, but the
experience of the project was great. I, like everyone else in my group, have my sights set on
graduate school and getting the experience of working with

Inheritance Pattern Essay
Trinity Lutheran College 2012 Inheritance Patterns Extended Experimental Investigation Scott
Zimmerman The Abstract: Contents The Task 5 Timeline 5 Experimental Design 6 Introduction 9
Preliminary Hypothesis Justification 9 Planning 10 Gantt chart 10 Variables 11 Dependant –
Genotypes 11 Phenotypes 12 Independent 12 Inheritance Patterns 12 Constant 13 Sunlight 13 Water
14 Soil 15 Families & Generations 16 Peas 16 Barley 17 Materials 18 Risk Assessment Forum
19 Method 21 Results: – Barley 22 Peas 23 Year 12 Biology Cohort Collective Result 25 Collective
Graphs – Peas 26 Barley 27 Spectrometer – Peas 28 Barley 29 Analysis, Discussion and
Interpretation of Data 30 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I had to investigate the effect of the mutation on the plants and then determine the type of
inheritance pattern shown in each case. By following in the footsteps of the Father of Genetics
'Gregor Johann Mendel'; I've attempted to achieve recreating (on a much smaller scale) one of his
inheritance experiments conducted in 1856–1863. This particular experiment led him to create the
Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later became known as
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance. By following the "Second Law" created by Mendel (Independent
Assortment) it was possible to hypothesise that the growth rate of both peas and barley were
manipulated by the phenotype and genotype of each individual plant, chlorophyll absorption within
each plant and how had the inheritance pattern affected the overall biological mass/growth rate of
the collective. Essentially the phenotype 'Green' has a higher probability to grow into adulthood
without complication due to the Chlorophyll's ability to absorb more light (to photosynthesise and
grow) as opposed to the white or yellow phenotypes which absorb less light due to the colour
pigmentation within their leaves. The inheritance pattern of both peas and barely contributes to the
genotypes and phenotypes present within the plants. Theoretically had all barley and pea plants of a
'Green Phenotype' and the 'GxG Genotype' (G: Green) been bred as a species, all of

Delta Smelt Essay
Introduction
As natural resources experience an increased impact by human activities, the list of endangered
species of flora and fauna expands. This highlights the importance of bringing all aspects of
conservation efforts to the forefront. These efforts are often restricted by funding and logistical
components and so prioritization must take place to ensure the preservation of critical populations
and habitats, rather than a species in its entire historical range. It is critical to preserve genetic
diversity which, in turn, allows for the preservation of the ecological and evolutionary aspects that
are required for a species to continue to exist.
Historically, conservation efforts have been focused on intraspecific phenotypes and managing ...
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The delta smelt is an estuarine fish that is endemic to the San Francisco Bay–Delta region of
California. This species was listed as endangered under the California Endangered Species Act in
2010 after extended extremely low abundance indices. The historical range of the delta smelt
extended from San Pablo Bay to Sacramento along the Sacramento River and Mossdale along the
San Joaquin River. Delta smelt became extinct in the southern region of their native range in the
1970s and experienced a steep population decline in the 1980s. The greatest factor in the decline of
the delta smelt is the anthropological impact on their native ecosystem. The introduction of invasive
species and the alteration of their habitat from variable tidal systems to leveed channels have
significantly decreased suitable habitats for certain life stages of the delta smelt. Also, the highly
controversial exportation of water from the Delta has had a major impact on delta smelt populations.
Large water pumps in the southern region of the Delta are both detrimental to delta smelt habitat and
have the direct effect of killing individuals through entrainment in the pumps. According to several
previous studies, the exportation of water is one of the key factors when it comes to the genetic
diversity, as well as the distribution and abundance, of the delta

Haldane's Daedalus Or Science In The Future
There are currently no concrete, internationally–accepted rules regarding the ethics of gene editing,
because it is such a new discipline, and so both the scientific community and the general public are
concerned about the possibility for abuse of the technology. Dr. Gene Elliott, in the Laboratory
News article "Ethics of genetics: More than just designer babies," discusses the controversy
surrounding "the ability to manipulate DNA and cells for either benefit or harm." She also addresses
the possibility for "exploitation, victimisation or discrimination" based on an adult human's fully
sequenced genome, and the psychological stress associated with the knowledge of one's own
potential death sentence written in mutations and oncogenes. Through Elliott acknowledges that
gene editing provides the incredible opportunity "to fight AIDS and certain cancers" and genomic
sequencing has the ability to "prevent tragedy" by helping individuals learn about their health
options, she emphasizes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Noted as an early an influential text is JBS Haldane's "Daedalus, or Science in the Future," which
was read at Cambridge in 1923. In it, Haldane imagines a future where eugenics are utilized to rid
the majority of the world of "syphilis, insanity, and the like" and ectogenesis (the fertilization and
development of human embryos without a living woman) is the favored method of procreation in
order to combat "the greater fertility of the less desirable members of the population." Because of
the inseparable nature of genetic engineering with the concept of eugenics and the sterilization of
"undesirable" populations in order to foster the growth of a "master race," it is very easy to find
speculative fiction – from HG Wells's 1896 novel The Island of Doctor Moreau to the 1997 cult
classic film Gattaca – on the dangers of a genetics–obsessed

Spinal Muscular Atrophy Research Paper
Spinal Muscular Atrophy Eveline S. Arnold and Kenneth H. Fischbeck Neurogenetics Branch,
National Institutes of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda,
MD, USAAbstract Autosomal recessive proximal spinal muscular atrophy (Werdnig–Hoffmann,
Kugelberg–Welander) is caused by mutation of the SMN1 gene, and the clinical severity correlates
with the number of copies of a nearly identical gene, SMN2. The SMN protein plays a critical role
in spliceosome assembly and may have other cellular functions such as mRNA transport. Cell
culture and animal models have helped to define the disease mechanism and to identify targets for
therapeutic intervention. The main focus for developing treatment has been to increase ... Show
These mice, a severe model from the Arthur Burghes lab at Ohio State University, are either
stillborn or die on average at approximately postnatal day 5 with approximately 40% loss of motor
neurons, representing the severe type I SMA phenotype. As is seen in human patients, mice with
higher copy numbers (more than eight) of the SMN2 transgene were phenotypically rescued, once
again demonstrating that the SMA phenotype could be modified by the number of copies of SMN2
(Monani et al., 2000). A similar strategy was used to generate SMA mice in the Hung Li lab in
Taiwan (Hsieh–Li et al., 2000). In contrast to Burghes severe model, the Hung Li SMA mice
showed a range of phenotypic severity within the same litter, from severe to moderate. Further
studies indicated that this variation in phenotypic severity was likely due to hemi or homozygous
transmission of the transgenic human SMN2 allele on the background of heterozygous deletion of
the Smn1 endogenous allele, thereby producing mice expressing varying copy numbers of the
transgene (Gogliotti et al., 2010). Building on the development of the Burghes severe model, mice
expressing a SMN7 transgene in addition to full length SMN2 were also produced
(Smn1–/–;SMN2tg/tg;SMN7tg/tg). Introduction of the SMN7 allele extended the life span of
affected mice from approximately five days to approximately thirteen days (Le et al., 2005) and
indicated that SMN produced from the SMN2 locus could be a valid therapeutic target. To date, the
two most commonly used mouse models are the Smn1–/–;SMN2tg/tg;SMN7tg/tg (SMA7 mice)
and the Smn1hung–/–;SMN2Hungtg/tg (Hung–Li SMA mice), which both have an average survival
of approximately 13 days and recapitulate the clinical manifestations and neuropathology of
intermediate type II SMA

Cardiovascular Disease ( Cvd )
Background and Literature Review Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) The phrase cardiovascular
disease encompasses all ailments involving the conditions of the heart as well as those of the blood
vessels. The major types of CVD prevalent in Australia are coronary heart disease and stroke,
together with heart failure/cardiomyopathy. One of the leading causes of mortality in Australia today
is cardiovascular disease (CVD) with one in every six Australians affected by the disease resulting
in more than 3.7 million people listed as sufferers. The prevalence of contracting CVD increases
with age as demonstrated by 35% of Australians whose ages range from 55 to 64 years reported to
have a long term CVD condition. The incidence increases to 62% for ... Show more content on
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There are also other important risk factors involved with men experiencing higher rates of coronary
heart disease (CHD) than women. The risk of contracting CVD is increased in men whose first
degree blood relative has suffered incidence of CVD before the age of 55 years and the same
prevails in women whose first degree blood relative has suffered CVD before the age of 65 years. In
addition, some ethnic groups exhibit higher rates of CVD than others [5]. There is a tendency for
modifiable risk factors to have a noticeable result on CVD prevalence in the community. The
relative impact of the disease and injury on the population in Australia 2003, defined 12 risk
elements linked to CVD which if brought together would provide answers to 69% of these relative
impacts [6]. High blood pressure and high cholesterol ranked highest as the largest contributor.
Other contributors come in the nature of lack of physical activities, high body mass, use of tobacco
products, and low consumption of fruits and vegetables [4]. The modifiable risk factors for
cardiovascular disease are summarised as below: Table1 – Modifiable Risk Factors for CVD[4]
Behavioural factors Biomedical factors Tobacco smoking High blood pressure insufficient physical
activity High blood cholesterol Dietary behaviour Overweight and obesity Excessive alcohol
consumption depression Blood Pressure

Taking a Look at Huntington's Disease
Introduction
Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that is inherited in an autosomal dominant
fashion. The cytoplasmic protein affected in Huntington's disease is Huntingtin, coded for by the
Huntingtin gene. The mutated version of the Huntingtin protein has several degenerative
consequences on the molecular level. These are mainly caused by the elongated chain of glutamines
that abberantly interacts with proteins and diminishes their biological functions. The mutated protein
also tends to misfold and form aggregates in neurons, diminishing normal neural functions and
producing the phenotypic traits characterized by Huntington's disease.
Discovery & cause of the mutated gene The symptomotology of Huntington's have been recognized
for several hundreds of years, but the etiology was ambiguous until recently when it was discovered
that an expansion in the polyglutamine tract led to misfolding (citation). Although a lot of progress
has been made, the way in which the mutant Huntingtin protein damages cells is still not fully
understood. The events that preceede the discovery were crucial and are a perfect example of the use
of pedigrees and linkage analysis to identify the locus of the causal gene of a disease. The first step
in identifying the Huntingtin gene was to use pedigrees of affected families to establish that
Huntington's disease as an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern [79]. Over 100 scientists were
involved in the following 10 year Huntington's

Richard Dawkins 's The Selfish Gene, And Jonathan Kozol 's...
Introduction This paper is an integrated critique of Richard Dawkins', The Selfish Gene, and
Jonathan Kozol's, Savage Inequalities. The premise of my critique is to compare how these two
books by two different authors on two different subjects can relate. I believe this is done by
exampling how Dawkins describes the general make up of individuals and how they interact in their
specific groups that they as a species have come up in over millennia and how Kozol describes that
where you are born and raised has predetermined the path that you will be forced down in a cultural
and more specifically educational since for the rest of your life. The bottom line is a place for
everyone and every one in their place. Author Backgrounds Richard ... Show more content on
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Jonathon Kozol is a Rhodes Scholar and Harvard Graduate. Upon graduating from university Kozol
spent some time in the poorer neighborhoods of Paris, France before returning to his home town of
Boston pursue a life in academics. Dr Kozol is also an accomplished author publishing several
books to include, Savage Inequalities. Regardless, to Quote Dr. Kozol, "of all my books, Amazing
Grace means the most to me. It took the most out of me and was hardest to write, because it was the
hardest to live through those experiences. I felt it would initially be seen as discouraging but,
ultimately, sensitive readers would see the resilient and transcendent qualities of children and some
mothers in the book–that it would be seen as a book about the elegant theology of children. That 's
what happened finally. The most moving comments about it also pointed to its moral and religious
texture." Jonathan Kozol has remained in the Boston area for the majority of his life and still fights
for the rights of minorities and under privileged. A defining moment in Kozol 's life occurred in
1964 when, shortly after returning to Boston to pursue an academic career, he heard about three
young civil–rights workers who had been murdered by the Ku Klux Klan. He had never been
political or had any involvement in race issues, but he was greatly affected by the news. Soon after
hearing

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Using C. Elegans
Moreover, Brenner (1974) further suggested that C. elegans is suitable for aging research since it
can be easily and cheaply grown in large quantities in the laboratory, particularly when identifying
long–lived mutants. C. elegans also have a relatively short and invariant lifespan, identification of
mutants which shorten or lengthen average lifespan by a little as 10–15% is possible. Additionally,
with the entire genome sequenced and annotated, availability of an RNAi library comprising approx.
80% of the genes, the ease of generating transgenic strains and the recent development of gene–
targeting approaches make use of C. elegans advantageous in aging research. These features have
allowed for extensive forward and reverse genetic screens for genes that modulate lifespan in C.
elegans (Tissenbaum, 2015). Another advantage of using C. elegans in understanding the aging
process is that the lifespan assay is straightforward, which allows for large numbers of worms to be
examined in a single experiment. This allows testing for statistical significance in addition to the
analysis of mortality rates. Together, these methods allow one to broadly survey the worm genome
for genes that moderate lifespan. This has ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
elegans as model organism for aging studies. The worms have a simple body plan, and lack many
defined organs/tissues including a brain, blood, a defined fat cell, internal organs, and is
evolutionarily distant from humans. Moreover, the worms' size (1 mm) makes biochemistry studies
more challenging. Some ways to study tissue– specific signaling existed but might not be
straightforward and are difficult to perform. By this, immunoprecipitation, microarray, biochemistry,
and chromatin immunoprecipitation are usually performed on whole worm extracts of either mixed–
stage animals or animals at a similar growth stage. Finally, C. elegans cell culture is limited with no
system equivalent to Drosophila S2 cells (Tissenbaum,

The Resistance Patterns Of Klebsiella Pneumoniae
This article was written by Safoura Derakhshan PhD, Shahin Najar Peerayeh PhD, and Bita Bakhshi
PhD. These men currently work at Tarbiat Modares University and specialize in bacteriology. This
article focused on the resistance patterns of Klebsiella Pneumoniae–– the relationship between
virulence genes and antibiotic resistance. K. Pneumoniae is a gram negative opportunistic pathogen
encapsulated in a polysaccharide capsule. K. Pneumoniae is frequently responsible for nosocomial
infections. Typically K. Pneumoniae affects the respiratory tract but can also be found in urinary
tract infections, wounds or in the blood stream. In recent years, multidrug resistant strains have been
isolated from nosocomial infections. Bacteria have many ways to gain resistance. Plasmids are
circular DNA strands separate from the host DNA. They are able to replicate independently of the
host and are an important factor in horizontal gene transfer. Plasmids often encode resistance genes
or other virulence factors. Transposable elements are another way bacteria can acquire resistance.
Transposable elements are DNA sequences that have the ability to insert themselves into host DNA
or plasmids. The transposing of a plasmid gene to the host can result in permanent genetic
resistance. Integrons are mobile genetic structures with DNA genes that encode for an integrase site
and attachment site. Integrons are able to acquire and incorporate gene cassettes which often contain
resistance

OSA Pathogenesis Paper
Though overweight and an excess of regional adipose tissue are considered major risk factors for
OSA, there are also other interacting elements in OSA pathogenesis, such as craniofacial
abnormalities and an altered UA structure. The rationale of using image and speech analysis in OSA
assessment can be found on works such as Lee et al. [3, 4] and Davidson et al. [5], where the
evolutionary changes in physiological characteristics such as craniofacial morphology or acquisition
of speech are connected to the appearance of OSA from an anatomical basis.
First studies looked for abnormalities within craniofacial structures using techniques and processing
common in medical imaging such as cephalometry or computed tomography (CT). In [6] authors
applied sophisticated volumetric analysis on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the ... Show
In [7], authors reported differences between control and OSA subjects in craniofacial structures
assessed by lateral cephalometry such as position of mandible (P < 0.05), mandibular plane angle (P
< 0.05), total face height (P < 0.01), upper face height (P < 0.05), and lower face height (P < 0.05).
In addition, they also reported differences in tongue (P < 0.001), soft palate (P < 0.001), and upper
airway (P < 0.01) size determined from computed tomography. In [8], authors studied oropharyngeal
soft tissues profile by means of cephalometric analysis to detect differences between control and
sleep apnea individuals. Significant differences were related to the length of the soft palate (P <
0.001), area of the soft palate (P < 0.001), and distance of close contact between the tongue and soft
palate (P < 0.001). These previous works rely on advanced imaging techniques, allowing a detailed
examination of bony and soft tissue structures. However, these procedures are generally cost–
expensive, time–consuming, and invasive for patients due to radiation exposure.

Bipolar Disorder ( Bipolar )
Bipolar disorder is an often devastating mental illnesses, with high emotional, social and economic
impact on the lives of patients and family members [Jin and McCrone, 2015; Miller et al., 2014]. In
recent decades, there has been significant progress in developing diagnostic methods for reliably
diagnosing severe bipolar disorder (bipolar disorder type I) and some related bipolar "spectrum"
disorders (bipolar type II disorder), and there has also been recent progress in identifying some of
the genetic loci (through linkage and association analyses) which contribute to severe bipolar
disorder. Controversy remains, however, about the diagnostic borders of bipolar disorder,
particularly in relation to schizophrenia and schizoaffective ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Aside from genetic studies, it has previously been noted that there are associations between some of
the personality traits (which are quantitative in nature and applicable to all human beings) and some
categorical psychiatric conditions like depression and schizophrenia [Koorevaar et al., 2013; Guerra
et al., 2000]. Identification of the genetic components of personality traits, at the same time as
studies are underway to identify genetic components of bipolar disorder and other psychiatric
conditions, offer an opportunity to better understand the interactions and components of the
biological components that shape psychological experience and psychiatric illness. The Genetics of
Bipolar Disorder in Latino Populations (GBDLP) study employed both categorical diagnoses
(DSM–IV) and quantitative measures (including measures of personality) in our assessments of a
large number of indivuduals from extended pedigrees with at least one case of bipolar disorder, to
allow for the opportunity to identify genes involved in both categorical illnesses and quantitative
traits that might show some overlap with bipolar disorder. We have previously reported on the
heritability of factors in the Five Factor personality model (NEO) and their correlation with bipolar
disorder in this sample of of pedigrees [Hare et al., 2011]. In those studies we reported NEO factor
heritability scores as follows: 0.25 for agreeableness, 0.24 for conscientiousness,

A Study On Genes And Function Of Complex Eukaryotic...
Drosophila melanogaster Cross Report
Brianna Wells
TA: Manuel Ruiz
Section 511
March 3, 2017 Table of Contents
Title Page
Table of Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Methods Continued
Results & Discussion
References Abstract The particular experiment completed was in an effort to understand how the
genetic genome works and understand the great breakthroughs that genetics can uncover when
focused on the right area. Drosophila melanogaster was the star focus in this experiment for it's
similarity to the structure and function of complex eukaryotic genomes like humans. If the genes can
first be studied and experimented on in good model organisms then they can progress to helping
solve human's genome mysteries. The specific gene in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It started with Thomas Morgan in 1910, discovering the function, location, and connection of genes
like white–eyes, yellow–body, and small wings. One of the first things Morgan found out was that
the white–eyed trait is sex–linked on the X chromosome and not sex–limited, meaning females can
have the white–eyed trait expressed as well. Usually, males express the white–eyed trait more often
though due to only one X chromosome. This relates to this experiment in that the white–eyed sex–
linked trait is the recessive gene being traced back to the parent generation. The objective is to
identify the parent generation's genotype from only knowing the F1 generation's phenotype and
conducting a cross between sixteen of the F1 generation to produce an F2 generation. The F2
generation should be able to solve the P0's phenotype. It should also be supported by statistics,
punnett squares, and a low probability value. Based on the phenotypes in both F1 and F2, the parent
generation's genotype should be homozygous white–eyed females and dominate red–eyed males.
Methods The exact instruments involved were provided accordingly for the experiment. The
procedure was taken from the steps in UNT's Biology 3452 spring Manual. To start, the most
important instrument was the first vial containing the F1 generation. When received, the vial was
filled with all adult flies and the proper tools were given to safely

How Mutations Affect Ageing
For instance, one theory about how mutations affect ageing is the somatic mutation theory. The
somatic mutation theory indicates that a vital part of ageing is determined by the consequences of
our genes after it has been inherited. Its ideology refers that when mutations occur in somatic cells
(all body cells except reproductive cells), it would lead to a substantial functional failure of them,
which results in a decreased efficiency of organs and eventually death. One other theory is the
mutation accumulation theory which was proposed by Sir Peter Medawar in 1952. He had suggested
that in later life, when mutations accumulate, they cannot be selected against in view of the fact that
these genes would have already been passed onto the offspring,

OSA Pathogenesis
Though overweight and an excess of regional adipose tissue are considered major risk factors for
OSA, there are also other interacting elements in OSA pathogenesis, such as craniofacial
abnormalities and an altered UA structure. The results obtained in Lee et al. [3, 4] and Davidson et
al. [5] suggest that the appearance of OSA is connected to physiological changes in craniofacial
morphology or acquisition of speech. First studies used cephalometry and computed tomography
(CT) to examine possible abnormalities within craniofacial structures. Both techniques are very
common in medical imaging procedures. In [6] authors applied sophisticated volumetric analysis on
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the upper airway soft tissue structures in

Mitochondria Case
Can re–energizing our cellular batteries recharge our lives? Mitochondria are important intracellular
organelles responsible for life & death. The mitochondrial matrix has multiple copies of
mitochondrial DNA whose replication are not related to the cell cycle. Thus replication of
mitochondrial DNA occurs several times and leads to mutations due to error in replication. This
leads to mitochondrial dysfunctions which subsequently leads to oxidative stress and an increase in
ROS . The main function of mitochondria is to produce ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. It
regulates a variety of metabolic and signaling pathways and also plays an important role in
programmed cell death. Recent studies using animal models have shown the decline in
mitochondrial function with age thus bringing out a relationship between mitochondrial dysfunction
and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In contrast, mitochondrial dysfunction accelerates premature aging. Recent studies of mitochondria,
mitochondrial DNA and free radical production has found an increased accumulation of
mitochondrial DNA defect, increased production of ROS and decrease in mitochondrial function in
brain tissues of aged rodents and humans relative to young ones giving an indication that increase in
mitochondrial DNA defect is involved in aging. Data from studies in mice with mutations in
mitochondrial DNA suggests that increase in mitochondrial DNA mutations that arise during
development may lead to an increase in ROS , deregulated stem cell homeostasis and premature
aging by affecting mitochondrial bioenergetics. Aberrant mitochondrial biogenesis and secondary
changes in mitochondrial energy production may leads to loss in accuracy of biochemical events
involved in mitochondrial ETC subsequently leading to an electron leakage of 0.5 – 5% and
increased production of

Genotypes In Children
Phenotypes driven by DNA from passing of traits from parent to offspring. Before children are born,
they receive half of their traits from their mother and the other half from their father. That is why the
child may have their father's nose and their mother's eye shape. Other traits could include eye color,
hair color, hair texture, weight, and skin color. Different combinations of traits may cause offspring
to appear different from their parents. However, the majority of traits inherited from parents will be
the same. There are other things that you do not inherit from parent inherited traits. These are traits
that from what the offspring learn or are caused by the environment. Phenotypes is expressed in part
through the processes of transcription and translation. In transcription, the cell copies the gene ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Phenotype are more specifically be observed as anatomical, morphological, physiological, and
behavioral characteristics. Phenotype can also represent what can be as an extended phenotype.
Which is what natural selection interacts with distinguishing among genotypes. Thus in which,
genes interact with environment and the production of genotype typically involves the protein
molecules as template by DNA. The process of phenotype generation typically involves the copying
of DNA based information into RNA information. RNA based information is then copied into amino
acid based information. I have chosen my paternal grandfather with a dominant phenotype for his
skin color. I predicts that my paternal grandfather genotype for his skin color give his off spring a
higher possibilities to possess a same skin tone that is along pass from my father to me. I would go
about testing my hypothesis by observing my paternal uncle and aunt to see if they possess the same
skin tone as my paternal

Adrenoleukodystrophy Case Study
Adrenoleukodystrophy was first identified in the late 19th century. Many of the cases prior were
usually misdiagnosed, such as "diffuse sclerosis" (Engelen, et al., 2012, p. 1) and "Addison–Schilder
disease" (Engelen, Kemp, Poll–The, 2014, p. 1). These different phenotypes of X–ALD were often
misdiagnosed because of improper tools and knowledge of the disease. Two men, Simmering and
Creutzfeldt, were given credit for identifying the first case of Adrenoleukodystrophy due to the
connection between cerebral demyelination and Addison's disease; however, Schaumburg and
Powers gave the name Adrenoleukodystrophy and said that it could be a "lipid storage disorder"
(Engelen, et al., 2012, p. 2). The disease was thought mostly to only be found in males. ... Show
It was concluded that CALD is "the most rapidly progressive and devastating phenotype of X–
ALD" (Engelen, et al., 2012, p. 3). It is most common in children, but never "before the age of 2.5
years" (Engelen, et al., 2012, p. 10). Children's CALD lowers mental abilities including
"visuospatial and visuomotor functions or attention and reasoning" (Engelen, et al., 2012, p. 3).
Since CCALD affects attention, it is often "misdiagnosed as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder"
(ADHD), causing the diagnosis of CCALD to be impeded (Engelen, et al., 2012, p. 3). More
neurological issues, such as seizures, ataxia (loss of body movements), and hemiparesis (weakness
of the left or right side of the body) become prevalent as the disease worsens (Engelen, et al., 2012).
Some of the symptomatic boys can become blind, bedridden, unable to walk and eventually result in
having 24–hour care and have to be "fed with a nasogastric tube" (Engelen, et al., 2012, p. 3). These
sudden neurologic affects are caused by "severe inflammatory demyelination" (Engelen, et al., 2012,
p. 3). The demyelination can occur early on, even when only located in the corpus callosum.
Symptoms can progress in weeks to months for CCALD (Engelen, et al., 2014). The diagnosis for
this particular phenotype is often identified through an MRI that shows "abnormal signal intensities"
in the corpus callosum and/or frontal white matter within the brainstem (Engelen, et al., 2012, p. 3).
The MRI is the "only tool to detect this evolution in an early stage" (Engelen, et al., 2012, p. 3).
Figure 2 shows an MRI of a patient with childhood cerebral ALD; the focus is on the change in
white matter in the "parieto–occipital region" between the different images (Engelen, et al., 2012, p.

Nature Vs Nurture : Nature And Nurture
Nature and Nurture:
How They Interact in Human Development
Nature or Nurture, which of these are the most important in shaping who we are? "Are genetics or
environmental factors more important?" (Berk, 2014, p. 5) Researchers have been arguing whether
nature or nurture is the most influential force in shaping human beings for a long time. The answer
seems to be a complex combination of both nature and nurture. One thing that everybody can agree
on is that human beings are more than the sum of our parts
Nature is defined in our textbooks as "the hereditary information we receive from our parents at the
time of conception." (Berk, 2014, p. 5) Nurture is defined as "the complex forces of the physical and
social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after
birth." (Berk, 2014, p. 5) In other words nature links to our biology and nurture is all the other
influences. Of course it is never as simple as that, our genetics can influence our behavior and our
environment can influence our genetics. Trying to figure out where one influence starts and another
begins will keep modern researchers busy for a very long time.
Nature can also be defined as our genetics. Genetics are the blueprints that shape us, they unfold
across our lifespan and also interact with our environment. We are all made up of cells which
contain chromosomes. Chromosomes store and transmit genetic information, we have 23 pairs of
chromosomes called autosomes, with one

Can Personality Traits Be Learnt And Developed Or Are They...
Assessment 1 – Can personality traits be learnt and developed or are they solely part of our DNA?
Throughout time several personality trait theories have argued differently. Some state that traits are
inherently part of our DNA and others state that they are solely based on the context or environment.
My argument aligns with Costa and McRae's theory in that personality traits are 'situated in a
comprehensive model of genetic and environmental causes and contexts (McCrae & Costa,1994).'
Answering this question accurately can have a significant impact on the ways in which people learn,
and perhaps more importantly, the processes implemented for people to modify, learn or develop
certain traits. This is of a particular interest in relation to my context because I am a drama teacher.
Quite often personality traits such as extraversion and risk–taking behaviour can significantly
improve or hinder a students learning in the classroom. It is for this reason that I seek an answer to
this question in order to provide an equal opportunity for all of my students, regardless of their
DNA. In order to conclude whether or not personality traits are solely part of DNA, I must firstly
define 'personality' and 'personality traits'. The definition of personality that I will use is from
Pervin, Cervone & John, they state that 'Personality refers to those characteristics of the person that
account for consistent patterns of feelings, thinking, and behaving (2005).' The personality traits

Drosophila Melanogaster Lab Experiment
Extended Experimental Investigation | May 28
2013
|
Drosophila melanogaster lab experiment
Question: How do the dominant or recessive genes in particular traits in a cross between a male and
female Drosophila determine the traits of its offspring?
Aim: to establish whether characteristics produced from the offspring of a drosophila cross are
recessive or dominant traits.
Hypothesis: If certain phenotypes are expressed in the offspring from the cross of certain
Drosophila, then the determination or justification of recessive or dominant phenotypes can be
found.
Theory review and justification of the hypothesis:
Drosophila Melanogaster are simply now generally referred as the common term "fruit fly" or
"vinegar fly". These fruit ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The chance of it being a heterozygous Wildtype male is 50%.
Genotypes= X–W X–v, X–W X–v, X–W Y, X–W Y
= 1:1:
= ½:1/2
Phenotypes= Wildtype female, Wildtype male 50% 50%
Therefore the chance of the offspring being a heterozygous Wildtype drosophila is 100%. The
chance of it being a heterozygous Wildtype male is 50%.
Vile 3 consisted of one Vestigial (male) and one Wild type (female).vial 4 consisted of one Wild
type (female) and an Ebony (male). If both of these vial's flies are homozygous the offspring for
botch will end up 100% heterozygous wild type as it is the dominant characteristic. This is also
evident through punnet squares:
Vial 3
W – Wildtype v– Vestigial
Genotypes= X–W X–e, X–W X–e, X–W Y, X–W Y
= 1:1:
= ½:1/2
chances of it being a heterozygous Wildtype male is 50%,

Genotypes= X–W X–e, X–W X–e, X–W Y, X–W Y
= 1:1:
= ½:1/2
chances of it being a heterozygous Wildtype male is 50%,
Vail 4
W– Wildtype e– Ebony
Materials:
The materials used in this prac are as follows: * 2.5 grams of powder culture (8ml loose packed) +
5–7 ml of water and 4–6 grains of yeast * Necessary amount of Petri dishes to examine

Studies of Arizona Insulin Resistance (AIR) Registry
Arizona Insulin Resistance (AIR) Registry
All study participants were Mexican American from the Arizona Insulin Resistance (AIR) registry. A
description of the registry has been discussed elsewhere [25]. Briefly, of the 667 participants
enrolled in the study, 353 were distributed across 92 families from the AIR registry. The remaining
314 participants were found to be represented by single individuals. These 314 single, unrelated
individuals were considered for the analysis because they contribute to the evaluation of covariate
effects. The remaining 353 participants from 92 families generated 723 relative pairs that were
distributed across fourteen relative–pair categories (Table 1). Metabolic, anthropometric,
demographic and medical history information was obtained on the 667 individuals (aged 8–83 years
old) enrolled in the study (Table 2). All procedures were approved by the institutional review board
of Arizona State University and all subjects gave informed written consent before their participation.
Blood samples were obtained after a 12 hour fast for assessment of various phenotypes including
glucose, insulin, triglycerides, total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, low density
lipoprotein cholesterol and very low density lipoprotein cholesterol. In addition, participants ≥ 12
years of age (n=641) underwent a 2 hour oral glucose tolerance test (2hOGTT) where a solution
containing 1.75g/kg dextrose (up to 75 g) was ingested and venous blood

The Selfish Gene Chapter Summary
Richard Dawkins was born in 1941 and moved to England when he was nine years old. Dawkins
was always interested by science, but not the study and meaning of life until college where he
graduated in 1962 from Oxford University. Soon after he graduated he became a zoology professor
at Oxford University and then later wrote his first best–selling book, "The Selfish Gene." This book
shows how life works on a biological level and explains how animals react and adapt to certain
situations and environments.
In "The Selfish Gene," the main biological concept discussed is evolution and adaptation. To fully
understand the concept of a "selfish gene", the reader must first understand the meaning of altruistic
behavior, which is discussed throughout the story. Altruistic behavior is when one sacrifices, or
risks, its own ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
At first I was very confused as to why this was even a chapter because I felt like it did not relate to
the book at all. However, once I read more into it, I began to understand. Dawkins explains that he is
curious about birth control and whether it is a selfish behavior or an altruistic behavior. Towards the
end of the chapter Dawkins states that he believes it to be an altruistic behavior because it only
benefits the individual. (Dawkins, 1976.)
In Chapter 8, Battle of the Generations, Dawkins describes something very similar to sibling rivalry
and favoritism by parents. He uses brothers as an example. Dawkins asks would a mother be more
likely to play favoritism towards a son based on his age or his successes? This may make brothers
more "Selfish" because they feel as if they have to compete with one another for their parent's
attention. At the end of the chapter, Dawkins says that because every parent would try to make their
children feel equal, the siblings would still compete to be the "favorite."(Dawkins,

Summary Of The Selfish Gene By Richard Dawkins
In the book, The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins he elaborates on two very important phrases that
he will share throughout the entire book. "This book will show how both individual selfishness and
individual altruism are explained by the fundamental law that I am calling gene selfishness." (6) I
am sure we all know the word selfishness pretty well, but to some 'altruism' may be new. The way I
view it is that if someone is altruistic, than they do things that benefit the good of the group, species,
or simply, anyone but themselves. In this book we learn the difference in natural selection and how
selfishness and altruism effect those things. Dawkins will mainly relate his matter to different types
of animals and explain the biological changes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The main idea of the book was somewhat interesting, but science has never been by "favorite
subject". But some things did pop out to me. This is a book about someone's theory of how animals
and in way even hums are what they are. This is something that based on my religion can be
debatable but i do fully understand where and why this information is stated. I do agree that humans
should act, in way, similar to animals because i have noticed with just some of my observations that
the growing process of these animals turn out to be marvelous creatures. I also know that humans
are very selfish in many ways and do not always focus on the final result because they are to
occupied focusing on the now and what they want now. If we were more like the altruistic
behavioural species then we would definitely be a much more successful kind. For example, a long
time ago humans became up with the word changing idea of electricity, factories, etc. then, it was
the best thing to ever happen. Things got done people were happy live was fantastic. Although today
this advances are not necessarily helpful as helpful to us. Of course i do know we would be nothing
without them, but we are also suffering very much with global warming and smog, etc.but way back
when we didn't even think about all this. This is a harsh example but in smaller portions, according
to The Selfish Gene, animals would plan this out better because they look at the good

Eukaryotic Analysis
Eukaryotic translation is the mechanism by which mRNA transcribed from DNA is translated into a
protein, consisting of three phases: initiation, elongation, and termination. The clone that I chose
(H2FC2.16) contained an insert with a homolog in C. elegans called eif–3.F (Eukaryotic translation
initiation factor 3 subunit F), one of many eukaryotic initiation factors. The ORF sequence name of
the C. elegans homolog is D2103.7. Several orthologs of C. elegans eif–3.F exist, Cbr–eif–3.F in C.
briggsae and Cre–eif–3.F in C. remanei. Also, eif–3.F is an ortholog of human EIF3F. The molecular
function of the protein is to specifically bind to a ribosome and initiate translation of mRNA into a
polypeptide. The biological functions of this gene besides protein synthesis include: development of
larva till maturation, reproduction, hermaphrodite genitalia development, receptor–mediated
endocytosis, reproduction, determination of the lifespan of the adult nematode, and body
morphogenesis which determines the shape of the nematode. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Secretion of the protein can either be to become a part of the plasma membrane as an integral
protein or free–floating in the cytoplasm so it can be used within the cell such as the protein coded
by eif–3.F. The protein encoded by eif–3.F plays a role mainly during the initiation phase of
eukaryotic

Hamiltonella Defensa Case Study
The heritable symbiont Hamiltonella defensa is present in 40 to 70 percent of the Acrythosiphon
pisum population and protects the aphids from their natural enemy, the parasitoid wasp Aphidius
ervi. This wasp lays its eggs inside of A. pisum; the eggs then develop and pupate, eventually killing
the aphid. H. defensa is able to protect the aphids it infects by killing the wasps before their
development is complete. H. defensa is frequently infected by the bacteriophage known as A. pisum
secondary endosymbiont (APSE), which has been linked to the H. defensa protective phenotype. It
is therefore hypothesized that APSE and the toxins it produces when it infects H. defensa contribute
to aphid protection.
In order to separate the effects of the phage, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Phage DNA can provide the bacterial symbionts with beneficial functions that extend to the
eukaryotic hosts they infect, increasing the survival of all involved parties and thus driving the
evolution of the population. The easily adaptable nature of phage elements can help hosts and
bacterial symbionts to evolve more quickly when facing natural pressures. In this paper, the
relationship between APSE, the H. defensa it infects, and the A. pisum host developed because the
evolutionary interests of all three were aligned against their enemy, the parasitoid wasp. This
relationship has protected A. pisum from A. ervi and allowed for the propagation of H. defensa in
aphid

Essay on Understanding Huntington's Disease
Understanding Huntington's Disease
Huntington's disease is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder. It is passed on to children from one
or both parents (though two parents with Huntington's is extraordinarily rare) in an autosomal
dominant manner. This is different from autosomal recessive disorder, which requires two altered
genes (one from each parent) to inherit the disorder.
So if one parent has it, and passes the gene on to a child, that child will develop Huntington's disease
if they live long enough and each of that child's' children will have a 50% chance of inheriting the
gene, and so on and so forth. If you do not have the HD gene you can't pass it on to your children
and if your mate doesn't have it then there is no way ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It tends to lessen in the later stages. When the disease occurs in childhood (less than 10% of cases)
Chorea is more severe and may coincide with rigidity or muscle stiffness and movement restriction.
Both chorea and rigidity interfere with coordination and mobility. Changes in mood are not readily
noticeable as they are slow to manifest and can be interpreted as something else (i.e. HD causes
depression but so does our society so this symptom often gets overlooked) Anxiety, irritability, rage,
mania, and psychosis are also common symptoms. Cognition (the mental process characterized by
thinking, learning, and judging) is affected early in the disease and gets worse over time. Individuals
will have problems with math, memory, judgment and verbal fluency. It is very difficult for
someone with HD to learn a new task, especially in the later stages of development. There currently
is neither a cure nor FDA approved medical treatment for Huntington's disease. The life expectancy
is 15 –– 20 years after development begins, and though Huntington's itself doesn't directly kill the
individual, it causes so many functional breakdowns in the body that the person can no longer
perform basic physical operations such as swallowing and as such a common cause of death is
choking or respitory infection.
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
Huntington disease is caused by the expansion of a

Sexual Selection: Fact or Fiction Essay
Sexual Selection: Fact or Fiction
Darwin's theory of sexual selection is an intriguing one because it offers an explanation of human
striving and cultural value systems. The theory is that humans who are more sexually desirable will
have more offspring and thus their traits will be passed on to future generations to a greater extent
than those of less sexually desirable humans. As opposed to Darwin's other theory, natural selection,
those who are the best adapted to their environment will be more likely to pass on their genes, or,
"survival of the fittest", you might call sexual selection "survival of the sexiest." The theory is
intended to in part explain why, when humans diverged from other primates, the human brain tripled
in size ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What is interesting is that while it seems logical that the desire to succeed is rooted in the desire to
appear sexually desirable, (and by that standard, many people are trying very hard to be sexually
desirable), in this day and age, sexual desirability bares little or no direct correlation with the
number of offspring one produces. In fact extremely sexually desirable people, supermodels,
billionaires, sports stars, and affluent people in general, tend to have fewer children than those who
are less sexually desirable by this definition. Even so, many of us are highly motivated to prove our
sexual desirability, but the purpose of doing so, if it ever existed, seems to have been lost or
distorted.
Was it ever really true that the more sexually desirable people had more offspring, or is this theory
only speculation? According to Geoffrey A. Miller, a senior research fellow and University College
London, anthropological data show that in our hunter/gatherer days good hunters had more extra–
pair copulations than poor hunters, but that is hardly concrete evidence that good hunters actually
produced more children than poor hunters (4).
Miller rejects both the rapacious male/helpless female and the choosy female/displaying male
models of sexual selection. (Studies done with primates suggest that male and female hominids
exercised mate choice and followed a pattern of serial monogamy, and that rapists would have been
ostracized or

Ovarian Failure: A Case Study
THE FMR1 GENE MUTATIONS AND THE REPRODUCTIVE AGING
The etiology of the premature ovarian failure remains currently still unknown in most cases, unless
referrable to the Turner syndrome or to some medical interventions in oncology (chemotherapy,
radiotherapy, etc.). Suggested mechanisms of the ovarian insufficiency rely on either decreased
oocyte pool (Broekmans and Dólleman, 2013), augmented follicular atresia (Yu et al., 2004; Ikeda et
al., 2014) and altered folliculogenesis (Santoro et al., 2003). The clinical presentation of the ovarian
insufficiency may vary significantly. In particular, the serum FSH level and the menstrual cycle
appear typically unmodified in the occult ovarian insufficiency, in which only a reduction in fertility
coexists. A rise in serum FSH levels with still regular menstrual cycles embodies the diminuished
ovarian reserve (DOR). Fertility in this case is compromised. Menstrual cycles become irregular or
absent and the serum FSH raises in the overt premature ovarian insufficiency syndrome where
fertility, by definition, is seriously compromised (Nelson, 2009). ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Nevertheless, the results of these genetic studies have been rather disappointing and new
investigations are requested in order to significantly increase the chances of finding strong
gene/phenotype

The Importance Of Neural Stem Cells
My combined interest in discovery and earning a Ph.D. eventually led to my first research
experience through the NeuroSURP program at Rutgers University. There, I became a part of the
laboratory of Dr. Emanuel DiCicco–Bloom and worked on a project titled," Neural Stem Cells from
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Patient Exhibit Abnormal Neurite Outgrowth." Autism Spectrum
Disorder (ASD) is a highly heritable neurodevelopmental disorder of impaired communication skills
and repetitive restrictive behavior. Studies have concluded that genes implicated in ASD diagnoses
converge to regulate signaling pathways for neurodevelopmental processes like migration,
proliferation, and differentiation. Basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF–2) has been proven ... Show
With continued experimentation to validate or expand upon these hypotheses, we may be able to
explain postulate how this dysfunction leads to ASD phenotypes, and how those developmental
disorders may be prevented.
I continued my passion for research in the neuroscience laboratory of Dr. Raimi Quiton in the
Psychology Department of the Univeristy of Maryland, Baltimore County UMBC . Through this lab
I had the opportunity to investigate the effect of biopsychosocial factors on human pain modulation.
Implications of this study stretch to health care and treatment for individuals within diverse groups.
With the right application, it can also help to decrease the stereotypes imposed upon certain patient
groups when given pain treatment. These outcomes, though far away at this point, have allowed me
to be a part of an experience that speaks to my ambition of effecting social change through research.
Despite this experience being a world away from the cell culture of the previous summer, I became
HIPAA certified, ethics trained, and became trained for human pain testing. In addition to
conducting thermal and pressurized pain experiments, I also managed projects within the lab,
collected and analyzed data, planned experiments, and trained new research assistants. During
extended periods when my mentor and principle investigator were away on

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